1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
3.
Ramsey County, Minnesota
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Ramsey County is a county located in the U. S. state of Minnesota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 508,640 and its county seat is St. Paul, which is also Minnesotas state capital. The county was founded in 1849 and is named for Alexander Ramsey, Ramsey County is included in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul-Bloomington, MN-WI Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is the smallest and most densely populated county in Minnesota, the Ramsey County Sheriff is the top law enforcement official in Ramsey County. The Ramsey County Sheriff is elected for a four-year term via an election running concurrent with the federal mid-term elections, the current sheriff is Matt Bostrom, who was elected Sheriff in 2010 by winning over four-term incumbent Bob Fletcher by a 14% margin. Providing safety in Ramsey County is a collaborative effort across multiple agencies, the Ramsey County Sheriffs office provides a number of unique services across the county as mandated by law. This includes detention for court and other court services and this also includes safety, rescue and law enforcement on the waterways. Proactively, the Sheriffs office provides multiple safety classes and coordinates community volunteer efforts, the sheriffs office provides patrol and investigation for communities without local police forces and is available as backup for all communities. An emergency 911 call will send the appropriate agency according to the callers location, the Ramsey County Attorney prosecutes felony crimes that occur within the jurisdiction of Ramsey County. The current County Attorney is John Choi, who was elected in 2010, the county commission elects a chair who presides at meetings. Commissioners as of September 2015 According to the U. S. Census Bureau and it is the smallest county by area in Minnesota. It has been considered completely urbanized since the 1990 United States Census, the population density was 3,281 people per square mile. There were 206,448 housing units at a density of 1,325 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 77. 37% White,7. 61% Black or African American,0. 83% Native American,8. 77% Asian,0. 06% Pacific Islander,2. 45% from other races, and 2. 90% from two or more races. 5. 28% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, there is also a visible community of people of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, representing 2. 9% of Ramsey Countys population. 32. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.16. In the county, the population was out with 25. 60% under the age of 18,11. 30% from 18 to 24,30. 70% from 25 to 44,20. 70% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 93.00 males
4.
Saint Paul, Minnesota
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Saint Paul is the capital and second-most populous city of the U. S. state of Minnesota. As of 2015, the estimated population was 300,851. Saint Paul is the county seat of Ramsey County, the smallest and most densely populated county in Minnesota. The city lies mostly on the east bank of the Mississippi River in the area surrounding its point of confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Minneapolis, the states largest city. Known as the Twin Cities, the two form the core of Minneapolis–Saint Paul, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States, with about 3.52 million residents. Founded near historic Native American settlements as a trading and transportation center, the Dakota name for Saint Paul is Imnizaska. Though Minneapolis is better-known nationally, Saint Paul contains the state government, regionally, the city is known for the Xcel Energy Center, home of the Minnesota Wild, and for the Science Museum of Minnesota. As a business hub of the Upper Midwest, it is the headquarters of such as Ecolab. Saint Paul, along with its Twin City, Minneapolis, is known for its literacy rate. It was the city in the United States with a population of 250,000 or more to see an increase in circulation of Sunday newspapers in 2007. The settlement originally began at present-day Lamberts Landing, but was known as Pigs Eye after Pierre Pigs Eye Parrant established a tavern there. Burial mounds in present-day Indian Mounds Park suggest that the area was inhabited by the Hopewell Native Americans about two thousand years ago. From the early 17th century until 1837, the Mdewakanton Dakota and they called the area I-mni-za ska dan for its exposed white sandstone cliffs. Following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, a U. S. Army officer named Zebulon Pike negotiated approximately 100,000 acres of land from the local Dakota tribes in 1805 in order to establish a fort. The negotiated territory was located on banks of the Mississippi River, starting from Saint Anthony Falls in present-day Minneapolis, to its confluence with the Saint Croix River. Fort Snelling was built on the territory in 1819 at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers, the 1837 Treaty with the Sioux ceded all local tribal land east of the Mississippi to the U. S. Government. Taoyateduta moved his band at Kaposia across the river to the south, fur traders, explorers, and missionaries came to the area for the forts protection. Many of the settlers were French-Canadians who lived nearby, however, as a whiskey trade flourished, military officers banned settlers from the fort-controlled lands
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Mississippi National River and Recreation Area
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This includes the stretch of Mississippi River which flows through Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota. This stretch of the upper Mississippi River includes natural, historical, recreational, cultural, scenic, scientific and this is the only national park dedicated exclusively to the Mississippi River. It is located in parts of Anoka, Dakota, Hennepin, Ramsey, the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is a long name and therefore is frequently referred to as MNRRA or MISS. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area was established in 1988 as a new type of National Park known as a partnership park. Unlike traditional national parks, MISS is not a land owner. Some of the most prominent attractions within the park include the St. Anthony Falls Historic District, the Historic Fort Snelling and the adjacent Fort Snelling State Park, there are many additional attractions, trails, and programs all within the Minneapolis–St. The Minneapolis visitor center offers three free tours daily of the Upper St. Anthony Lock and surrounding area. Each year, the rangers manage community activities, including interpretive sessions, bike rides, and movies, the parks website lists the following locations or features as partner sites. Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Mississippi River Fund The Mississippi River Fund supports stewardship and community engagement programs that support the park and its mission
7.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
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Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
9.
Tumulus
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A tumulus is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans, a cairn, which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus. Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape, in this respect, a long barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials, such as passage graves. A round barrow is a tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows has a range, the categorization only refers to the external apparent shape. The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen, a cist, a mortuary enclosure, examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe. The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the Iliad, Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre, achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race, boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing. Beowulfs body is taken to Hronesness, where it is burned on a funeral pyre, during cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord, a widows lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow. Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, a band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord. Parallels have also drawn to the account of Attilas burial in Jordanes Getica. Jordanes tells that as Attilas body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games. An Old Irish Life of Columcille reports that every funeral procession halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. Some British types are listed below, Bank barrow Bell barrow Bowl barrow D-shaped barrow - round barrow with a flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs. Disc barrow Fancy barrow - generic term for any Bronze Age barrows more elaborate than a hemispherical shape. Long barrow Oval barrow - a Neolithic long barrow consisting of an elliptical, platform barrow - The least common of the recognised types of round barrow, consisting of a flat, wide circular mound that may be surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern England with a concentration in East and West Sussex. Pond barrow - a barrow consisting of a circular depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression
10.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
11.
Hopewell tradition
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The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations. They were connected by a network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell exchange system. Within this area, societies participated in a degree of exchange with the highest amount of activity along waterways. The Hopewell exchange system received materials from all over what is now the United States, most of the items traded were exotic materials and were received by people living in the major trading and manufacturing areas. These people then converted the materials into products and exported them through local and regional exchange networks, the objects created by the Hopewell exchange system spread far and wide and have been seen in many burials outside the Midwest. Although the origins of the Hopewell are still under discussion, the Hopewell culture can also be considered a cultural climax, Hopewell populations originated in western New York and moved south into Ohio, where they built upon the local Adena mortuary tradition. Or, Hopewell was said to have originated in western Illinois, similarly, the Havana Hopewell tradition was thought to have spread up the Illinois River and into southwestern Michigan, spawning Goodall Hopewell. The name Hopewell was applied by Warren K. Moorehead after his explorations of the Hopewell Mound Group in Ross County, Ohio, the mound group itself was named for the family who owned the earthworks at the time. What any of the groups now defined as Hopewellian called themselves is unknown. The Hopewell inherited from their Adena forebears an incipient social stratification and this increased social stability and reinforced sedentism, social stratification, specialized use of resources, and probably population growth. Hopewell societies cremated most of their deceased and reserved burial for only the most important people, in some sites, hunters apparently received a higher status in the community because their graves were more elaborate and contained more status goods. The Hopewellian peoples had leaders, but they were not like powerful rulers who could command armies of slaves and these cultures likely accorded certain families a special place of privilege. Some scholars suggest that these societies were marked by the emergence of big-men and these leaders acquired their position because of their ability to persuade others to agree with them on important matters such as trade and religion. They also perhaps were able to influence by the creation of reciprocal obligations with other important members of the community. Today, the features of the Hopewell tradition era are mounds built for uncertain purposes. Great geometric earthworks are one of the most impressive Native American monuments throughout American prehistory, eastern Woodlands mounds have various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. The gigantic sculpted earthworks often took the shape of animals, birds, the function of the mounds is still under debate. Due to considerable evidence and surveys, plus the good condition of the largest mounds
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Dakota people
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The Dakota people are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux /ˈsuː/ people, and are divided into the Eastern Dakota. The Eastern Dakota are the Santee, who reside in the eastern Dakotas, central Minnesota and they have federally recognized tribes established in several places. The Western Dakota are the Yankton, and the Yanktonai, who reside in the Missouri River area, the Yankton-Yanktonai are collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena. They also have distinct federally recognized tribes, in the past the Western Dakota have been erroneously classified as Nakota, a branch of the Sioux who moved further west. The latter are now located in Montana and across the border in Canada, the word Dakota means ally in the Dakota language, and their autonyms include Ikčé Wičhášta and Dakhóta Oyáte. The Eastern and Western Dakota are two of the three groupings belonging to the Sioux nation, the third being the Lakota, the three groupings speak dialects that are still relatively mutually intelligible. This is referred to as a language, Dakota-Lakota, or Sioux. The other two languages of the Dakotan dialect continuum, Assiniboine and Stoney, have grown widely or completely unintelligible to Dakota and Lakota speakers, however some of those in the north woods of Minnesota remain at the Otttertail lake and Inspiration Peak areas. They were never sent to reservations as they were protected by settlers whom they had befriended, after the Dakota War of 1862, many Santee were sent to Crow Creek Indian Reservation, in 1864 some from the Crow Creek Reservation were sent to the Santee Sioux Reservation. The Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ live predominantly at the Prairie Island and Shakopee reservations in Minnesota, most of the Yankton live on the Yankton Indian Reservation in southeastern South Dakota. Some Yankton live on the Lower Brule Indian Reservation and Crow Creek Reservation, in addition, they reside at several Canadian reserves, including Birdtail, Oak Lake, and Whitecap. The Dakota lived in Wisconsin and Minnesota in the 17th century, by 1700 some had migrated to present-day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants, the French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudsons Bay Company. By 1862, shortly after a crop the year before and a winter starvation. The local traders would not issue any credit to the Santee and one trader, Andrew Myrick, went so far as to say, If theyre hungry. On August 17,1862 the Dakota War began when a few Santee men murdered a white farmer and they inspired further attacks on white settlements along the Minnesota River. The Santee attacked the trading post, later settlers found Myrick among the dead with his mouth stuffed full of grass
13.
Grand Mound (Minnesota)
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Grand Mound is a prehistoric burial site in Koochiching County, Minnesota, United States. It is the largest surviving structure in the upper Midwest. The site was listed as a National Historic Landmark on June 23,2011, the main burial mound measures 140 feet in length and 100 feet in width, about 25 feet high, plus a 200 feet tail measuring 12 feet in width and 3 feet in height. There are four other smaller earthworks at the site, closer in size to typical burial mounds around the Midwest, besides the mound, the site contains a number of stratified deposits from villages dating to the Middle Woodland and Late Woodland periods. The mound is part of a series of interconnected archaeological sites that include seasonal camp locations. The site once had a visitor center operated by the Minnesota Historical Society, the visitor center was closed in 2003 and the site was closed to the public in 2007, amid concerns that having tourists viewing burial sites was inappropriate. List of National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota National Register of Historic Places listings in Koochiching County, Minnesota
14.
International Falls, Minnesota
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International Falls is a city in and the county seat of Koochiching County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 6,424 at the 2010 census, International Falls is located on the Rainy River directly across from Fort Frances, Ontario, Canada. The two cities are connected by the Fort Frances – International Falls International Bridge, voyageurs National Park is located 11 miles east of International Falls. There is a major U. S. Customs and Border Protection Port of Entry on the International Falls side of the bridge. International Falls is nicknamed Icebox of the Nation, a. Ogaard for the Koochiching Company and named the community Koochiching. The word Koochiching comes from either Ojibwe word Gojijiing or Cree Kocicīhk, the European inhabitants gave the names Rainy Lake and Rainy River to the nearby bodies of water because of the mist-like rain present at the falls where the lake flowed into the river. On August 10,1901, the village was incorporated and two years later its name was changed to International Falls in recognition of the role as a border between the United States and Canada. It was incorporated as a city in 1909, purchased by Boise Cascade Corporation in 1965, and sold to an investment group in 2003, the company remains the largest business and employer in the area. In 2013 Boise laid off 265 employees and closed down a paper machine and it then sold to Packaging Corporation of America. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 6.53 square miles. International Falls, with its central position in the North American continent, has a humid continental climate, with long, bitterly cold winters. January averages 2.7 °F, and lows reach 0 °F on average of 58 nights annually, spring, and more especially autumn, are short but mild transition seasons. July averages 65.2 °F, with highs reaching 90 °F an average of only 3.2 days annually, and in close to 40% of years, precipitation averages about 24.1 inches per year, and is concentrated in the warmer months. The average window for sub freezing temperatures is September 15 thru May 26, the all-time record high temperature is 103 °F, while the all-time record low is −55 °F, a range of 158 °F. International Falls has long promoted itself as the Icebox of the Nation, however, officials from Fraser claimed usage since 1956, International Falls since 1948. The two towns came to an agreement in 1986, when International Falls paid Fraser $2,000 to relinquish its official claim, however, in 1996, International Falls inadvertently failed to renew its federal trademark, although it had kept its state trademark up to date. Fraser then filed to gain the federal trademark, International Falls submitted photographic proof that its 1955 Pee Wee hockey team traveled to Boston, Massachusetts with the slogan. After several years of battles, the United States Patent and Trademark Office officially registered the slogan with International Falls on January 29,2008
15.
Mound Builders
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Since the 19th century, the prevailing scholarly consensus has been that the mounds were constructed by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Sixteenth-century Spanish explorers made contact with living in a number of later Mississippian cities, described their cultures. By the time of United States westward expansion two hundred years later, Native Americans were generally not knowledgeable about the civilizations that produced the mounds, research and study of these cultures and peoples has been based mostly on archaeology and anthropology. At one time, the mound builder was applied to the people believed to have constructed these earthworks. In the 16th through 19th centuries, Europeans and Americans generally thought that an other than one related to the historic Native Americans had built the mounds. The namesake cultural trait of the Mound Builders was the building of mounds and these burial and ceremonial structures were typically flat-topped pyramids or platform mounds, flat-topped or rounded cones, elongated ridges, and sometimes a variety of other forms. They were generally built as part of villages that arose from more dense populations, with a specialization of skills. The early earthworks built in Louisiana c.3500 BCE are the ones known to be built by a hunter-gatherer culture. The best-known flat-topped pyramidal structure, which at over 100 feet tall is the largest pre-Columbian earthwork north of Mexico, is Monks Mound at Cahokia in present-day Collinsville, Illinois. At its peak about 1150 CE, Cahokia was a settlement with 20, 000-30,000 people. Some effigy mounds were constructed in the shapes or outlines of culturally significant animals, the most famous effigy mound, Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, ranges from 1 to just over 3 feet tall. 20 feet wide, over 1,330 feet long, many different tribal groups and chiefdoms, involving an array of beliefs and unique cultures over thousands of years, built mounds as expressions of their cultures. The general term, mound builder, covered their shared architectural practice of earthwork mound construction and this practice, believed to be associated with a cosmology that had a cross-cultural appeal, may indicate common cultural antecedents. The first mound building was a marker of political and social complexity among the cultures in the Eastern United States. Watson Brake in Louisiana, constructed about 3500 BCE during the Middle Archaic period, is the oldest dated mound complex in North America and it is one of eleven mound complexes from this period found in the Lower Mississippi Valley. We can conclude that these mound builders were very organized people, hundreds or even thousands of workers had to dig up tons of earth with the hand tools available. Then the dirt had to be moved long distances. The most complete reference for these earthworks is Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, written by Ephraim G. Squier and it was published in 1848 by the Smithsonian
16.
Common Era
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Common Era or Current Era is a year-numbering system for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i. e. since AD1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era, the Current Era notation system can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD and BC. The two notation systems are equivalent, thus 2017 CE corresponds to AD2017 and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC. The year-numbering system for the Gregorian calendar is the most widespread civil calendar used in the world today. For decades, it has been the standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. The expression has been traced back to Latin usage to 1615, as vulgaris aerae, the term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish academics. He attempted to number years from a reference date, an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, numbering years in this manner became more widespread in Europe with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, in 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The first use of the Latin term vulgaris aerae discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler, Kepler uses it again in a 1616 table of ephemerides, and again in 1617. A1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, a 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,6. A1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, before the beginning of the vulgar æra, a 1796 book uses the term vulgar era of the nativity. The first so-far-discovered usage of Christian Era is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac, a 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of Christian Era. The English phrase common Era appears at least as early as 1708, a 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. The first-so-far found usage of the phrase before the era is in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era, the Catholic Encyclopedia in at least one article reports all three terms being commonly understood by the early 20th century. Thus, the era of the Jews, the common era of the Mahometans, common era of the world
17.
Jonathan Carver
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Jonathan Carver was a settler-colonialist who sought to further the colonies westward expansion through invasion and control of indigenous territories. He was born in Weymouth, Massachusetts and then moved with his family to Canterbury and he later married Abigail Robbins and became a shoemaker. He is believed to have had seven children, in 1755 Carver joined the Massachusetts colonial militia at the start of the French and Indian War. In 1757, Carver, a friend of Robert Rogers, enlisted with Burkes Rangers, Burkes Rangers would in 1758 become a part of Rogers Rangers. During the war he studied surveying and mapping techniques and he was successful in the military and eventually became captain of a Massachusetts regiment in 1761. Two years later he quit the army with a determination to explore the new territories acquired by the British as a result of the war, there was a great incentive to discover this route. The king and Parliament had promised a vast prize in gold for any such discovery, the eastern route to the Pacific was around the Cape of Good Hope. That route was both lengthy and contested by competing European powers, eventually, he coerced the Naudowessie people into signing over large swaths of their land on May 1,1767. Carver, Minnesota, Carver County, Minnesota and Jonathan Association in Chaska, Minnesota were named in honor of Jonathan Carver for his exploration, Carver left Fort Michilimackinac at present-day Mackinaw City, Michigan in the spring of 1766. Taking large fur-trading canoes, he traveled the well-utilized trade routes of the French, there was a small Metis settlement at the foot of Green Bay, as well as a French monastery nearby in De Pere, Wisconsin. Carver resupplied here and then continued and he traveled up the Fox River to the Winnebego Indian village at the north end of Lake Winnebago at the site of the present city of Neenah, Wisconsin. Continuing up the Fox River he eventually arrived at the Grand Portage a well used portage between the Fox River and the Wisconsin River. This was a fur trade location because from here furs could proceed from the Great Lakes to the Wisconsin River, hence to the Mississippi. Carver crossed to the Wisconsin River and then traveled down the Mississippi emerging at the great trade encampment at Prairie du Chien, rather than turn south towards New Orleans, his expedition turned north into what is now Minnesota. By the late summer he had reached the Saint Anthony Falls at what is now Minneapolis and he spent some time with the tribe near the falls but turned south, down the Mississippi to find a more suitable place to spend the winter. During this portion of the trip he discovered Carvers Cave and he spent the winter in a tribal village in what is now eastern Iowa. The next spring he encountered James Tute and James Stanley Goddard and they continued exploring and mapping up the Mississippi River through what is now Minnesota, and Wisconsin. They then headed for Grand Portage on Lake Superior, hoping that Rogers had sent supplies there for them
18.
Edward Duffield Neill
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Edward Duffield Neill was an American author and educator. After studying at the University of Pennsylvania for some time, he enrolled at Amherst College and graduated from Amherst in 1842, after ordination as a Presbyterian minister, he moved to St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1848 where he became pastor of the First Presbyterian church. He also worked as Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Territory in 1851–53, during the Civil War he served in the army as a hospital chaplain from 1861–64. He returned to the United States in 1870, and served as the president of Macalester College in St. Paul in 1873–74, thenceforth as professor of history and he wrote a large number of historical books, mostly of the Colonial period
19.
Minnesota Historical Society
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The Minnesota Historical Society is a nonprofit educational and cultural institution dedicated to preserving the history of the U. S. state of Minnesota. It was founded by the legislature in 1849, almost a decade before statehood. The Society is named in the Minnesota Constitution and it is headquartered in the Minnesota History Center in downtown St. Paul. Although its focus is on Minnesota history it is not constrained by it and its work on the North American fur trade has been recognized in Canada as well. The Minnesota Historical Society operates 31 historic sites and museums,26 of which are open to the public, MNHS manages 14 sites directly and 10 in partnerships where the society maintains the resources and provides funding. Five sites are being held for preservation but are closed to public access, seven of the sites are National Historic Landmarks and 16 others are on the National Register of Historic Places. Seven sites lie within Minnesota state parks, and three are elements of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, journals and other documents of the Minnesota Historical Society. Minnesota Historical Society / Internet Archive
20.
Cist
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A cist is a small stone-built coffin-like box or ossuary used to hold the bodies of the dead. Examples can be found across Europe and in the Middle East, a cist may have been associated with other monuments, perhaps under a cairn or long barrow. Several cists are sometimes found close together within the cairn or barrow. Often ornaments have been found within an excavated cist, indicating the wealth or prominence of the interred individual
21.
Grave goods
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Grave goods, in archaeology and anthropology, are the items buried along with the body. They are usually personal possessions, supplies to smooth the journey into the afterlife or offerings to the gods. Grave goods may be classed as a type of votive deposit, most grave goods recovered by archaeologists consist of inorganic objects such as pottery and stone and metal tools but organic objects that have since decayed were also placed in ancient tombs. Funerary art is a term but generally means artworks made specifically to decorate a burial place. Where grave goods appear, grave robbery is a potential problem, etruscans would scratch the word śuθina, Etruscan for from a tomb, on grave goods buried with the dead to discourage their reuse by the living. The tomb of pharaoh Tutankhamun is famous because it was one of the few Egyptian tombs that was not thoroughly looted in ancient times, Grave goods can be regarded as a sacrifice intended for the benefit of the deceased in the afterlife. Closely related are customs of worship and offerings to the dead, in modern western culture related to All Souls Day, in East Asia the hell bank note. Also closely related is the custom of retainer sacrifice, where servants or wives of a deceased chieftain are interred with the body, evidence for intentional burial is found in Neanderthal sites from 130,000 years ago or earlier. In Homo sapiens burials beginning about 100,000 years ago, the body of the deceased was sprinkled with red ochre, and offerings of food, tools, and fresh flowers may have been deposited in the grave. Beads made of basalt deposited in graves in the Fertile Crescent date to the end of the Upper Paleolithic, the distribution of grave goods are a potential indicator of the social stratification of a society. It is also possible that burial goods indicate a level of concern and consciousness in regard to an afterlife, the expression of social status in rich graves is taken to extremes in the royal graves of the Bronze Age. In the Theban Necropolis in Ancient Egypt, the pyramids and the graves in the Valley of the Kings are among the most elaborate burials in human history. This trend is continued into the Iron Age, an example of an extremely rich royal grave of the Iron Age is the Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang. In the sphere of the Roman Empire, early Christian graves lack grave goods, in the Christian Middle Ages, high-status graves are marked on the exterior, with tomb effigies or expensive tomb stones rather than by the presence of grave goods. The importance of goods, from the simple behavioural and technical to the metaphysical. However, care must be taken to avoid naive interpretation of grave goods as a sample of artefacts in use in a culture. Because of their context, grave goods may represent a special class of artifacts. Burial Grave field Necropolis Mingqi, the traditional Chinese burial goods The Earliest Beads, Treasures From the Ancient World, Museum of Ancient and Modern Art, at muma. org
22.
Mussel
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Mussel is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other edible clams, a few species have colonised hydrothermal vents associated with deep ocean ridges. In most marine mussels the shell is longer than it is wide, the external colour of the shell is often dark blue, blackish, or brown, while the interior is silvery and somewhat nacreous. The common name mussel is also used for many freshwater bivalves, freshwater mussel species inhabit lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks, canals, and they are classified in a different subclass of bivalves, despite some very superficial similarities in appearance. They are classified with the Heterodonta, the group which includes most of the bivalves commonly referred to as clams. The mussels external shell is composed of two hinged halves or valves, the valves are joined together on the outside by a ligament, and are closed when necessary by strong internal muscles. Mussel shells carry out a variety of functions, including support for soft tissues, protection from predators, the periostracum is composed of a protein called conchin, and its function is to protect the prismatic layer from abrasion and dissolution by acids. Like most bivalves, mussels have an organ called a foot. In freshwater mussels, the foot is large, muscular, and it is used to pull the animal through the substrate in which it lies partially buried. It does this by repeatedly advancing the foot through the substrate, expanding the end so it serves as an anchor and it also serves as a fleshy anchor when the animal is stationary. In marine mussels, the foot is smaller, tongue-like in shape, in this pit, a viscous secretion is exuded, entering the groove and hardening gradually upon contact with sea water. This forms extremely tough, strong, elastic, byssal threads that secure the mussel to its substrate allowing it to remain sessile in areas of high flow, in cooking, the byssus of the mussel is known as the beard and is removed before the mussels are prepared. Both marine and freshwater mussels are filter feeders, they feed on plankton, a mussel draws water in through its incurrent siphon. The water is brought into the branchial chamber by the actions of the cilia located on the gills for ciliary-mucus feeding. The wastewater exits through the excurrent siphon, the labial palps finally funnel the food into the mouth, where digestion begins. Marine mussels are usually found clumping together on wave-washed rocks, each attached to the rock by its byssus, the clumping habit helps hold the mussels firm against the force of the waves. At low tide mussels in the middle of a clump will undergo less water loss because of capture by the other mussels. Both marine and freshwater mussels are gonochoristic, with male and female individuals
23.
Projectile point
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In archaeological terms, a projectile point is an object that was hafted to a projectile, such as a spear, dart, or arrow, or perhaps used as a knife. Scientific techniques exist to track the specific kinds of rock or minerals used to make stone tools in various regions back to their original sources. Occasionally, projectile points made of worked bone or ivory are found at archaeological sites, in regions where metallurgy had emerged, projectile points were made from copper, bronze, or iron. In North America, some late prehistoric points were fashioned from copper that was mined in the Lake Superior region, a large variety of prehistoric arrowheads, dart points, and spear points have been discovered. Flint, obsidian, quartz and many rocks and minerals were commonly used to make points in North America. Some of the more famous Paleo-Indian types include Clovis, Folsom, projectile points fall into two general types, dart/spear points, and arrow points. Larger points were used to tip spears and atlatl darts, arrow points are smaller and lighter than dart points, and were used to tip arrows. The question of how to distinguish an arrow point from a point used on a projectile is non-trivial. According to some investigators, the best indication is the width of the hafting area, an alternative approach is to distinguish arrow points by their necessarily smaller size. Projectile points come in a variety of shapes and styles, which vary according to chronological periods, cultural identities. Typological studies of projectile points have become more elaborate through the years, for instance, Gregory Perino began his categorical study of projectile point typology in the late 1950s. Collaborating with Robert Bell, he published a set of four volumes defining the known point types of that time, Perino followed this several years later with a three-volume study of Selected Preforms, Points and Knives of the North American Indians. Another recent set of studies of North American projectile points has been produced by Noel Justice
24.
Death mask
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A death mask is an image, typically in wax or plaster cast made of a persons face following death, often by taking a cast or impression directly from the corpse. Death masks may be mementos of the dead, or be used for creation of portraits, in other cultures a death mask may be a funeral mask, an image placed on the face of the deceased before burial rites, and normally buried with them. The best known of these are the used by ancient Egyptians as part of the mummification process, such as Tutankhamuns mask. In some European countries, it was common for death masks to be used as part of the effigy of the deceased, displayed at state funerals, mourning portraits were also painted, showing the subject lying in repose. During the 18th and 19th centuries masks were used to permanently record the features of unknown corpses for purposes of identification. This function was replaced by post-mortem photography. In the cases of people whose faces were damaged by their death, an example of this occurred in the case of Thomas DArcy McGee, the Canadian statesman whose face was shattered by the bullet which assassinated him in 1868. When taken from a subject, such a cast is called a life mask. Proponents of phrenology used both death masks and life masks for pseudoscientific purposes, masks of deceased persons are part of traditions in many countries. A special element of the rite was a mask, put on the face of the deceased. This mask was believed to strengthen the spirit of the mummy, the best known mask is Tutankhamuns mask. Made of gold and gems, the conveys the highly stylized features of the ancient ruler. Such masks were not, however, made from casts of the features, rather, in 1876 the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered in Mycenae six graves, which he was confident belonged to kings and ancient Greek heroes—Agamemnon, Cassandra, Evrimdon and their associates. To his surprise, the skulls were covered with gold masks and it is now thought most unlikely that the masks actually belonged to Agamemnon and other heroes of the Homeric epics, in fact they are several centuries older. The lifelike character of Roman portrait sculptures has been attributed to the earlier Roman use of wax to preserve the features of deceased family members, the wax masks were subsequently reproduced in more durable stone. The use of masks in the cult is also attested in Etruria. Excavations of tombs in the area of the ancient city of Clusium have yielded a number of sheet bronze masks dating from the Etruscan Late Orientalising period. In the 19th century it was thought that they were related to the Mycenaean examples, the most credited hypothesis holds that they were originally fixed to cinerary urns, to give them a human appearance
25.
Funeral bundle
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A funeral bundle is a method of enclosing a corpse before burial, practiced by the Paracas culture of the Peruvian Andes. The well-preserved funeral bundles of the Paracas have allowed archaeologists to study their funeral rituals in detail, the naked body of the deceased is bundled in the fetal position before rigor mortis sets in. A long strip of cotton cloth was then wrapped around the body. In adult burials, one finds on this nucleus an additional layer, formed of pieces of ceremonial garments, decorated with embroideries. These were cooked and tied with cord to facilitate the transportation of the bundle to the burial site, facing the bundle, mourners would place between one and seven ceramic pieces. A pole or a cane indicated the place of the burial. Individuals of major status received more textile gifts and, in this case and these layers, and in particular the last one, usually contained decorative embroidered cloaks. The burials have a character, as it is thought that related individuals were generally buried together in the caverns dug in the rock or in the sand. In several cases, it has determined that remains were transported and re-interred some years after death. Burial areas are located next to established living places, often, an area that was inhabited earlier by the living was reused for the dead, and the ruins of houses and public buildings were often used for this purpose
26.
Rail yard
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A rail yard, railway yard or railroad yard is the US term for a complex series of railroad tracks for storing, sorting, or loading/unloading, railroad cars and/or locomotives. Railroad yards have many tracks in parallel for keeping rolling stock stored off the mainline, railroad cars are moved around by specially designed yard switchers, a type of locomotive. Cars in a railroad yard may be sorted by categories, including railroad company, loaded or unloaded, destination, car type. Railroad yards are built where there is a need to store cars while they are not being loaded or unloaded. Large yards may have a tower to control operations, many railway yards are located at strategic points on a main line. Main line yards are often composed of an Up yard and a Down yard, there are different types of yards, and different parts within a yard, depending on how they are built. They are decoupled and let to accelerate into the classification equipment lower down, a flat yard has no hump, and relies on locomotives for all car movements. A large sub-group of such yards are known as Staging yards, the long haul carrier makes the round trip with a minimal turn around time, and the local switch engine transfers empties to the loading yard when the industries output is ready to be shipped. In the staging yard, the locomotive is most likely operated by industry, since overall throughput speed matters, many have small pneumatic, hydraulic or spring driven braking retarders to adjust and slow speed both before and after yard switch points. Along with car tracking and load tracking to destination technologies such as RFID long trains can be broken down and reconfigured in transfer yards or operations in remarkable time. Transfer yard is a yard where consists are dropped off or picked up as a group by through service such as a Unit Train, but managed locally by local switching service locomotives. Unit tracks may be reserved for Unit trains, which carry a block of all of the same origin and destination. Such consists often stop in a yard for other purposes, inspection. Freight yards may have multiple industries adjacent to them where railroad cars are loaded or unloaded and then stored before they move on to their new destination. Major freight yards in the U. S. Major U. K. goods yards include those in Crewe, Reading and Bescot, near Walsall, coach yards are used for sorting, storing and repairing passenger cars. These yards are located in areas near large stations or terminals. An example of a major U. S. coach yard is Sunnyside Yard in New York City and those that are principally used for storage, such as the West Side Yard in New York, are called layup yards or stabling yards. Major U. K. coach stabling yards include those in Crewe and Longsight, Manchester, which are operated by various regional train companies
27.
Survey (archaeology)
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A common role of a field survey is in assessment of the potential archaeological significance of places where development is proposed. This is usually connected to work and road building. Archaeologists use a variety of tools when carrying out surveys, including GIS, GPS, remote sensing, geophysical survey and aerial photography. Survey work may be undertaken in response to a threat to an area of known or unknown archaeological interest or as part of a program addressing specific research topics. Consideration should be given to the nature of the landscape before a range of techniques is selected to be applied within an appropriate overarching method, literary sources, Old literary sources have provided archaeologists with clues about settlement locations that have not been archaeologically documented. Sometimes the texts may be recent, for instance, a book on local history may mention an interesting area. Oral sources, In many locations, local stories contain some hint of a greater past, and often they have a basis in history. For instance, someone may remember that a grandfather who used to walk the hills as a used to talk about columns from an old temple. Local knowledge, In many cases, locals know where to find something of interest to archaeologists and they may not have reported it because of taking it as part of their world, or because of fearing intrusions on their land or community. Previous surveys, In some places, a past survey may have recorded in an academic journal. The use of more recent technologies and finds from other sites may provide reason to re-examine the site, previous excavations, Excavations carried out before the middle of the 20th century are notoriously poorly documented. They were often carried out by methods that left much of the evidence the modern-day archaeologist is looking for. Early excavators were often interested only in fine pottery, jewelry and statues, lack of knowledge, Many areas of the world have developed limited knowledge about the nature and organization of past human activity at the regional level. An archaeological field survey is the tool for discovering information about previously uninvestigated areas. Map regression, comparing maps from different periods of the same area, using modern maps to transcribe or re-project earlier maps can help to locate these features with contemporary survey controls and techniques. Aerial photography is a tool for planning a survey. Remains of older buildings often show in fields as cropmarks, just below the topsoil, there should preferably be photographs of the same area at different times of the year, allowing the analyst to find the best time to see cropmarks. If the indicator that started the process was not a record of previous work, as many older surveys and excavations were published in papers that are not widely available, this may be a difficult task
28.
Great River Road
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The Great River Road is a collection of state and local roads that follow the course of the Mississippi River through ten states of the United States. They are Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi and it formerly extended north into Canada, serving the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba. The term Great River Road refers both to a series of roadways and to a region inside the US and in each state, used for tourism. Some states have designated or identified regions of state interest along the road and it is divided into two main sections, the Great River Road and the National Scenic Byway Route. The eponymous segment runs on both sides of the river from Louisiana through the borders of Kentucky/Illinois and Missouri/Iowa, excepting the full length of the road in Arkansas. A five-state section of the road has been designated a National Scenic Byway, running through Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, developed in 1938, the road has a separate commission in each state. These in turn cooperate through the Mississippi River Parkway Commission, the 2,340 miles are designated with a green-and-white sign showing a river steamboat inside a pilotwheel with the name of the state or province. The over-all logo reads Canada to Gulf where the name would be. The Great River Road is not a road as its name might suggest. Until the early 1980s, a single Canada-to-Gulf alignment of the Great River Road, the states posted National Route plates above the markers on this route and marked their own alternate routes across the river, creating two alignments between New Orleans and Hastings-Point Douglas. Signs marking the National Route are now used only in Illinois, the National Route followed the following segments, Venice to Port Allen, Louisiana on the west bank Huey P. Long Bridge Baton Rouge, Louisiana to Greenville, Mississippi on the east bank Benjamin G. Louisiana Few if any signs are present in Louisiana and it begins at Venice on the west bank, following LA23 into Gretna, where the eastern route splits. The western route, historically part of the National Route here, turns west on LA18, a short piece of LA1 connects the Great River Road to LA405, which hugs the river to another junction with LA1 in Plaquemine. LA 987-4 leads back west to Jefferson Avenue, which the Great River Road follows north to LA986 along the river and under the Huey P, long Bridge, which carries the National Route to the east bank. A state alternate route begins along LA986, becoming LA415 near Lobdell, LA416 takes the route inland along the False River, an oxbow lake, to LA1 near Knapp. LA1 is followed through New Roads to Keller, where LA15 splits to continue along the river to southwest of Vidalia, LA131 leads northeast to Vidalia, from which US425 and US65 take the Great River Road to Arkansas. Arkansas The Great River Road enters Arkansas from Louisiana on US65, the National Route enters the state on the Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge, following US82 to join US65 near Lake Village. There it turns northeast on US165, splitting onto Highway 1 in DeWitt until an intersection near Turner, the route follows a sequence of minor state highways, Highway 316 east, Highway 318 south, and Highway 20 east to Elaine, and Highway 44 northeast to Helena
29.
Airway beacon
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An airway beacon was a rotating light assembly mounted atop a tower. These were once used extensively in the United States for visual navigation by airplane pilots along a specified airway corridor, approximately 1,500 airway beacons were constructed to guide pilots from city to city, covering 18,000 miles. Most of the beacons are gone, but The State of Montana continues to maintain several as navigation aids in mountainous terrain, one beacon is preserved for historical purposes in Saint Paul, Minnesota at the Indian Mounds Park on a bluff overlooking the Mississippi River. Recently, the beacon at Grants, New Mexico was restored for historic preservation, a large concrete slab, in the shape of an arrow, was located near the base of each beacon. Many of these remain today, some of which are visible from satellite pictures. An airway beacon has two distinct characteristics, A revolving narrow white light beam about 5 degrees wide in azimuth. The rotating beacon features a 24 inch parabolic mirror and a 110-volt,1 kilowatt lamp, spinning at 6 rpm, creating a quick 1/10 second flash every 10 seconds. In clear weather they could be seen for 40 miles, Montana took steps to modernize their beacons encasing newer light systems in clear domes. Just below the white beacon, a set of red or green course lights point along each airway route, red lights denote an airway beacon between landing fields while green denotes a beacon adjacent or upon a landing field. These course lights flash a Morse code letter identifying the beacon to the pilot. Each beacon is identified with a number along the airway. The letters represent the digits of 1 through 10, the course lights turn on for 0.5 second for a dot,1.5 second for a dash with a 0.5 second between each dot or dash. A pause of 1.5 seconds separates each letter, to help remember the letters and their sequence number, pilots memorized the following, When Undertaking Very Hard Routes, Keep Direction By Good Methods. The beacons are depicted on navigation charts along with their number, for example, beacon number 15 would have a code digit of 5, hence the letter R, and Morse code, dit dah dit. Airway beacons were constructed by the Post Office and the Department of Commerce between 1923 and 1933, the Low Frequency Radio Range system began to replace this visual system in 1929. The last visual airway beacon was supposedly shut down in 1973 and they are maintained by the Montana Department of Transportation Aeronautics Division
30.
Airmails of the United States
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After an intermittent series of government sponsored experimental flights between 1911 and 1918, domestic U. S. S. Army Air Forces temporarily took over the routes — with disastrous results — when all CAM contracts were cancelled by President Franklin D. Roosevelt owing to the Air Mail Scandal. In 1959 the United States Postal Service issued a 7 cent stamp commemorating Wises flight in the Jupiter, balloon mail was also carried on an 1877 flight in Nashville, Tennessee. After being duly sworn in by U. S, postmaster General Frank Hitchcock as the first U. S. Emphasizing the concept, in 1912 the United States printed a 20-cent stamp in the Parcel Post series showing a flying machine and titled, the mailbag behind the pilot is labeled No.1. Fleet and operating on a route between Washington, D. C. and New York City with a stop in Philadelphia. Among those who were on hand for the departure of the first flight from Washington, D. C. were President Woodrow Wilson, postmaster General Albert S. Burleson, and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt. Army 2nd Lt. George L. Boyle was selected to pilot aircraft #38262 on the first northbound flight which, unfortunately, turned out to be a somewhat less than successful initial venture. Almost immediately after taking off at 11, 47AM, Boyle became disoriented and started flying South when he followed the set of railroad tracks out of the city. Realizing that he was lost, Boyle attempted to find out where he was by making a landing just 18 minutes later at 12, 05PM in Waldorf, Maryland. Unfortunately, however, he broke the prop on his airplane when he made a hard landing, However aviators 1st Lt. Torrey H. Webb and 2nd Lt. James C. Edgerton completed the scheduled southbound relay with 144 pounds of mail, the site of the first continuously scheduled air mail service is marked by a plaque in West Potomac Park in Washington, D. C. The route was extended to Boston three weeks later on June 4, additional monochromatic stamps of similar design to C-3 were also issued contemporaneously with these rate changes in 16 cent and 6 cent denominations. In addition to New York and San Francisco, the route included thirteen intermediate stops where mails were exchanged and aircrew relieved. This was accomplished at airfields located at Bellefonte, Cleveland, Bryan, Chicago, Iowa City, Omaha, North Platte, Cheyenne, Rawlins, Rock Springs, Salt Lake City, Elko and Reno. For the first eight years of the Air Mail service, all mails were flown entirely in U. S. Government owned and operated airplanes, dean Smith was one of those that helped instigate the pioneer air mail services and was the first to fly mail by night. Better known as The Kelly Act, it directed the U. S, as of September 1,1927, all U. S. Air Mail routes were being flown under contract by commercial carriers. The contractor for both routes was the Ford Motor Company, operating as Ford Air Transport, using a fleet of six Ford built Stout 2-AT aircraft
31.
Fire ring
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A fire ring is a construction or device used to contain campfires and prevent them from spreading and turning into wildfires. A fire ring is designed to contain a fire that is built directly upon the ground, Fire rings have no bottom, and are simply circles made of forged metal, stones, concrete, etc. which surround and contain a fire. Manufactured steel fire rings are available in sizes to suit every need. When a fire is to be built such as on a patio or in a backyard. These are designed to contain the fire instead of just keeping it in one place. A fire ring may be nothing more than a short, wide section of metal tube, slightly more advanced fire rings may be partially covered with metal bars so that the fire may be used for cooking. These types are seen at many campgrounds, Fire rings in urban areas, such as on beaches, may be made of poured concrete. California Beach Fire Rings are famous as being a freely usable commodity on the beach front, and are used by families, youth. In 2012, contentions about these fire rings have arisen and put their long history in jeopardy
32.
Tennis court
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A tennis court is the venue where the sport of tennis is played. It is a rectangular surface with a low net stretched across the center. The same surface can be used to play doubles and singles matches. A variety of surfaces can be used to create a tennis court, Tennis is played on a rectangular flat surface, usually of grass, clay or hard material. The dimensions of a court are defined and regulated by the International Tennis Federation governing body and are written down in the annual Rules of Tennis document. The court is 78 feet long and its width is 27 feet for singles matches and 36 feet for doubles matches. The service line is 21 feet from the net, additional clear space around the court is needed in order for players to reach overrun balls for a total of 60 feet wide and 120 feet long. A net is stretched across the width of the court, parallel with the baselines. The net is 3 feet 6 inches high at the posts, the net posts are 3 feet outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net,3 feet outside the singles court on each side. Tennis is played on a variety of surfaces and each surface has its own characteristics which affect the style of the game. There are four types of courts depending on the materials used for the court surface, clay courts, hard courts, grass courts. The Australian Open switched to hard courts in 1988 and in its years the French championship alternated between clay and sand/rubble courts. ITF uses the classification for tennis court surface types, Clay courts are made of crushed shale, stone. The French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament to use clay courts, Clay courts slow down the ball and produce a high bounce in comparison to grass courts or hard courts. For this reason, the court takes away many of the advantages of big serves. Clay courts are cheaper to construct than other types of tennis courts, Clay courts need to be rolled to preserve flatness. The clays water content must be balanced, green courts generally require the courts to be sloped to allow water run-off, Clay courts are more common in Europe and Latin America than in North America and tend to heavily favour baseline players. Grass courts are the fastest type of courts in common use and they consist of grass grown on very hard-packed soil, which adds additional variables, bounces depend on how healthy the grass is, how recently it has been mown, and the wear and tear of recent play
33.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
34.
United States Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
35.
Star Tribune
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The Star Tribune is the largest newspaper in the U. S. state of Minnesota. It originated as the Minneapolis Tribune in 1867 and the competing Minneapolis Daily Star in 1920, during the 1930s and 1940s Minneapoliss competing newspapers were consolidated, with the Tribune published in the morning and the Star in the evening. They merged in 1982, creating the Star Tribune, after a tumultuous period in which the newspaper was sold and re-sold and filed for bankruptcy protection in 2009, it was purchased by local businessman Glen Taylor in 2014. The Star Tribune serves Minneapolis and is distributed throughout the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area, the state of Minnesota and it typically contains a mixture of national, international and local news, sports, business and lifestyle content. Journalists from the Star Tribune and its newspapers have won six Peabody Awards. The newspapers headquarters is in downtown Minneapolis, the newspaper went through several different editors and publishers during its first two decades, including John T. Gilman, George K. Shaw, Albert Shaw and Alden J. Blethen. In 1878 the Minneapolis Evening Journal began publication, giving the Tribune its first competition, on November 30,1889, the Tribune headquarters in downtown Minneapolis caught fire. Seven people were killed and 30 injured, and the building, in 1891, the Tribune was purchased by Gilbert A. Pierce and William J. Murphy for $450,000. Pierce quickly sold his share to Thomas Lowry and Lowry sold it to Murphy and his business and legal background helped him structure the Tribunes debt and modernize its printing equipment. The newspaper experimented with printing and the use of halftone for photographs. In 1893, Murphy sent the Tribunes first correspondent to Washington, as Minneapolis grew, the newspapers circulation expanded, the Tribune and the Evening Journal were closely competitive, with the smaller Minneapolis Times in third place. In 1905, Murphy bought out the Times and merged it with the Tribune and he died in 1918, endowing a school of journalism at the University of Minnesota. After a brief period, Murphys son Fred became the Tribunes publisher in 1921. The Daily Star had difficulty attracting advertisers with its political agenda. After its purchase by A. B, frizzell and former New York Times executive John Thompson, the newspaper became the politically-independent Minneapolis Daily Star. In 1935, the Cowles family of Des Moines, Iowa purchased the Star, the family patriarch, Gardner Cowles, Sr. had purchased The Des Moines Register and the Des Moines Tribune during the first decade of the century and managed them successfully. Gardners son, John Cowles, Sr. moved to Minneapolis to manage the Star, under him it had the citys highest circulation, pressuring Minneapoliss other newspapers. In 1939 the Cowles family purchased the Journal, merging the two newspapers into the Star-Journal, Tribune publisher Fred Murphy died in 1940, the following year the Cowles family bought the Tribune and merged it with their company, giving it ownership of the citys major newspapers
36.
Woodland period
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The term Woodland Period was introduced in the 1930s as a generic term for prehistoric sites falling between the Archaic hunter-gatherers and the agriculturalist Mississippian cultures. The Eastern Woodlands cultural region covers what is now eastern Canada south of the Subarctic region and this period is variously considered a developmental stage, a time period, a suite of technological adaptations or traits, and a family tree of cultures related to earlier Archaic cultures. Many Woodland peoples used spears and atlatls until the end of the period, the most cited technological distinction of this period was the widespread use of pottery, and the diversification of pottery forms, decorations, and manufacturing practices. Intensive agriculture characterizes the Mississippian period from ca, 1000-1400 CE and may have continued up to European contact, around 500 years ago. Eastern Woodlands lived in wigwams and longhouses, clay for pottery was typically tempered with grit or limestone. Pots were usually made in a conoidal or conical jars with rounded shoulders, slightly constricted necks, pots were coiled and paddled entirely by hand without the use of fast rotation such as a pottery wheel. Some were slipped or brushed with red ochre, pottery, agriculture, and permanent settlements have often been thought of the three defining characteristics of the Woodland period. Nevertheless, these sites were typical Archaic settlements, differing only in the use of basic ceramic technology. Most of these are evident in the Southeastern United States by 1000 BCE, in some areas, like South Carolina and coastal Georgia, Deptford culture pottery manufacture ceased after ca.700 CE. In coastal regions, many settlements were near the coast, often near salt marshes, people tended to settle along rivers and lakes in both coastal and interior regions for maximum access to food resources. Most groups relied heavily on white-tailed deer, but a variety of small and large mammals were hunted also, including beaver, raccoon. Shellfish formed an important part of the diet, attested to by numerous shell middens along the coast, seasonal foraging also characterized the strategies of many interior populations, with groups moving strategically among dense resource areas. Recently evidence has accumulated of a reliance of woodland peoples on cultivation in this period, at least in some localities. This is especially true for the middle period and perhaps beyond. C. Margaret Scarry states in the Woodland periods, people diversified their use of plant foods, increased their consumption of starchy foods. They did so, however, by cultivating starchy seeds rather than by gathering more acorns, smith and Yarnell refer to an indigenous crop complex as early as 3800 B. P. in parts of the region. The beginning of the Middle Woodland saw a shift of settlement to the Interior, as the Woodland period progressed, local and inter-regional trade of exotic materials greatly increased to the point where a trade network covered most of the Eastern United States. Throughout the Southeast and north of the Ohio River, burial mounds of important people were very elaborate and contained a variety of mortuary gifts, the most archaeologically certifiable sites of burial during this time were in Illinois and Ohio
37.
Benham Mound
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The Benham Mound is a Native American mound in the southwestern part of the U. S. state of Ohio. Located in modern Amberley Village in Hamilton County, the mound is an archaeological site, other dimensions exist that suggest a smaller structure that stood approximately 6.8 feet in height and 57 feet in diameter east and west and 50 feet north to south. The Norwood Mound lies approximately 1.5 miles to the southwest and these findings, combined with the location of the mound itself, have led archaeologists to conclude that Benham Mound was built by people of the Hopewell tradition. Because of its value, the Benham Mound was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974
38.
Cary Village Site
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The Cary Village Site is an archaeological site in the west-central portion of the U. S. state of Ohio. Located southeast of the village of Plain City in Madison County, in this grassy area, archaeologists have discovered a wide range of artifacts, including stone tools, materials made of flint, and various types of pottery. Rather than being all of a type, the artifacts differ so greatly from each other that it is obvious that the site was occupied throughout a long period of time. Everything that has found at the site is known from surface collection, therefore. However, some elements can be guessed to be present, judging by findings from similar sites, if Cary Village be a typical Middle Woodland village, it includes multiple hearths, burials, posthole patterns, storage pits, and middens. Because the site has never been excavated, it yet is presumed to hold a number of features. In recognition of its value, the Cary Village Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. It is one of two sites on the Register in Madison County, along with the Skunk Hill Mounds near West Jefferson
39.
Cedar-Bank Works
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Cedar-Bank Works is group of Adena culture earthworks located in Ross County, Ohio in the United States. It is located five miles north of the town of Chillicothe. Cedar-Bank is Adena in its design and style, and is believed to have built before the sites at Hopewell Culture National Historical Park. It remains unknown what the date is on the site, the site was surveyed in 1845 by Ephraim George Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis. They reported about their survey in their 1848 publication, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley and they describe the site as consisting of a wall and an outer ditch, which constitute three sides of a parallelogram. The fourth side is protected by a bank or bluff,70 feet high. They surveyed the three walls as measuring at six feet high with 40 foot bases, the ditches were noted as being five feet by 40 feet wide. The eastern wall was reported as having a ditch that traveled for two-thirds of its length and this ditch was measured at ranging from eight to ten feet deep. The eastern wall itself was 1,400 feet long, the other built walls, the northern and southern walls, were both the same size, measuring in at 1,050 feet in length. They were placed on right angles, the south ended at the hill and the north stopped 25 feet from the southern wall. Squier and Davis believed that a wall may have been built. Two entrances were noted, one on the side and the other on the south side. They describe a four foot tall elevated square as covering the northern gateway, the square is noted as being 250 feet by 150 feet wide. They compare the square to the pyramids located at the Marietta Earthworks, Squier and Davis described parallel walls,300 feet away from the main site. The walls were measured at 870 feet in length and 70 feet apart from each other, the two walls merge and lack ditches. The two men noted that the walls were destroyed by the Chillicothe Turnpike that passed through the site. The undisturbed parts of the walls, which were in forested areas of the site, were two to three feet high and they surveyed, a third of a mile south of the main work, a truncated pyramid along with a small circle. The pyramid is measured at 120 feet square at the base, the pyramids location matches the cardinal directions
40.
Dunns Pond Mound
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The Dunns Pond Mound is a historic Native American mound in northeastern Logan County, Ohio, United States. Located near Huntsville, it lies along the corner of Indian Lake in Washington Township. Other Native American earthworks are located in the vicinity, a 1914 study found fifteen mounds on the southeastern side of Indian Lake and characterized this remarkable group of mounds as the premier location of archeology in Logan County. Another four mounds in Washington Township, which were not included in the 1914 survey, are located on Lake Ridge Island and these mounds, the Lake Ridge Island Mounds, were listed on the Register on the same day as was the Dunns Pond Mound. It is believed that the Dunns Pond Mound was built by the prehistoric Hopewell peoples at some point between 300 BC and AD600, while approximately twenty mounds have been recorded around southeastern Indian Lake in modern times, it is likely that many more once existed in the area. When the Miami River was dammed in 1860 to support canal traffic, farmland became lake bottom and small hills became islands, the mound suddenly lay near the shoreline, and a small bay of the lake immediately south of the mound was later named Dunns Pond. Consequently, if villages or mounds existed northwest of the Dunns Pond Mound, long after the expansion of Indian Lake, the Dunns Pond Mound was little known. For many decades, it was surrounded by woodlands, and the human activity in the vicinity occurred along a bicycle and snowmobile path that passed over the mound. Excavation was attempted in the early 1940s, but was stopped without yielding any significant finds. However, the continued to receive attention from archeologists. While the mound was built as a charnel house for Hopewell death rites. Interest in the mound by non-archeologists has increased in recent decades, increasing development around Indian Lake has included the creation of a small community around Dunns Pond, named Moundwood, the mound is located on the edge of the community. Access to the mound itself is no longer possible, the trail has been removed. List of burial mounds in the United States Koleszar, Stephen C, an Archaeological Survey of Southwestern Ohio
41.
Ety Habitation Site
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The Ety Habitation Site is an archaeological site in the central part of the U. S. state of Ohio. Located northeast of the village of Carroll in Fairfield County, it encompasses an area of about 4 acres, contributing to the rarity of the Ety Habitation Site is its proximity to one of the cultures monumental geometric earthworks. Few village sites have been found near Hopewell earthworks, as late as 1939, known as the Ety Enclosure, these earthworks are also an unusually well-preserved archaeological site. Because of its value, the Ety Habitation Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. Two other archaeological sites near Carroll are also on the Register, the Ety Enclosure, and the Coon Hunters Mound, which was built by the earlier Adena culture
42.
Fort Ancient (Lebanon, Ohio)
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The site is the largest prehistoric hilltop enclosure in the United States with three and one-half miles of walls in a 100-acre complex. Built by the Hopewell peoples, who lived in the area from the 1st century BC to the 6th century AD and it is the namesake of a culture known as Fort Ancient, who lived near the complex long after it was constructed. Maintained as a historical park, the site was designated a National Historic Landmark for its significance. The Fort Ancient earthworks were built in three stages over an estimated 400-year period. The shoulder blades of deer, split elk antlers, clam shell hoes, and digging sticks were used to loosen the dirt, archaeologists estimate the total volume of earth in the walls at 553,000 cubic yards. The site was visited and surveyed in by John Lock in 1843, Warren K. Moorehead conducted some of the initial excavations at Fort Ancient in 1887 and published his research in 1891 in the book Fort Ancient, Great Prehistoric Warren County Ohio. Scholars originally thought the site was created to shelter against enemies. The site presents anomalies inconsistent with use, Ditches are located inside the walls. More than 60 gateways, which could not have been blocked in case of attack, are present in the walls. Evidence has not been found for the number of occupants necessary for a significant defense force, the prevailing scholarly opinion now is that the walls were designed for social and ceremonial purposes related to significant astronomical events. In the Northeast corner of the complex, four circular stone-covered mounds are arranged in a square and they apparently functioned as a calendar, gaps in the walls were aligned to highlight significant seasonal positions of the rising sun and moon. In 2005 a circular arrangement of posts nearly 60 meters in diameter was discovered, at the center of the ring lies a shallow basin of burned red clay. Now known as the Moorehead Circle, research into its purpose is ongoing, the State of Ohio purchased the land and made it Ohios first state park in 1891. It has also designated a National Historic Landmark. The site now includes a 9, 000-square-foot museum covering 1500 years of American Indian heritage in the Ohio Valley, topics include North Americas earliest people, the development of agriculture, and the impact of Europeans who migrated to the area and came into conflict with its inhabitants. The Museum also contains a classroom, an area. The site is open to the public from April through October, in the 1800s to early 1900s a village existed on the eastern bank of the Little Miami River, at the base of the Fort Ancient Earthworks. The village once had a post office, hotel, blacksmith shop and other businesses, the village no longer exists, but is currently the home of a canoe livery and a private campground
43.
Fortified Hill Works
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Fortified Hill Works is a registered historic site near Hamilton, Ohio, listed in the National Register on July 12,1974. The site was surveyed in 1847 by Ephraim George Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis, the works would be documented in their 1848 book, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. They noted that the ditch around the earthworks was on the outside, as of 1847, they described the ditch as being equal at the steepest points of the hill, and almost obliterated in other areas. The wall is noted as being eight to ten feet high, there are three entrances into the earthwork. The top part of the earthwork is described as enclosing a small circle, one hundred feet in diameter, a third mound, which has been truncated was just north of the small circle. Both the small mounds had altars found in them after excavation, ash and sherd were found in the altars. The two men believed it was a fort for defense, with the altars providing spiritual assistance and this group is called the Newark Group
