1.
Historiography
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Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using particular sources, techniques, beginning in the nineteenth century, with the ascent of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups, in 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities,1,644 identified themselves with social history and 1,425 identified themselves with political history. In the early period, the term historiography meant the writing of history. In that sense certain official historians were given the title Historiographer Royal in Sweden, England, the Scottish post is still in existence. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. For the purposes of article, history is taken to mean written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. Before writing, there was only oral history or oral tradition, in China, the earliest history was recorded in oracle bone script which was deciphered and may date back to around late 2nd millennium BCE. The Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BCE, is the earliest written of narrative history in the world, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius, zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era, traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder, over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty, the tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi, a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo. It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, the latter work is now lost. The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi, the first of these works were the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in 720
2.
History
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History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory and it is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians and their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia, a chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries, the modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, the word history comes ultimately from Ancient Greek ἱστορία, meaning inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι, the ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions. History was borrowed from Latin into Old English as stær, and it was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time the loan stuck. In Middle English, the meaning of history was story in general, the restriction to the meaning the branch of knowledge that deals with past events, the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs arose in the mid-fifteenth century. With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the sixteenth century. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, in an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are synthetic and highly inflected. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669, Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, in the words of Benedetto Croce, All history is contemporary history. History is facilitated by the formation of a discourse of past through the production of narrative. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record, the task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents
3.
Historian
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A historian is a person who researches, studies, and writes about the past, and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race, if the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is an historian of prehistory. Although historian can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike, some historians, though, are recognized by publications or training and experience. Historian became an occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany. Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, while ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region, the earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus who later became known as the father of history. Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men and he was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis. The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, while early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder, was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. Strabo was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, livy records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history, in Chinese historiography, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is the source for the Apostolic Age. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages and they wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammads life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, to evaluate these sources, they developed various methodologies, such as the science of biography, science of hadith and Isnad
4.
Philosophy
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Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
5.
Intellectual
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Socially, intellectuals constitute the intelligentsia, a status class organised either by ideology, or by nationality. Man of Letters The English term Man of Letters derives from the French term belletrist, the term Man of Letters distinguished the literate man from the illiterate man, in a time when literacy was a rare form of cultural capital. In late 19th century, the term became common usage to denote the defenders of the falsely accused artillery officer Alfred Dreyfus. Likewise, in Tsarist Russia, there arose the intelligentsia, who were the class of white-collar workers. As such, politically radical thinkers already had participated in the French Revolution, Robert Darnton said that they were not societal outsiders, but respectable, domesticated, moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities being synonymous with intellectualism. Habermas Structural Transformation of Public Sphere made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private, such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of imperial examination, and also were skilled calligraphers, and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that, Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one and it was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea, the intellectuals were the literati, who knew how to read and write, socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie, composed of scholar-bureaucrats who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. The Italian Communist theoretician Antonio Gramsci developed Karl Marx’s conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere and that, because all knowledge is existentially-based, the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests. That intellectuals occur in social class and throughout the right wing, the centre. That, as a class, the intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the ruling class of their society. Therefore, the leadership of intellectuals is required for effecting and realizing social change, because, in the formal codification of Leninism, the Hungarian Marxist philosopher, György Lukács identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers, the How. and the Why. of the social, economic, and political status quo—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the discourse of society. In Representations of the Intellectual, Edward Saïd said that the … true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society. An intellectual usually is associated with an ideology or with a philosophy and that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights, and ideas, and should be heard as social critics of politics and power. In journalism, the term usually connotes a university academic of the humanities—especially a philosopher—who addresses important social and political matters of the day
6.
Carlo Ginzburg
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Carlo Ginzburg is a noted Italian historian and proponent of the field of microhistory. He is best known for Il formaggio e i vermi, which examined the beliefs of an Italian heretic, Menocchio, in 1966, he published The Night Battles, an examination of the benandanti visionary folk tradition found in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Friuli in northeastern Italy. He returned to looking at the traditions of early modern Europe for his 1989 book Ecstasies. The son of Natalia Ginzburg and Leone Ginzburg, Carlo Ginzburg was born in 1939 in Turin and he received a PhD from the University of Pisa in 1961. He subsequently held teaching positions at the University of Bologna, the University of California, Los Angeles, and his fields of interest range from the Italian Renaissance to early modern European history, with contributions to art history, literary studies, and the theory of historiography. In 1979, Ginzburg formally requested that the former Pope John Paul II open the Inquisition Archives, while the immediate response of the Vatican has not yet come to light, a limited group of scholars had been granted access by 1991. In January 1998 the archives were opened to qualified researchers. Cardinal Ratzinger credited Ginzburg, and his 1979 letter, as having been instrumental in the Vaticans decision to open these archives, Ginzburg had his doubts about using statistics to reach a judgment about the period. “In many cases, we don’t have the evidence, the evidence has been lost, along with Paul Ginsborg, Marcello Flores, Sergio Luzzatto, Claudio Pavone, Enzo Traverso, etc. Ginzburg called, in January 2002, for the rejection of a bill, presented by Justice Minister Clemente Mastella and they argued that Italys legislation was sufficient to cope with such acts. The amended bill finally restricted itself to reinforcing sentences concerning hate speech and he was awarded the 2010 Balzan Prize and was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 2013. His 1999 work, The Judge and the Historian, sought to expose injustice in the trial of Adriano Sofri, the Cheese and the Worms, The Cosmos of a Sixteenth Century Miller, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press,1980, ISBN 0-8018-4387-1. First published in Italian as Il formaggio e i vermi,1976, the Night Battles, Witchcraft and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,1983, ISBN 0-8018-4386-3. First published in Italian as I benandanti,1966, clues, Myths and the Historical Method, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,1989, ISBN 0-8018-4388-X. Deciphering the Witches Sabbath, New York,1991, ISBN 0-226-29693-8, first published in Italian as Storia notturna, Una decifrazione del Sabba,1989. Wooden Eyes, Milan,1998, ISBN 0-231-11960-7, marginal Notes and a Late-Twentieth-century Miscarriage of Justice, London 1999, ISBN 1-85984-371-9. First published in Italian as Il giudice e la storico, the Menachem Stern Jerusalem Lectures, London and Hanover 1999, ISBN 0-87451-933-0. Eine neue Lektüre von Picassos Guernica, Frankfurt am Main 1999, four Glances at English Literature in a World Perspective, New York 2000, ISBN 0-231-11628-4
7.
History of the book
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The history of the book is an academic discipline that studies the production, transmission, circulation and dissemination of text from antiquity to the present day. Its scope includes the history of ideas, history of religion, bibliography, the history of the book came into existence in the latter half of the 16th century. It was fostered by both Henri-Jean Martin and Lucien Febvres Lapparition du livre in 1958 as well as Marshall McLuhans Gutenberg Galaxy
8.
Jacob Burckhardt
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Carl Jacob Christoph Burckhardt was a Swiss historian of art and culture and an influential figure in the historiography of both fields. He is known as one of the progenitors of cultural history. Burckhardts best known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy and he finished his degree in 1839 and went to the University of Berlin to study history, especially art history, then a new field. At Berlin, he attended lectures by Leopold von Ranke, the founder of history as an academic discipline based on sources. He spent part of 1841 at the University of Bonn, studying under the art historian Franz Theodor Kugler, to whom he dedicated his first book and he taught at the University of Basel from 1843 to 1855, then at the Federal Polytechnic School. In 1858, he returned to Basel to assume the professorship he held until his 1893 retirement and he started to teach only art history in 1886. He twice declined offers of professorial chairs at German universities, at the University of Tübingen in 1867, see Life by Hans Trog in the Basler Jahrbuch for 1898, pp. 1–172. Burckhardt is currently featured on the Swiss thousand franc banknote, according to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. His innovative approach to historical research stressed the importance of art and he was one of the first historians to rise above the narrow 19th-century notion that history is past politics and politics current history. In 1838, Burckhardt made his first journey to Italy and published his first important article, Bemerkungen über schweizerische Kathedralen. In 1847, he brought out new editions of Kuglers two great works, Geschichte der Malerei and Kunstgeschichte, and in 1853, he published his own work, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen. He spent the part of the years 1853 and 1854 in Italy, collecting materials for his 1855 Der Cicerone, Eine Anleitung zum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens. The work, the finest travel guide that has ever written which covered sculpture and architecture. About half of the edition was devoted to the art of the Renaissance. Thus, Burckhardt was naturally led to write the two books for which he is best known, his 1860 Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien, and his 1867 Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien. The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy was the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the 19th century and is widely read. Burckhardt and the German historian Georg Voigt founded the study of the Renaissance. In contrast to Voigt, who confined his studies to early Italian humanism, Burckhardt considered the study of ancient history an intellectual necessity and was a highly respected scholar of Greek civilization
9.
Voltaire
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Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 21,000 letters and over two books and pamphlets. He was an advocate of civil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma. Some speculation surrounds Voltaires date of birth, because he claimed he was born on 20 February 1694 as the son of a nobleman. Two of his older brothers—Armand-François and Robert—died in infancy and his brother, Armand. Nicknamed Zozo by his family, Voltaire was baptized on 22 November 1694, with François de Castagnère, abbé de Châteauneuf, and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mothers cousin, standing as godparents. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand, where he was taught Latin, theology, and rhetoric, later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English. By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father out, he sent Voltaire to study law. Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies, Voltaires wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to the new French ambassador in the Netherlands, the marquis de Châteauneuf, at The Hague, Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer. Their scandalous affair was discovered by de Châteauneuf and Voltaire was forced to return to France by the end of the year, Most of Voltaires early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government and these activities were to result in two imprisonments and a temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused the Régent of incest with his own daughter, the Comédie-Française had agreed in January 1717 to stage his debut play, Œdipe, and it opened in mid-November 1718, seven months after his release. Its immediate critical and financial success established his reputation, both the Régent and King George I of Great Britain presented Voltaire with medals as a mark of their appreciation. He mainly argued for tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects peoples rights, the author adopted the name Voltaire in 1718, following his incarceration at the Bastille
10.
Francis Bacon
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Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
11.
John Maynard Keynes
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John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes CB FBA, was a British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics and he instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. According to Keynesian economics, state intervention was necessary to moderate boom, Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. He and other economists had disputed the ability of government to regulate the business cycle favorably with fiscal policy. When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, the Economist has described Keynes as Britains most famous 20th-century economist. In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a servant, a director of the Bank of England. John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England and his father, John Neville Keynes, was an economist and a lecturer in moral sciences at the University of Cambridge and his mother Florence Ada Keynes a local social reformer. Keynes was the first born, and was followed by two more children – Margaret Neville Keynes in 1885 and Geoffrey Keynes in 1887, Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Archibald Hill. According to the economist and biographer Robert Skidelsky, Keyness parents were loving and they remained in the same house throughout their lives, where the children were always welcome to return. Keyness mother made her childrens interests her own, and according to Skidelsky, because she could grow up with her children, they never outgrew home. In January 1889, at the age of five and a half and he quickly showed a talent for arithmetic, but his health was poor leading to several long absences. He was tutored at home by a governess, Beatrice Mackintosh, in January 1892, at eight and a half, he started as a day pupil at St Faiths preparatory school. By 1894, Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics, in 1896, St Faiths headmaster, Ralph Goodchild, wrote that Keynes was head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton. In 1897, Keynes won a scholarship to Eton College, where he displayed talent in a range of subjects, particularly mathematics, classics. At Eton, Keynes experienced the first love of his life in Dan Macmillan, despite his middle-class background, Keynes mixed easily with upper-class pupils. In 1902 Keynes left Eton for Kings College, Cambridge, after receiving a scholarship for this also to read mathematics, Alfred Marshall begged Keynes to become an economist, although Keyness own inclinations drew him towards philosophy – especially the ethical system of G. E. Moore. Keynes joined the Pitt Club and was an member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society. Like many members, Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating, before leaving Cambridge, Keynes became the President of the Cambridge Union Society and Cambridge University Liberal Club
12.
Keynesian Revolution
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The Keynesian Revolution was a fundamental reworking of economic theory concerning the factors determining employment levels in the overall economy. The revolution was set against the orthodox economic framework, Neoclassical economics. The early stage of the Keynesian Revolution took place in the following the publication of Keynes General Theory in 1936. It saw the neoclassical understanding of employment replaced with Keynes view that demand and this provided Keynes and his supporters with a theoretical basis to argue that governments should intervene to alleviate severe unemployment. The process of mixing these schools is referred to as the neoclassical synthesis, the term Keynesian Revolution itself was used in the 1947 text The Keynesian Revolution by American economist Lawrence Klein. A central aspect of the Keynesian revolution was a change in theory concerning the factors determining employment levels in the overall economy, the Keynesian Revolution replaced the classical understanding of employment with Keyness view that employment is a function of demand, not supply. Peter Drucker said, He had two basic motivations, one was to destroy the labor unions and the other was to maintain the free market. His whole idea was to have an impotent government that would do nothing but, through tax and spending policies, Keynes was the real father of neoconservatism, far more than Hayek. Professor Harry Johnson has written that economics in its form can be seen as dawning with the Smithian Revolution against mercantilism. Prior to Keynes there were five other major developments in economic thought rapid enough in pace to be characterised as revolutions, another noted revolution is the marginalist revolution, which is taken to mark the transition from classical economics to neoclassical economics in the 1870s. Collectively, these fashioned the classical economic orthodoxy that Keynes attacked, in development economics, this period is referred to as the Washington Consensus period, and the economic expansion of the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s has been referred to as The Great Moderation. Within academia the post WWII high point of market economics occurred in the 1990s. Increased skepticism concerning the free market consensus was fueled by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the financial crisis of 2007–08 saw a resurgence of interest in Keynesian economics, the 2008–09 Keynesian resurgence. By the mid-1930s much of the first and second world was already under the sway of communism or fascism, there had not been a corresponding decline for neoclassical economics in the academic sphere however. According to economic historian Richard Cockett, within academia the prestige of free market economics was still near its peak even in the 1920s and it was criticized by Ralph Hawtrey, Dennis Robertson and Friedrich Hayek. However, so-called Circus, consisted of Richard Kahn, James Meade, Piero Sraffa, Joan Robinson and Austin Robinson, Keynes did not attend these seminars but was informed of their discussions by Kahn. Keynes asserts that when savings exceed available investment opportunities it makes it impossible for business as a whole to make a profit and so lay offs, argue that there are three components to the Keynesian revolution, a policy revolution, a theoretical revolution, and a textbook revolution. Keyness revolutionary theory was set out in his book General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, john Kenneth Galbraith has written that Says Law dominated economic thought prior to Keynes for over a century, and the shift to Keynesianism was difficult
13.
Arthur Oncken Lovejoy
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Lovejoy was born in Berlin, Germany while his father was doing medical research there. Eighteen months later, his mother committed suicide, whereupon his father gave up medicine, Lovejoy studied philosophy, first at the University of California, then at Harvard under William James and Josiah Royce. In 1901, he resigned from his first job, at Stanford University, the President of Harvard then vetoed hiring Lovejoy on the grounds that he was a known troublemaker. Over the subsequent decade, he taught at Washington University, Columbia University, in 1940 he founded the Journal of the History of Ideas. Lovejoy insisted that the history of ideas should focus on unit ideas, the idea has, according to Simo Knuuttila, exercised a greater attraction on literary critics than on philosophers. Lovejoy was active in the public arena and he helped found the American Association of University Professors and the Maryland chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union. However, he qualified his belief in civil liberties to exclude what he considered threats to a free system and he also published numerous opinion pieces in the Baltimore press. He died in Baltimore on December 30,1962, in the domain of epistemology, Lovejoy is remembered for an influential critique of the pragmatic movement, especially in the essay The Thirteen Pragmatisms, written in 1908. Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity,1997 edition, ISBN 0-8018-5611-6 The Great Chain of Being, A Study of the History of an Idea. Reprinted by Harper & Row, ISBN 0-674-36150-4,2005 paperback and his most cited work, based on his 1933 William James Lectures at Harvard. Essays in the History of Ideas,1978 edition, ISBN 0-313-20504-3 The Revolt Against Dualism. This is largely a critique of the new realism of his day, the Reason, the Understanding, and Time. ISBN 0-8018-0393-4 Reflections on Human Nature, ISBN 0-8018-0395-0 The Thirteen Pragmatisms and Other Essays. ISBN 0-8018-0396-9 The Entangling Alliance of Religion and History, The Hibbert Journal, Vol. V, the Desires of the Self-Conscious, The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, Vol.4, No. The Place of Linnaeus in the History of Science, The Popular Science Monthly, the Origins of Ethical Inwardness in Jewish Thought, The American Journal of Theology, Vol. XI,1907. In Essays, Philosophical and Psychological, Longmans, Green & Co.1908, pragmatism and Theology, The American Journal of Theology, Vol. XII,1908. The Theory of a Pre-Christian Cult of Jesus, The Monist, Vol. XVIII, the Thirteen Pragmatisms, The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, Vol. V, January/December,1908. The Argument for Organic Evolution Before the Origin of Species, Part II, Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LXXV, schopenhauer as a Evolutionist, The Monist, Vol. XXI,1911
14.
History of economic thought
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The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the subject that became political economy and economics, from the ancient world to the present day. It encompasses many disparate schools of economic thought, ancient Greek writers such as the philosopher Aristotle examined ideas about the art of wealth acquisition, and questioned whether property is best left in private or public hands. In the Middle Ages, scholasticists such as Thomas Aquinas argued that it was an obligation of businesses to sell goods at a just price. Fan Li, an adviser to King Goujian of Yue, wrote on economic issues, chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy. Ancient Athens, a society, developed an embryonic model of democracy. Xenophons Oeconomicus is a dialogue principally about household management and agriculture, Platos dialogue The Republic describing an ideal city-state run by philosopher-kings contained references to specialization of labor and to production. Plato was the first to advocate the theory of money. Aristotles Politics analyzed different forms of the state as a critique of Platos model of a philosopher-kings, of particular interest for economists, Plato provided a blueprint of a society based on common ownership of resources. Aristotle viewed this model as an oligarchical anathema, though Aristotle did certainly advocate holding many things in common, he argued that not everything could be, simply because of the wickedness of human nature. It is clearly better that property should be private, wrote Aristotle, but the use of it common, in Politics Book I, Aristotle discusses the general nature of households and market exchanges. Aristotle himself highly disapproved of usury and cast scorn on making money through a monopoly, not useful as a means to any of the necessities of life. Thomas Aquinas was an Italian theologian and economic writer and he taught in both Cologne and Paris, and was part of a group of Catholic scholars known as the Schoolmen, who moved their enquiries beyond theology to philosophical and scientific debates. In the treatise Summa Theologica Aquinas dealt with the concept of a just price, similar in many ways to the modern concept of long run equilibrium, a just price was just sufficient to cover the costs of production, including the maintenance of a worker and his family. Aquinas argued it was immoral for sellers to raise their prices simply because buyers had a pressing need for a product, Aquinas discusses a number of topics in the format of questions and replies, substantial tracts dealing with Aristotles theory. Questions 77 and 78 concern economic issues, primarily what a just price might be, Aquinas argued against any form of cheating and recommended always paying compensation in lieu of good service. Whilst human laws might not impose sanctions for unfair dealing, divine law did, one of Aquinas main critics was Duns Scotus, originally from Duns Scotland, who taught in Oxford, Cologne, and Paris. If people did not benefit from a transaction, in Scotus view, Scotus said merchants perform a necessary and useful social role by transporting goods and making them available to the public. Jean Buridan was a French priest, buridanus looked at money from two angles, its metal value and its purchasing power, which he acknowledged can vary
15.
Thomas Kuhn
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Competing paradigms are frequently incommensurable, that is, they are competing and irreconcilable accounts of reality. Thus, our comprehension of science can never rely wholly upon objectivity alone, Science must account for subjective perspectives as well, since all objective conclusions are ultimately founded upon the subjective conditioning/worldview of its researchers and participants. Kuhn was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Samuel L. Kuhn, an industrial engineer and he graduated from The Taft School in Watertown, CT, in 1940, where he became aware of his serious interest in mathematics and physics. He obtained his BS degree in physics from Harvard University in 1943 and he later taught a course in the history of science at Harvard from 1948 until 1956, at the suggestion of university president James Conant. After leaving Harvard, Kuhn taught at the University of California, Berkeley, Kuhn interviewed and tape recorded Danish physicist Niels Bohr the day before Bohrs death. At Berkeley, he wrote and published his best known and most influential work, in 1964, he joined Princeton University as the M. Taylor Pyne Professor of Philosophy and History of Science. He served as the president of the History of Science Society from 1969–70, in 1979 he joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as the Laurance S. Rockefeller Professor of Philosophy, remaining there until 1991. In 1994 Kuhn was diagnosed with lung cancer, Thomas Kuhn was married twice, first to Kathryn Muhs with whom he had three children, then to Jehane Barton Burns. His family was Jewish on both sides, the Structure of Scientific Revolutions was originally printed as an article in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, published by the logical positivists of the Vienna Circle. In general, science is broken up into three distinct stages, prescience, which lacks a central paradigm, comes first. This is followed by science, when scientists attempt to enlarge the central paradigm by puzzle-solving. As anomalous results build up, science reaches a crisis, at point a new paradigm. In SSR, Kuhn also argues that rival paradigms are incommensurable—that is, it is not possible to understand one paradigm through the conceptual framework, freeman Dyson has quoted Kuhn as saying I am not a Kuhnian. Referring to the relativism that some philosophers have developed based on his work, Kuhns work has been extensively used in social science, for instance, in the post-positivist/positivist debate within International Relations. Kuhn is credited as a force behind the post-Mertonian sociology of scientific knowledge. This is because would-be scientists worldviews are changed through rigorous training, Kuhns notions of paradigms and paradigm shifts have been influential in understanding the history of economic thought, for example the Keynesian revolution, and in debates in political science. According to Kuhn, When scientists must choose between competing theories, two men fully committed to the same list of criteria for choice may nevertheless reach different conclusions. Kuhn then goes on to say, I am suggesting, of course, that the criteria of choice with which I began function not as rules, which determine choice, but as values, which influence it
16.
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
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The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is a book about the history of science by philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn. Kuhn challenged the prevailing view of progress in normal science. Normal scientific progress was viewed as development-by-accumulation of accepted facts and theories, Kuhn argued for an episodic model in which periods of such conceptual continuity in normal science were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of anomalies during revolutions in science leads to new paradigms, new paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere puzzle-solving of the previous paradigm, change the rules of the game and the map directing new research. Kuhn called the core concepts of an ascendant revolution its paradigms, Kuhns insistence that a paradigm shift was a mélange of sociology, enthusiasm and scientific promise, but not a logically determinate procedure, caused an uproar in reaction to his work. Kuhn addressed concerns in the 1969 postscript to the second edition, the Structure of Scientific Revolutions was first published as a monograph in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, then as a book by University of Chicago Press in 1962. In 1969, Kuhn added a postscript to the book in which he replied to critical responses to the first edition, a 50th Anniversary Edition was published by the University of Chicago Press in April 2012. Kuhn later commented that until then, Id never read an old document in science, Aristotles Physics was astonishingly unlike Isaac Newtons work in its concepts of matter and motion. As I was reading him, Aristotle appeared not only ignorant of mechanics, about motion, in particular, his writings seemed to me full of egregious errors, both of logic and of observation. This was in an apparent contradiction with the fact that Aristotle was a brilliant mind, while perusing Aristotles Physics, Kuhn formed the view that in order to properly appreciate Aristotles reasoning, one must be aware of the scientific conventions of the time. Kuhn concluded that Aristotles concepts were not bad Newton, just different and this insight was the foundation of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Prior to the publication of Kuhn’s book, a number of ideas regarding the process of scientific investigation, ludwig Fleck developed the first system of the sociology of scientific knowledge in his book The Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. He claimed that the exchange of ideas led to the establishment of a collective, which. Kuhn wrote the foreword to the 1979 edition of Flecks book, Kuhn also addresses verificationism, a philosophical movement that emerged in the 1920s among logical positivists. The verifiability principle claims that meaningful statements must be supported by evidence or logical requirements. What sorts of intellectual options and strategies were available to people during a given period, what types of lexicons and terminology were known and employed during certain epochs. Such an approach is largely commensurate with the historical school of non-linear history. Kuhn explains his ideas using examples taken from the history of science, for instance, eighteenth century scientists believed that homogenous solutions were chemical compounds
17.
History of political thought
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The history of political thought dates back to antiquity. The political history of the world, and thus the history of thinking by man, stretches up through the Medieval period. In parallel, political systems have expanded from vaguely defined frontier-type boundaries, one of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Platos Republic, which was followed by Aristotles Politics, both created in the context of Athenian democracy. In India, Chanakya, in his Arthashastra, developed a viewpoint which foreshadowed both the Legalists and Niccolò Machiavelli, ancient Chinese and Indian civilizations resembled Greek civilization in that there was a unified culture divided into rival states. In the case of China, philosophers found themselves obliged to confront social and political breakdown, the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was by and large a rewrite of Plato in a Christian context. The main change that Christian thought brought was to moderate the Stoicism and theory of justice of the Roman world, Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God or the City of Man. The rise of Islam, based on both the Quran and Muhammad strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. This view was challenged by the Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more Greek view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of independent of the Caliphate. By the late period, however, the Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the sources of Islam, i. e. the Quran and the Sunnah. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, simaa -and even the core terms of the Quran, i. e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and ulama posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah. The clashes between the Ehl-i Sunna and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a political character. The 14th century Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun is considered one of the greatest political theorists, Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics also subordinated philosophy to theology, aquinass use of them set the agenda for scholastic political philosophy, dominated European thought for centuries. During the Renaissance secular political philosophy began to emerge after about a century of political thought in Europe. One of the most influential works during this period was Niccolò Machiavellis The Prince
18.
Anthony Grafton
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Anthony Thomas Grafton is one of the foremost historians of early modern Europe and the current Henry Putnam University Professor at Princeton University. He is also a fellow of the British Academy and a recipient of the Balzan Prize. From January 2011 to January 2012, he served as the President of the American Historical Association, Grafton was born in New Haven, Connecticut. He was educated at Phillips Academy and he attended the University of Chicago, from which he graduated with a bachelor of arts degree in history in 1971 and a master of arts degree in 1972. He made Phi Beta Kappa in 1970, with honors in history, after studying at University College, London, under the celebrated ancient historian Arnaldo Momigliano, from 1973 to 1974, he earned his PhD in history from the University of Chicago in 1975. He still retains links with the University of Londons Warburg Institute, after a brief period teaching at Cornells history department, he was appointed to a position at Princeton University in 1975, where he has subsequently remained. Since January 2007, he has been a co-editor of the Journal of the History of Ideas, Anthony Grafton is noted for his studies of the classical tradition from the Renaissance to the eighteenth century, and in the history of historical scholarship. In 1996, he delivered the Triennial E. A. Lowe Lectures at Corpus Christi College, University of Oxford, speaking on Ancient History in Early Modern Europe. He is co-author of an article on the marginalia of Gabriel Harvey that is one of the pieces of scholarship in the new field of the history of reading. In some ways his most original and accessible book is The Footnote, A curious history and he also writes on a wide variety of topics for The New Republic, The American Scholar, and The New York Review of Books. He owns a bookwheel which he keeps at hand in his home, the history of ideas, Precept and practice, 1950-2000 and beyond. Journal of the History of Ideas 67#1, 1-32, online Joseph Scaliger, A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship, Oxford-Warburg Studies. With Lisa Jardine, From Humanism to the Humanities, education and the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Europe. Creativity and Duplicity in Western Scholarship, defenders of the Text, The Traditions of Scholarship in the Age of Science, 1450-1800. Commerce with the Classics, Ancient Books and Renaissance Readers, cardanos Cosmos, The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer. Leon Battista Alberti, Master Builder of the Italian Renaissance, bring Out Your Dead, The Past as Revelation. The Art of History in Early Modern Europe, with Megan Hale Williams, Christianity and the Transformation of the Book, Origen, Eusebius, and the Library of Caesarea. Video, Anthony Grafton, Codex in Crisis on YouTube, Authors@Google, with Brian A. Curran, Pamela O. Long, and Benjamin Weiss, Obelisk, A History
19.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
20.
Johns Hopkins University
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The Johns Hopkins University is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named for its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur, abolitionist and his $7 million bequest—of which half financed the establishment of The Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States at that time. Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institutions first president on February 22,1876, led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U. S. by integrating teaching and research. Adopting the concept of a school from Germanys ancient Heidelberg University. Johns Hopkins is organized into 10 divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D. C. with international centers in Italy, China, and Singapore. The two undergraduate divisions, the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood. The medical school, the school, and the Bloomberg School of Public Health are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore. Johns Hopkins was a member of the American Association of Universities. Over the course of almost 140 years, thirty-six Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins, founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured 44 national titles and joined the Big Ten Conference as an affiliate member in 2014. On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland. At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore, the first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins, Samuel named one of his sons for his father and that son would become the universitys benefactor. Milton Eisenhower, a university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as President of John Hopkins. Eisenhower retorted that he was glad to be here in Pittburgh, the original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany. Building on the German education model of Wilhelm von Humboldt, it dedicated to research. Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the discovery of new knowledge. The trustees worked alongside four notable university presidents – Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, Noah Porter of Yale College and they each vouched for Daniel Coit Gilman to lead the new University and he became the universitys first president
21.
Drew University
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Drew University is a coeducational private university located in Madison, New Jersey, in the United States. Drew has been nicknamed the University in the Forest because of the serenity of its wooded 186-acre campus when compared to the suburban area surrounding the school. As of 2015,2,113 students are pursuing degrees at the three schools. Undergraduate tuition for the 2015–2016 academic year was US$59,661, in 1867, financier and railroad tycoon Daniel Drew purchased an estate in Madison to establish a theological seminary to train candidates for Christian ministry. The seminary later expanded to offer a liberal arts curriculum in 1928. The Caspersen School of Graduate Studies, enrolling 351 graduate students, offers masters and doctoral degrees in a variety of specialized, while affiliated with the Methodist faith, Drew University makes no religious demands of its students. While many of the Theological Schools students and faculty are United Methodist, the United Methodist Churchs General Commission on Archives and History is located on campus and maintains an archive of Methodist records and artifacts from the nineteenth century to the present. Drew University is located in Madison, New Jersey, a borough approximately 25 miles west of New York City, known as the Rose City because of its rose-cultivating industry in the nineteenth century, Madison is an affluent commuter town in New Jerseys Morris County. It is connected with the section of the state and midtown Manhattan through the New Jersey Transits Morris & Essex Lines. He named his holdings The Forest, which gives Drew its nickname of the University in the Forest, the following year, Gibbons commissioned the design and construction of a Greek revival antebellum-style residence that was completed in 1836. In 1867, financier and railroad tycoon Daniel Drew purchased Gibbons estate from his descendants for $140,000, Drew, a devout Methodist, donated the estate to the church to establish a Methodist theological seminary. The estates mansion would be renamed Mead Hall in honor of Drews wife, several motion pictures, TV productions, and music videos have used Drew University as a filming location. The preserve and arboretum both provide a laboratory for the instruction of students in the study of biology and life sciences and for research. In 1866, Daniel Drew approached church leaders during the Methodist Centenary Celebration with an offer to build, equip, Drew asked that his pastor, John McClintock, be appointed lead the seminary as its first president. Instruction began under the direction of McClintock as both president and professor of theology after the first students were admitted in 1867. Drew is the third-oldest of thirteen Methodist seminaries affiliated with the United Methodist Church, Drew offered professional training for candidates to the ministry augmented by an opportunity for a broad culture through the study of the humanities. Writings on early church theology and Christian practice were translated into Chinese for use by foreign missions, throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Drew Theological Seminary educated and trained hundreds of Methodist ministers. It began to expand its role with the addition of a course of study for women in 1920 when it established a College of Missions and this course would be renamed the College of Religious Education and Missions in 1929 but was short-lived
22.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
23.
Age of Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
24.
The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America
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The Metaphysical Club, A Story of Ideas in America is a Pulitzer Prize-winning 2001 book by Louis Menand, an American writer and legal scholar, which won the 2002 Pulitzer Prize for History. Charles Sanders Peirce, and John Dewey, Pragmatism proved to be very influential on modern thought, for example, in spurring movements in modern legal thought such as legal realism. Menand traces the biography of each of these individuals, shows ways in which they were connected and how all were in a sense influenced by their times and by thinkers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson. A main focus of the book is the influence of the American Civil War on Americans in general and on the subjects of this book, for Holmes, the Civil War destroyed his entire perspective on the world and greatly shaped his judicial philosophy. Holmess judicial philosophy developed at roughly the time as Dewey, James. Other influences treated by the book are the sciences of statistics. Menands portrayal of pragmatism has been criticized by philosophers Susan Haack, Paul Boghossian, the Metaphysical Club at the Pragmatism Cybrary
25.
Perry Anderson
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Francis Rory Peregrine Perry Anderson is a British historian and political essayist. A specialist in history, he is often identified with the post-1956 Western Marxism of the New Left. He is Professor of History and Sociology at the University of California, Los Angeles, Anderson has written several books, the latest being American Foreign Policy and Its Thinkers. He is the brother of political scientist Benedict Anderson, Anderson was born in 1938 in London. He was descended from the Anderson family of Ardbrake, Bothriphnie, Scotland, andersons mother, Veronica Beatrice Mary Bigham, was English, the daughter of Trevor Bigham, who was the Deputy Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, 1914-1931. Andersons father had previously married to the novelist Stella Benson. Anderson was educated at Eton and Worcester College, Oxford, where he took his first degree, in 1962 Anderson became editor of the New Left Review, a position he held for twenty years. As scholars of the New Left began to reassess their canon in the mid-1970s, within their respective topics they are each vast in scope, assessing the whole history of Europe from classical times to the nineteenth century. The books achieved an instant prominence for Anderson, whose wide-ranging analysis synthesised elements of history, philosophy, in the 1980s Anderson took office as a professor at the New School for Social Research in New York. He returned as editor at NLR in 2000 for three years, and after his retirement continued to serve on the journals editorial committee. Nevertheless, many of his assaults were delivered against postmodernist currents in continental Europe, in the Tracks of Historical Materialism Anderson regarded Paris as the new capital of intellectual reaction, quite at odds with others who treat postmodernism as a left heresy. Anderson is the author of, Passages From Antiquity to Feudalism, in the Tracks of Historical Materialism. Spectrum, From Right to Left in the World of Ideas, American Foreign Policy and Its Thinkers. Paul Blackledge, Perry Anderson, Marxism, and the New Left, I. Gregory Elliott, Perry Anderson, The Merciless Laboratory of History
26.
Jacques Barzun
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Jacques Martin Barzun was a French-born American historian. Focusing on ideas and culture, he wrote about a range of subjects, including baseball, mystery novels. He was also known as a philosopher of education, in the book Teacher in America, Barzun influenced the training of schoolteachers in the United States. He published more than forty books, was awarded the American Presidential Medal of Freedom, the historical retrospective From Dawn to Decadence,500 Years of Western Cultural Life,1500 to the Present, widely considered his magnum opus, was published when he was 93 years old. Jacques Martin Barzun was born in Créteil, France, to Henri-Martin and Anna-Rose Barzun and his father was a member of the Abbaye de Créteil group of artists and writers, and also worked in the French Ministry of Labor. He obtained his Ph. D. from Columbia in 1932 and taught there from 1928 to 1955, becoming the Seth Low Professor of History. For years, he and literary critic Lionel Trilling conducted Columbias famous Great Books course and he was elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1954. From 1955 to 1968, he served as Dean of the Graduate School, Dean of Faculties, from 1968 until his 1975 retirement, he was University Professor at Columbia. In 1936, Barzun married Mariana Lowell, a violinist from a prominent Boston family and they had three children, James, Roger, and Isabel. In 1980, Barzun married Marguerite Lee Davenport, from 1996 the Barzuns lived in her hometown, San Antonio, Texas. His granddaughter Lucy Barzun Donnelly was a producer of the award-winning HBO film Grey Gardens and his grandson, Matthew Barzun, is a businessman who served from 2009-2011 as the U. S. Ambassador to Sweden, and in 2013 was appointed Ambassador to the United Kingdom. On May 14,2012 Jacques Barzun attended a performance in his honor at which works by his favorite composer. He attended in a wheelchair and delivered an address to the crowd. Barzun died peacefully at his home in San Antonio, Texas on October 25,2012, barzun’s eye roamed over the full spectrum of Western music, art, literature and philosophy. Barzun had a strong interest in the tools and mechanics of writing and he undertook the task of completing, from a manuscript almost two-thirds of which was in first draft at the authors death, and editing, the first edition of Folletts Modern American Usage. Barzun was also the author of books on literary style, on the crafts of editing and publishing, and on methods in history. Barzun did not disdain popular culture, his interests included detective fiction. His widely quoted statement, Whoever wants to know the heart, was inscribed on a plaque at the Baseball Hall of Fame
27.
Isaiah Berlin
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Sir Isaiah Berlin OM CBE FBA was a Russian-British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas. He was an essayist, conversationalist, raconteur, and lecturer, born in Riga, Latvia in 1909, he moved to Petrograd, Russia at the age of six, where he witnessed the revolutions of 1917. In 1921 his family came to England, and he was educated at St Pauls School, London and Corpus Christi College, in 1932, at the age of 23, Berlin was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. He translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during the war, from 1957 to 1967 he was Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at the University of Oxford. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1963 to 1964, in 1966, he played a crucial role in founding Wolfson College, Oxford, and became its first President. Berlin was appointed a CBE in 1946, knighted in 1957 and he was President of the British Academy from 1974 to 1978. He also received the 1979 Jerusalem Prize for his writings on individual freedom, an annual Isaiah Berlin Lecture is held at the Hampstead Synagogue, at Wolfson College, Oxford, at the British Academy, and in Riga. Berlins work on theory and on value pluralism has had a lasting influence. Berlin was the surviving child of a prosperous Jewish family, the son of Mendel Berlin, a timber trader and direct descendant of Shneur Zalman. He spent his first six years in Riga, and later lived in Andreapol and Petrograd, in London, the family first stayed in Surbiton, then within the year they bought a house in Holland Park, and six years later in Hampstead. Berlins English was virtually nonexistent at first, but he became fluent within a year, Berlin was educated at St Pauls School, then at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he studied Greats. In his final examinations, he took a First, winning The John Locke Prize for his performance in the philosophy papers and he subsequently took another degree at Oxford in PPE, winning another First after less than a year on the course. He was appointed a tutor in philosophy at New College, Oxford, and soon afterwards was elected to a fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. While still a student, he befriended Ayer, Stuart Hampshire, Richard Wollheim, Maurice Bowra, Stephen Spender, J. L. Austin, in 1940, he presented a philosophical paper on other minds to a meeting attended by Ludwig Wittgenstein at Cambridge University. Wittgenstein rejected the argument of his paper in discussion but praised Berlin for his honesty and integrity. Prior to this service, however, Berlin was barred from participation in the British war effort as a result of his being born in Latvia, for his services, he was appointed a CBE in the 1946 New Year Honours. Berlin was fluent in Russian and English, spoke French, German and Italian, meetings with Anna Akhmatova in Leningrad in November 1945 and January 1946 had a powerful effect on both of them, and serious repercussions for Akhmatova. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and he was instrumental in the founding, in 1966, of a new graduate college at Oxford University, Wolfson College
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Ernst Cassirer
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Ernst Cassirer was a German philosopher. He is one of the leading 20th century advocates of philosophical idealism, born in Breslau in Silesia, into a Jewish family, Cassirer studied literature and philosophy at the University of Marburg and at the University of Berlin. Because he was Jewish, he left Germany after the Nazis came to power in 1933, after leaving Germany he taught for a couple of years in Oxford before becoming a professor at Gothenburg University. When Cassirer considered Sweden too unsafe, he applied for a post at Harvard, in 1941 he became a visiting professor at Yale University, then moved to Columbia University in New York City, where he lectured from 1943 until his death in 1945. His son, Heinz Cassirer, was also a Kantian scholar, cassirers first major published writings were a history of modern thought from the Renaissance to Kant. In accordance with his Marburg neo-Kantianism he concentrated upon epistemology, a. Burtt, E. J. Dijksterhuis, and Alexandre Koyré. In Substance and Function, he writes about late nineteenth-century developments in physics including relativity theory, in Einsteins Theory of Relativity he defended the claim that modern physics supports a neo-Kantian conception of knowledge. He also wrote a book about Quantum mechanics called Determinism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics, at Hamburg Cassirer discovered the Library of the Cultural Sciences founded by Aby Warburg. Warburg was an art historian who was interested in ritual. In Philosophy of Symbolic Forms Cassirer argues that man is a symbolic animal, whereas animals perceive their world by instincts and direct sensory perception, humans create a universe of symbolic meanings. Cassirer is particularly interested in language and myth. He argues that science and mathematics developed from natural language, and religion, in 1929 Cassirer took part in an historically significant encounter with Martin Heidegger in Davos. Cassirer argues that while Kants Critique of Pure Reason emphasizes human temporality and finitude, Cassirer challenges Heideggers relativism by invoking the universal validity of truths discovered by the exact and moral sciences. Cassirer believed that reasons self-realization leads to human liberation, mazlish however notes that Cassirer in his The Philosophy of the Enlightenment focuses exclusively on ideas, ignoring the political and social context in which they were produced. In The Logic of the Cultural Sciences Cassirer argues that objective and universal validity can be achieved not only in the sciences, but also in practical, cultural, moral, and aesthetic phenomena. Cassirers last work The Myth of the State was published posthumously, Cassirer sees Nazi Germany as a society in which the dangerous power of myth is not checked or subdued by superior forces. G. The Symbolic Construction of Reality, The Legacy of Ernst Cassirer Folkvord Ingvild & Hoel Aud Sissel, Ernst Cassirer on Form and Technology, Contemporary Readings, Basingstoke, a Parting of the Ways, Carnap, Cassirer, and Heidegger Gordon, Peter Eli. Continental Divide, Heidegger, Cassirer, Davos Krois, John Michael, Cassirer, Symbolic Forms and History Schilpp, Paul Arthur
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R. G. Collingwood
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Robin George Collingwood was an English philosopher, historian, and archaeologist. He is best known for his works including The Principles of Art. Collingwoods mother was also an artist and a talented pianist and he was educated at Rugby School, and at University College, Oxford, where he gained a First in Classical Moderations in 1910 and a congratulatory First in Greats in 1912. Prior to graduation he was elected a fellow of Pembroke College, Collingwood was a fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, for some 15 years until becoming the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at Magdalen College, Oxford. He was the pupil of F. J. Haverfield to survive World War I. Important influences on Collingwood were the Italian Idealists Benedetto Croce, Giovanni Gentile and Guido de Ruggiero, other important influences were Hegel, Kant, Giambattista Vico, F. H. Bradley and J. A. Smith. After several years of debilitating strokes Collingwood died at Coniston, Lancashire. He was a practising Anglican throughout his life, Collingwood is widely noted for The Idea of History, a work collated from various sources soon after his death by his pupil T. M. Knox. Collingwood pointed out a difference between knowing things in the present and knowing history. To come to know things in the present or about things in the sciences, “real” things can be observed. The problem with coming to know things about history is that while past human actions actually or really happened, the actions, then, have no real existence or substance at the point in time that the historian is studying them. Based on the understanding that the events and actions that historians study have already happened, they are finished, Collingwood maintained that historians must use their imaginations to reconstruct and understand the past. Because human events that have taken place cannot be observed. The Principles of Art comprises Collingwoods most developed treatment of aesthetic questions, Collingwood held that works of art are essentially expressions of emotion. For Collingwood, an important social role of the artist is to clarify, in politics Collingwood defended the ideals of what he called liberalism in its Continental sense, The essence of this conception is. Collingwood was not just a philosopher of history but also a practising historian and he was, during his time, a leading authority on Roman Britain, he spent his term time at Oxford teaching philosophy but devoted his long vacations to archaeology. He began work along Hadrians Wall, the family home was at Coniston in the Lake District and his father was a leading figure in the Cumberland and Westmorland Archaeological Society. Collingwood was drawn in on a number of excavations and put forward the theory that Hadrian’s Wall was not so much a fighting platform and he also put forward the suggestion that Hadrians defensive system also included a number of forts along the Cumberland coast
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Robert Darnton
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Robert Choate Darnton is an American cultural historian and academic librarian who specializes in 18th-century France. Darnton was born in New York City, the title of his thesis was Trends in radical propaganda on the eve of the French Revolution. He worked as reporter at The New York Times from 1964 to 1965, joining the Princeton University faculty in 1968, he was appointed Shelby Cullom Davis Professor of European History and was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 1982. He served as President of the American Historical Association in 1999, on July 1,2007, he transferred to emeritus status at Princeton, and was appointed Carl H. Pforzheimer University Professor and director of the Harvard University Library, succeeding Sidney Verba. In January 2016 Ann Blair succeeded him as the Carl H. Pforzheimer University Professor, in 1983 he delivered the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden, the Netherlands, under the title The Meaning of Mother Goose. Darnton is a pioneer in the field of the history of the book and he is writing about electronic publishing. He is founder of the Gutenberg-e program, sponsored by Mellon Foundation, Darnton is a trustee of the New York Public Library. His first major prize was the Leo Gershoy Award for The Business of Enlightenment in 1979 and he has also received the National Book Critics Circle Award for criticism for The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France. In 1999 he was named a Chevalier of the Légion dHonneur, in 2004 he was awarded the Gutenberg prize by the International Gutenberg Society. In 2005 he received an award for distinguished achievement from the American Printing History Association, on February 13,2012, he was awarded the National Humanities Medal 2011 by President Barack Obama, for his determination to make knowledge accessible to everyone. In 2013 he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca lifetime achievement award, on January 29,2016, Darnton received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Arts at Uppsala University, Sweden. His brother is the retired New York Times editor and author John Darnton, mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France. In Search of the Enlightenment, Recent Attempts to Create a Social History of Ideas, The Journal of Modern History Vol.43,1, March 1971 The Business of Enlightenment, A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800. The Literary Underground of the Old Regime, the Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History. Coauthored with Daniel Roche, Revolution in Print, the Press in France 1775–1800, berkeley, CA, University of California Press. The Kiss of Lamourette, Reflections in Cultural History, New York, NY, W. W. Norton. Lunivers de la littérature clandestine au XVIIIe siècle, New York, NY, W. W. Norton. Coauthored with Marie-Alyx Revellat, Gens de lettres, gens du livre, the Forbidden Best-Sellers of Prerevolutionary France
