1.
10,000 Days
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10,000 Days is the fourth studio album by American rock band Tool. Recording took place at OHenry Studios in Burbank, California, The Loft and it marked the first time since recording 1993s Undertow that the band had worked at Grandmaster and without producer David Bottrill. It was mixed at Bay 7 in North Hollywood, California and mastered at Gateway Mastering Studios in Portland,10,000 Days spawned three Top 10 rock singles, Vicarious, The Pot and Jambi. It debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200 chart, with first week sales of 564,000 copies, by the end of 2007 the album had sold 2.5 million copies worldwide, and was awarded a Platinum certification by the RIAA. The album would become the bands last release in over a decade, the album was recorded at OHenry Studios in Burbank, California, as well as at The Loft and Grandmaster Studios in Hollywood, California. It was mixed at Bay 7 in North Hollywood, CA and mastered at Gateway Mastering Studios in Portland, the June 2006 issue of Guitar World featured an interview with guitarist Adam Jones discussing the new album. Jones explained that recording techniques for the album involved the use of a pipe bomb microphone, the pipe bomb microphone and other studio related information was further detailed in the June 1,2006 issue of Mix. Drummer Danny Carey operated many of the effects on the interlude tracks on the album using electronic drums called Mandalas. Keenan expected that the songs composed would chronicle that process, hoping that my back would be to share that path. Viewed with the glasses, the artwork produces an illusion of depth, alex Grey, who created a majority of the album art for Lateralus and its accompanying video Parabola, reprised his role for 10,000 Days. The CD face itself is decorated with stylized eyes, arranged in a logarithmic spiral toward the center. As with Tools other albums, the lyrics are not printed within the artwork, vocalist Maynard James Keenan has instead released the lyrics online. On May 5,2006, the bands official webmaster hinted that the four individual photos can be used as the pieces of a kind of puzzle, but the puzzle and its meaning will just be another nut to crack. He described the 10,000 Days cover as a vision of an infinite grid of Godheads during an ayahuasca journey. Grey stated in another interview when making the 10,000 Days cover that it depicts visions received during a DMT trip, on March 27,2006, Billboard. com posted an article about 10,000 Days, which mentioned that Vicarious would be the albums first single. Vicarious was officially released to radio on April 17, and entered both the Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts both at number 2, a music video for the song was released on DVD on December 18,2007. The song has also featured as a playable track on the video game Guitar Hero World Tour. The second single from the album was The Pot, which peaked at No.5 on the Modern Rock chart and it was the bands first number 1 single on the Mainstream Rock chart
2.
Linguistics
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Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning, phonetics is the study of speech and non-speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound as well as meaning, and include componential sub-sets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology, morphology, modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar are largely based within Noam Chomskys ideological school of generative grammar. In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles. This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance in his theory of transformative or generative grammar. According to Chomsky, competence is an innate capacity and potential for language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used by individuals, groups. The study of parole is the domain of sociolinguistics, the sub-discipline that comprises the study of a system of linguistic facets within a certain speech community. Discourse analysis further examines the structure of texts and conversations emerging out of a speech communitys usage of language, Stylistics also involves the study of written, signed, or spoken discourse through varying speech communities, genres, and editorial or narrative formats in the mass media. In the 1960s, Jacques Derrida, for instance, further distinguished between speech and writing, by proposing that language be studied as a linguistic medium of communication in itself. Palaeography is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of scripts in language. Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic, research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focus on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time. Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages, lexicography involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a dictionary. Computational linguistics is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective, specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of translation and interpretation, as well as in language education – the teaching of a second or foreign language. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education, related areas of study also includes the disciplines of semiotics, literary criticism, translation, and speech-language pathology. Before the 20th century, the philology, first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the science of language
3.
Logic
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Logic, originally meaning the word or what is spoken, is generally held to consist of the systematic study of the form of arguments. A valid argument is one where there is a relation of logical support between the assumptions of the argument and its conclusion. Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy and mathematics, and recently logic has been studied in science, linguistics, psychology. The concept of form is central to logic. The validity of an argument is determined by its logical form, traditional Aristotelian syllogistic logic and modern symbolic logic are examples of formal logic. Informal logic is the study of natural language arguments, the study of fallacies is an important branch of informal logic. Since much informal argument is not strictly speaking deductive, on some conceptions of logic, formal logic is the study of inference with purely formal content. An inference possesses a purely formal content if it can be expressed as an application of a wholly abstract rule, that is. The works of Aristotle contain the earliest known study of logic. Modern formal logic follows and expands on Aristotle, in many definitions of logic, logical inference and inference with purely formal content are the same. This does not render the notion of informal logic vacuous, because no formal logic captures all of the nuances of natural language, Symbolic logic is the study of symbolic abstractions that capture the formal features of logical inference. Symbolic logic is divided into two main branches, propositional logic and predicate logic. Mathematical logic is an extension of logic into other areas, in particular to the study of model theory, proof theory, set theory. Logic is generally considered formal when it analyzes and represents the form of any valid argument type, the form of an argument is displayed by representing its sentences in the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical language to make its content usable in formal inference. Simply put, formalising simply means translating English sentences into the language of logic and this is called showing the logical form of the argument. It is necessary because indicative sentences of ordinary language show a variety of form. Second, certain parts of the sentence must be replaced with schematic letters, thus, for example, the expression all Ps are Qs shows the logical form common to the sentences all men are mortals, all cats are carnivores, all Greeks are philosophers, and so on. The schema can further be condensed into the formula A, where the letter A indicates the judgement all - are -, the importance of form was recognised from ancient times
4.
Philosophy
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Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
5.
Property (philosophy)
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In philosophy, mathematics, and logic, a property is a characteristic of an object, a red object is said to have the property of redness. The property may be considered a form of object in its own right, a property however differs from individual objects in that it may be instantiated, and often in more than one thing. Understanding how different individual entities can in some sense have some of the properties is the basis of the problem of universals. The terms attribute and quality have similar meanings, in classical Aristotelian terminology, a property is one of the predicables. It is a quality of a species, but a quality which is nevertheless characteristically present in members of that species. For example, ability to laugh may be considered a characteristic of human beings. However, laughter is not a quality of the species human. A determinable property is one that can get more specific, for example, color is a determinable property because it can be restricted to redness, blueness, etc. A determinate property is one that become more specific. This distinction may be useful in dealing with issues of identity, in other words, it is the view that non-physical, mental properties inhere in some physical substances. e. The set, p is its indicator function and it may be objected that this defines merely the extension of a property, and says nothing about what causes the property to hold for exactly those values. The ontological fact that something has a property is represented in language by applying a predicate to a subject. However, taking any grammatical predicate whatsoever to be a property, or to have a property, leads to certain difficulties, such as Russells paradox. Other predicates, such as is an individual, or has some properties are uninformative or vacuous, there is some resistance to regarding such so-called Cambridge properties as legitimate. An intrinsic property is a property that an object or a thing has of itself, independently of other things, an extrinsic property is a property that depends on a things relationship with other things. A relation is considered to be a more general case of a property. Relations are true of several particulars, or shared amongst them, holds between two individuals, who would occupy the two ellipses. Relations can be expressed by N-place predicates, where N is greater than 1 and it is widely accepted that there are at least some apparent relational properties which are merely derived from non-relational properties
6.
Connotation
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A connotation is frequently described as either positive or negative, with regards to its pleasing or displeasing emotional connection. Connotation branches into a mixture of different meanings and these could include the contrast of a word or phrase with its primary, literal meaning, with what that word or phrase specifically denotes. The connotation essentially relates to how anything may be associated with a word or phrase, for example and it is often useful to avoid words with strong connotations when striving to achieve a neutral point of view. A desire for more positive connotations, or fewer negative ones, is one of the reasons for using euphemisms. In logic and semantics, connotation is roughly synonymous with intension, connotation is often contrasted with denotation, which is more or less synonymous with extension. Alternatively, the connotation of the word may be thought of as the set of all its possible referents, a words denotation is the collection of things it refers to, its connotation is what it implies about the things it is used to refer to. The denotation of dog is four-legged canine carnivore, so saying, You are a dog would imply that you were ugly or aggressive rather than stating that you were canine. Denotation Double entendre Extension Extensional definition Intension Intensional definition Metacommunicative competence Pun Subtext
7.
Word
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In linguistics, a word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. This contrasts deeply with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning, a word may consist of a single morpheme, or several, whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word. A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes, words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term word may refer to a word or to a written word. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, the difficulty of deciphering a word depends on the language. Dictionaries categorize a languages lexicon into lemmas and these can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a word in the opinion of the writers of that language. The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes, when a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion. Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of Minimal Free Forms in 1926, words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. However, some words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves. Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes, according to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations. In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax, words are construed as bundles of features that are united into a structure with form. For example, the word koalas has semantic features, category features, number features, phonological features, the task of defining what constitutes a word involves determining where one word ends and another word begins—in other words, identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the boundaries of spoken language should be placed, Potential pause, A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly. The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries, however, this method is not foolproof, the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words, or fail to separate two or more closely linked words. Indivisibility, A speaker is told to say a sentence out loud, thus, I have lived in this village for ten years might become My family and I have lived in this little village for about ten or so years. These extra words will tend to be added in the boundaries of the original sentence. However, some languages have infixes, which are put inside a word, similarly, some have separable affixes, in the German sentence Ich komme gut zu Hause an, the verb ankommen is separated. Phonetic boundaries, Some languages have rules of pronunciation that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be
8.
Phrase
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In everyday speech, a phrase may be any group of words, often carrying a special idiomatic meaning, in this sense it is roughly synonymous with expression. In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words that functions as a constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a phrase typically appears within a clause, but it is possible also for a phrase to be a clause or to contain a clause within it. There is a difference between the use of the term phrase and its technical use in linguistics. In common usage, a phrase is usually a group of words with some special meaning or other significance, such as all rights reserved, economical with the truth, kick the bucket. It may be a euphemism, a saying or proverb, a fixed expression, in grammatical analysis, particularly in theories of syntax, a phrase is any group of words, or sometimes a single word, which plays a particular role within the grammatical structure of a sentence. It does not have to have any meaning or significance, or even exist anywhere outside of the sentence being analyzed. This means that expressions that may be called phrases in everyday language are not phrases in the technical sense. In grammatical analysis, most phrases contain a key word that identifies the type and linguistic features of the phrase, this is known as the head-word, or the head. The syntactic category of the head is used to name the category of the phrase, for example, the remaining words in a phrase are called the dependents of the head. Most theories of syntax view most phrases as having a head, a phrase lacking a head is known as exocentric, and phrases with heads are endocentric. When a noun is used in a sentence without an explicit determiner, for full discussion, see Determiner phrase. See the Generative approaches section of the article for details. Many theories of syntax and grammar illustrate sentence structure using phrase trees, trees show the words, phrases, and, at times, clauses that make up sentences. Any word combination that corresponds to a complete subtree can be seen as a phrase, there are two established and competing principles for constructing trees, they produce constituency and dependency trees and both are illustrated here using an example sentence. The node labels in the two trees mark the syntactic category of the different constituents, or word elements, of the sentence, in the constituency tree each phrase is marked by a phrasal node, and there are eight phrases identified by phrase structure analysis in the example sentence. On the other hand, the tree identifies a phrase by any node that exerts dependency upon, or dominates. And, using dependency analysis, there are six phrases in the sentence, the trees and phrase-counts demonstrate that different theories of syntax differ in the word combinations they qualify as a phrase. Here the constituency tree identifies three phrases that the tree does not, namely, house at the end of the street, end of the street
9.
Definition
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A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term. Definitions can be classified into two categories, intensional definitions and extensional definitions. Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, a term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions. In mathematics, a definition is used to give a meaning to a new term. Definitions and axioms are the basis on all of mathematics is constructed. In modern usage, a definition is something, typically expressed in words, the word or group of words that is to be defined is called the definiendum, and the word, group of words, or action that defines it is called the definiens. In the definition An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and Africa, the elephant is the definiendum. Note that the definiens is not the meaning of the word defined, there are many sub-types of definitions, often specific to a given field of knowledge or study. An intensional definition, also called a connotative definition, specifies the necessary, any definition that attempts to set out the essence of something, such as that by genus and differentia, is an intensional definition. An extensional definition, also called a denotative definition, of a concept or term specifies its extension and it is a list naming every object that is a member of a specific set. An extensional definition would be the list of wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy, a genus–differentia definition is a type of intensional definition that takes a large category and narrows it down to a smaller category by a distinguishing characteristic. The differentia, The portion of the new definition that is not provided by the genus, for example, consider the following genus-differentia definitions, a triangle, A plane figure that has three straight bounding sides. A quadrilateral, A plane figure that has four straight bounding sides and those definitions can be expressed as a genus and two differentiae. It is possible to have two different genus-differentia definitions that describe the same term, especially when the term describes the overlap of two large categories, for instance, both of these genus-differentia definitions of square are equally acceptable, a square, a rectangle that is a rhombus. A square, a rhombus that is a rectangle, thus, a square is a member of both the genus rectangle and the genus rhombus. One important form of the definition is ostensive definition. This gives the meaning of a term by pointing, in the case of an individual, to the thing itself, or in the case of a class, to examples of the right kind. So one can explain who Alice is by pointing her out to another, or what a rabbit is by pointing at several, the process of ostensive definition itself was critically appraised by Ludwig Wittgenstein
10.
Plant
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Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
11.
Cellulose
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Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula n, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms, Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%, Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper. Smaller quantities are converted into a variety of derivative products such as cellophane. Conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as ethanol is under investigation as an alternative fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton, some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as Trichonympha. In humans, cellulose acts as a bulking agent for feces and is often referred to as a dietary fiber. Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen, Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Production of rayon from cellulose began in the 1890s and cellophane was invented in 1912, hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized in 1992, by Kobayashi, Cellulose has no taste, is odorless, is hydrophilic with the contact angle of 20–30 degrees, is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It was shown to melt at 467 °C in 2016 and it can be broken down chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated mineral acids at high temperature. Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through β-glycosidic bonds and this linkage motif contrasts with that for α-glycosidic bonds present in starch and glycogen. This confers tensile strength in cell walls, where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix, compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60–70 °C in water, cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C, several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures Iα and Iβ, Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in Iα while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of Iβ. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II, the conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III, many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule
12.
Ferdinand de Saussure
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Ferdinand Mongin de Saussure was a Swiss linguist and semiotician. His ideas laid a foundation for significant developments in both linguistics and semiology in the 20th century. He is widely considered one of the founders of 20th-century linguistics, one of his translators, Roy Harris, summarized Saussures contribution to linguistics and the study of the whole range of human sciences. It is particularly marked in linguistics, philosophy, psychology, sociology and anthropology, although they have undergone extension and critique over time, the dimensions of organization introduced by Saussure continue to inform contemporary approaches to the phenomenon of language. Prague school linguist Jan Mukařovský writes that Saussures discovery of the structure of the linguistic sign differentiated the sign both from mere acoustic things. And from mental processes, and that in this development new roads were opened not only for linguistics. He was born in Geneva in 1857 and his father was Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure, a chemist, entomologist, and taxonomist. Saussure showed signs of talent and intellectual ability as early as the age of fourteen. In the fall of 1970, he began attending the Institution Martine, there he lived with the family of fellow classmate, Elie David. Saussure was not pleased, as he complained, I entered the Collège de Genève, after a year of studying Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit and taking a variety of courses at the University of Geneva, he commenced graduate work at the University of Leipzig in 1876. Two years later, at 21, Saussure published a book entitled Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes and he returned to Leipzig to defend his doctoral dissertation De lemploi du génitif absolu en Sanscrit, and was awarded his doctorate in February 1880. Soon, he relocated to the University of Paris, where he lectured on Sanskrit, Gothic and Old High German and he taught at the École pratique des hautes études for eleven years during which he was named Chevalier de la Légion dHonneur. When offered a professorship in Geneva in 1892, he returned to Switzerland, Saussure lectured on Sanskrit and Indo-European at the University of Geneva for the remainder of his life. It was not until 1907 that Saussure began teaching the Course of General Linguistics and he died in 1913 in Vufflens-le-Château, Vaud, Switzerland. His brother was the Esperantist René de Saussure, and his son was the psychoanalyst Raymond de Saussure, Saussure attempted, at various times in the 1880s and 1890s, to write a book on general linguistic matters. Saussure also had a impact on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century. His two currents of thought emerged independently of other, one in Europe, the other in America. The results of each incorporated the basic notions of Saussures thought in forming the central tenets of structural linguistics, in Europe, the most important work in that period of influence was done by the Prague school
13.
Letter (alphabet)
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A letter is a grapheme in an alphabetic system of writing, such as the Greek alphabet and its descendants. Letters also appear in abjads and abugidas, letters broadly denote phonemes in the spoken form of the language, although there is rarely a consistent exact correspondence between letters and phonemes. Written signs in writing systems are best called syllabograms or logograms. Letter, borrowed from Old French lettre, entered Middle English around AD1200, letter derives from Latin littera, which may have derived, via Etruscan, from the Greek διφθέρα. The Middle English plural lettres could refer to an epistle or written document, use of the singular letter to refer to a written document emerged in the 14th century. As symbols that denote segmental speech, letters are associated with phonetics, in a purely phonemic alphabet, a single phoneme is denoted by a single letter, but in history and practice letters often denote more than one phoneme. A pair of letters designating a single phoneme is called a digraph, examples of digraphs in English include ch, sh and th. A phoneme can also be represented by three letters, called a trigraph, an example is the combination sch in German. A letter may also be associated more than one phoneme. As an example of positional effects, the Spanish letter c is pronounced before a, o, or u, letters also have specific names associated with them. These names may differ with language, dialect and history, Z, for example, is usually called zed in all English-speaking countries except the U. S. where it is named zee. Letters, as elements of alphabets, have prescribed orders and this may generally be known as alphabetical order though collation is the science devoted to the complex task of ordering and sorting of letters and words in different languages. In Spanish, for instance, ñ is a letter being sorted after n. In English, n and ñ are sorted alike, letters may also have numerical value. This is true of Roman numerals and the letters of other writing systems, in English, Arabic numerals are typically used instead of letters. Letters may be used as words, the words a and I are the most common English letter-words. Sometimes O is used for Oh in poetic situations, in extremely informal cases of writing individual letters may replace words, e. g. u may be used instead of you in English, when the letter name is pronounced as a homophone of the word. Nearly all alphabets in the world today either descend directly from development or were inspired by its design
14.
Concept
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A concept is an abstract idea representing the fundamental characteristics of what it represents. Concepts arise as abstractions or generalisations from experience or the result of a transformation of existing ideas, the concept is instantiated by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. Concepts are treated in many if not most disciplines both explicitly, such as in linguistics, psychology, philosophy, etc. and implicitly, such as in mathematics, physics, etc. In informal use the word concept often just means any idea and these concepts are then stored in long term memory In metaphysics, and especially ontology, a concept is a fundamental category of existence. It would go furniture, chair, and easy chair, the term concept is traced back to 1554–60, but what is today termed the classical theory of concepts is the theory of Aristotle on the definition of terms. The meaning of concept is explored in mainstream science, cognitive science, metaphysics. In computer and information science contexts, especially, the concept is often used in unclear or inconsistent ways. In a platonist theory of mind, concepts are construed as abstract objects and this debate concerns the ontological status of concepts – what they are really like. There is debate as to the relationship between concepts and natural language, concepts that can be equated to a single word are called lexical concepts. Study of concepts and conceptual structure falls into the disciplines of linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science. In the simplest terms, a concept is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence, such as a person, a place, or a thing. It may represent an object that exists in the real world like a tree, an animal. It may also name an object like a chair, computer, house. Abstract ideas and knowledge domains such as freedom, equality, science, happiness and it is important to realize that a concept is merely a symbol, a representation of the abstraction. The word is not to be mistaken for the thing, for example, the word moon is not the large, bright, shape-changing object up in the sky, but only represents that celestial object. Concepts are created to describe, explain and capture reality as it is known, Kant declared that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts and he called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in general, not of a particular thing, according to Kant, there are 12 categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects
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Idea
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In philosophy, ideas are usually construed as mental representational images of some object. Ideas can also be abstract concepts that do not present as mental images, many philosophers have considered ideas to be a fundamental ontological category of being. The capacity to create and understand the meaning of ideas is considered to be an essential and defining feature of human beings. In a popular sense, an idea arises in a reflexive, spontaneous manner, even without thinking or serious reflection, for example, a new or original idea can often lead to innovation. The word idea comes from Greek ἰδέα idea form, pattern, from the root of ἰδεῖν idein and these are distinguished from adventitious ideas which are images or concepts which are accompanied by the judgment that they are caused or occasioned by an external object. Another view holds that we only discover ideas in the way that we discover the real world. The view that humans acquire all or almost all their traits from nurture is known as tabula rasa. Most of the confusions in the way ideas arise is at least in part due to the use of the idea to cover both the representation percept and the object of conceptual thought. This can be illustrated in terms of the doctrines of innate ideas, Plato in Ancient Greece was one of the earliest philosophers to provide a detailed discussion of ideas. Consequently, Plato seems to assert that material things can only be the objects of opinion, and we also assert that there is a fair itself, a good itself, and so on for all things that we set down as many. Now, again, we refer to them as one idea of each as though the idea were one, and, moreover, we say that the former are seen, but not intellected, while the ideas are intellected but not seen. Descartes often wrote of the meaning of idea as an image or representation, often but not necessarily in the mind and he sometimes maintained that ideas were innate and uses of the term idea diverge from the original primary scholastic use. He provides multiple non-equivalent definitions of the term, uses it to refer to as many as six distinct kinds of entities, for him knowledge took the form of ideas and philosophical investigation is the deep consideration of these entities. In striking contrast to Platos use of idea is that of John Locke and he said he regarded the book necessary to examine our own abilities and see what objects our understandings were, or were not, fitted to deal with. Locke always believed in good sense—not pushing things to extremes and on taking fully into account the plain facts of the matter and he considered his common sense ideas good-tempered, moderate, and down-to-earth. Hume differs from Locke by limiting idea to the more or less vague mental reconstructions of perceptions, the perceptual process being described as an impression. In choosing the means to ends, they shall follow their accustomed associations of ideas. d Hume has contended and defended the notion that reason alone is merely the slave of the passions. Immanuel Kant defines an idea as opposed to a concept, regulative ideas are ideals that one must tend towards, but by definition may not be completely realized
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Object (philosophy)
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An object is a technical term in modern philosophy often used in contrast to the term subject. A subject is an observer and an object is a thing observed, metaphysical frameworks also differ in whether they consider objects exist independently of their properties and, if so, in what way. The pragmatist Charles S. Peirce defines the notion of an object as anything that we can think or talk about. In a general sense it is any entity, the pyramids, Alpha Centauri, the number seven, in a strict sense it refers to any definite being. Objecthood is the state of being an object, one approach to defining it is in terms of objects properties and relations. Descriptions of all bodies, minds, and persons must be in terms of their properties, the philosophical question of the nature of objecthood concerns how objects are related to their properties and relations. For example, it seems that the way to describe an apple is by describing its properties. Its properties may include its redness, its size and its composition, while its relations may include on the table, in the room, the notion of an object must address two problems, the change problems and the problems of substancess. Two leading theories about objecthood are substance theory, wherein substances are distinct from their properties, an attribute of an object is called a property if it can be experienced. Objects manifest themselves through their properties and these manifestations seem to change in a regular and unified way, suggesting that something underlies the properties. The change problem asks what that thing is. According to substance theory, the answer is a substance, that which stands under the change, because substances are only experienced through their properties a substance itself is never directly experienced. The problem of substance asks on what basis can one conclude the existence of a substance that cannot be seen or scientifically verified, according to bundle theory, the answer is, none, thus an object is merely its properties. Some philosophies include theories of bodies and minds. So the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms, by uncovering this paradox he then provides a solution that lies at the very root of Buddhist praxis. He proposes that all objects are dependent upon designation, and therefore any discussion regarding the nature of objects can only be made in light of context, the validity of objects can only be established within those conventions that assert them. In English the word object is derived from the Latin objectus with the meaning to throw, or put before or against, from ob- and jacere, as such it is a root for several important words used to derive meaning, such as objectify, objective, and objectivism. Bertrand Russell updated the terminology with one more term, the fact
17.
Sign (semiotics)
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Two major theories describe the way signs acquire the ability to transfer information. Both theories understand the defining property of the sign as a relation between a number of elements, in the tradition of semiotics developed by Ferdinand de Saussure the sign relation is dyadic, consisting only of a form of the sign and its meaning. Saussure saw this relation as being essentially arbitrary, motivated only by social convention, Saussures theory has been particularly influential in the study of linguistic signs. The other major semiotic theory, developed by C. S, according to Peirce signs can be divided by the type of relation that holds the sign relation together as either icons, indices or symbols. According to Saussure, a sign is composed of the signifier, and these cannot be conceptualized as separate entities but rather as a mapping from significant differences in sound to potential differential denotation. The Saussurean sign exists only at the level of the system, in which signs are defined by their relative. It is thus a common misreading of Saussure to take signifiers to be anything one could speak, in fact, the relationship of language to parole is and always has been a theoretical problem for linguistics. A famous thesis by Saussure states that the relationship between a sign and the thing it denotes is an arbitrary one. For example, there is nothing about the quality of paper that requires denotation by the phonological sequence ‘paper’. There is, however, what Saussure called ‘relative motivation’, the possibilities of signification of a signifier are constrained by the compositionality of elements in the linguistic system. In other words, a word is only available to acquire a new meaning if it is different from all the other words in the language. Structuralism was later based on idea that it is only within a given system that one can define the distinction between the levels of system and use, or the semantic value of a sign. Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a different theory and he considered word to be only one particular kind of sign, and characterized sign as any mediational means to understanding. He covered not only artificial, linguistic, and symbolic signs, but also all semblances and he counted as symbols all terms, propositions, and arguments whose interpretation is based upon convention or habit, even apart from their expression in particular languages. He held that all this universe is perfused with signs, if it is not composed exclusively of signs. The result is a theory not of language in particular, but rather of the production of meaning, Peirce believed that signs are meaningful through recursive relationships that arise in sets of three. A sign depends on an object in a way that enables an interpretation, the interpretant, then, is a further sign of the object, and thus enables and determines still further interpretations, further interpretant signs. The process, called semiosis, is irreducibly triadic, Peirce held and it is what defines sign, object, and interpretant in general
18.
Reference
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Reference is a relation between objects in which one object designates, or acts as a means by which to connect to or link to, another object. The first object in this relation is said to refer to the second object, the second object, the one to which the first object refers, is called the referent of the first object. In some cases, methods are used that intentionally hide the reference from some observers, References feature in many spheres of human activity and knowledge, and the term adopts shades of meaning particular to the contexts in which it is used. Some of them are described in the sections below, the word reference is derived from Middle English referren, from Middle French référer, from Latin referre, to carry back, formed from the prefix re- and ferre, to bear. A number of words derive from the root, including refer, referee, referential, referent. The verb refer and its derivatives may carry the sense of link to or connect to, another sense is consult, this is reflected in such expressions as reference work, reference desk, job reference, etc. In semantics, reference is generally construed as the relationships between nouns or pronouns and objects that are named by them, hence, the word John refers to the person John. The word it refers to some previously specified object, the object referred to is called the referent of the word. Sometimes the word-object relation is called denotation, the word denotes the object, the converse relation, the relation from object to word, is called exemplification, the object exemplifies what the word denotes. In syntactic analysis, if a word refers to a previous word and this problem led Frege to distinguish between the sense and reference of a word. Some cases seem to be too complicated to be classified within this framework, words can often be meaningful without having a concrete here-and-now referent. Fictional and mythological names such as Bo-Peep and Hercules illustrate this possibility, sign links with absent referents also allow for discussing abstract ideas as well as people and events of the past and future. For those who argue that one cannot directly experience the divine, additionally, certain sects of Judaism and other religions consider it sinful to write, discard, or deface the name of the divine. To avoid this problem, the signifier G-d is sometimes used, the very concept of the linguistic sign is the combination of content and expression, the former of which may refer entities in the world or refer more abstract concepts, e. g. thought. Certain parts of speech exist only to reference, namely anaphora such as pronouns. The subset of reflexives expresses co-reference of two participants in a sentence and these could be the agent and patient, as in The man washed himself, the theme and recipient, as in I showed Mary to herself, or various other possible combinations. In computer science, references are data types that refer to an object elsewhere in memory and are used to construct a variety of data structures. Generally, a reference is a value that enables a program to access the particular data item
19.
Jabberwocky
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Jabberwocky is a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll about the killing of a creature named the Jabberwock. It was included in his 1871 novel Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There, the book tells of Alices adventures within the back-to-front world of Looking-Glass Land. In an early scene in which she first encounters the chess piece characters White King and White Queen, realising that she is travelling through an inverted world, she recognises that the verses on the pages are written in mirror-writing. She holds a mirror to one of the poems, and reads the reflected verse of Jabberwocky and she finds the nonsense verse as puzzling as the odd land she has passed into, later revealed as a dreamscape. Jabberwocky is considered one of the greatest nonsense poems written in English and its playful, whimsical language has given English nonsense words and neologisms such as galumphing and chortle. The rest of the poem was written during Carrolls stay with relatives at Whitburn, the story may have been partly inspired by the local Sunderland area legend of the Lambton Worm. The concept of nonsense verse was not original to Carroll, who would have known of such as The World Turned Upside Down. Nonsense existed in Shakespeares work and was well-known in the Brothers Grimms fairytales, roger Lancelyn Green suggests that Jabberwocky is a parody of the old German ballad The Shepherd of the Giant Mountains in which a shepherd kills a griffin that is attacking his sheep. The ballad had been translated into English in blank verse by Carrolls cousin Menella Bute Smedley in 1846, john Tenniel reluctantly agreed to illustrate the book in 1871, and his illustrations are still the defining images of the poem. The illustration of the Jabberwock may reflect the contemporary Victorian obsession with natural history, many of the words in the poem are playful nonce words of Carrolls own invention, without intended explicit meaning. When Alice has finished reading the poem she gives her impressions, It seems very pretty, she said when she had finished it, somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I dont exactly know what they are. However, somebody killed something, thats clear, at any rate and this may reflect Carrolls intention for his readership, the poem is, after all, part of a dream. For example, following the poem, a rath is described by Humpty as a sort of green pig. Carrolls notes for the original in Mischmasch suggest a rath is a species of Badger that lived chiefly on cheese and had white hair, long hind legs. The appendices to certain Looking Glass editions, however, state that the creature is a species of turtle that lived on swallows. Later critics added their own interpretations of the lexicon, often without reference to Carrolls own contextual commentary, an extended analysis of the poem and Carrolls commentary is given in the book The Annotated Alice by Martin Gardner. In 1868 Carroll asked his publishers, Macmillan, Have you any means, or can you find any and it may be that Carroll was wanting to print the whole poem in mirror writing. Macmillan responded that it would cost a great deal more to do, pronounce slithy as if it were the two words, sly, thee, make the g hard in gyre and gimble, and pronounce rath to rhyme with bath
20.
Lewis Carroll
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Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English writer, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon, and photographer. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life. Dodgsons family was predominantly northern English, with Irish connections, conservative, most of Dodgsons male ancestors were army officers or Church of England clergy. His great-grandfather, also named Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become the Bishop of Elphin. His paternal grandfather, another Charles, had been an army captain, the older of these sons – yet another Charles Dodgson – was Carrolls father. He went to Westminster School and then to Christ Church, Oxford and he reverted to the other family tradition and took holy orders. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career, instead, he married his first cousin Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1830 and became a country parson. Dodgson was born in the parsonage at Daresbury in Cheshire near the towns of Warrington and Runcorn. When Charles was 11, his father was given the living of Croft-on-Tees in North Yorkshire, and this remained their home for the next 25 years. He was High Church, inclining to Anglo-Catholicism, an admirer of John Henry Newman and the Tractarian movement, Young Charles was to develop an ambiguous relationship with his fathers values and with the Church of England as a whole. During his early youth, Dodgson was educated at home and his reading lists preserved in the family archives testify to a precocious intellect, at the age of seven, he was reading books such as The Pilgrims Progress. He also suffered from a stammer – a condition shared by most of his siblings – that often influenced his life throughout his years. At the age of twelve, he was sent to Richmond Grammar School at nearby Richmond, in 1846, Dodgson entered Rugby School where he was evidently unhappy, as he wrote some years after leaving, I cannot say. That any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again, I can honestly say that if I could have been. Secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear, scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. I have not had a promising boy at his age since I came to Rugby. He left Rugby at the end of 1849 and matriculated at Oxford in May 1850 as a member of his fathers old college, after waiting for rooms in college to become available, he went into residence in January 1851. He had been at Oxford only two days when he received a summons home and his mother had died of inflammation of the brain – perhaps meningitis or a stroke – at the age of 47
21.
Monism
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Monism is the view that attributes oneness or singleness to a concept. Substance monism is the view that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance. Another definition states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them and this is often termed priority monism, and is the view that only one thing is ontologically basic or prior to everything else. Another distinction is the difference between substance and existence monism, or stuff monism and thing monism, substance monism posits that only one kind of stuff exists, although many things may be made out of this stuff. Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there only a single thing. The restricted definition, this not only unity of origin. Although the term monism is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the mind–body problem, in modern Hinduism, the term absolute monism is being used for Advaita Vedanta. The mind–body problem in philosophy examines the relationship between mind and matter, and in particular the relationship between consciousness and the brain and it was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by Hegel and Schelling. Thereafter the term was more used, for any theory postulating a unifying principle. The opponent thesis of dualism also was broadened, to include pluralism, according to Urmson, as a result of this extended use, the term is systematically ambiguous. According to Jonathan Schaffer, monism lost popularity due to the emergence of Analytic philosophy in the twentieth century. Carnap and Ayer, who were proponents of positivism, ridiculed the whole question as incoherent mysticism. Monism is also relevant to the philosophy of mind, where various positions are defended. g. Metaphysical nihilism, negates any of the above categories, eliminative Materialism, according to which everything is physical and mental things do not exist b. Moreover, they do not define the meaning of real, while the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details, the following pre-Socratic philosophers thought in monistic terms, Thales, Water. Reality is some, one thing, but we know what. Parmenides argued that Being or Reality is a perfect sphere, unchanging. Neopythagorians such as Apollonius of Tyana centered their cosmologies on the Monad or One, Stoics taught that there is only one substance, identified as God
22.
Logical value
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In logic and mathematics, a truth value, sometimes called a logical value, is a value indicating the relation of a proposition to truth. In classical logic, with its intended semantics, the values are true and untrue or false. This set of two values is called the Boolean domain. Corresponding semantics of logical connectives are truth functions, whose values are expressed in the form of truth tables, logical biconditional becomes the equality binary relation, and negation becomes a bijection which permutes true and false. Conjunction and disjunction are dual with respect to negation, which is expressed by De Morgans laws, assigning values for propositional variables is referred to as valuation. In intuitionistic logic, and more generally, constructive mathematics, statements are assigned a value only if they can be given a constructive proof. It starts with a set of axioms, and a statement is true if you can build a proof of the statement from those axioms, a statement is false if you can deduce a contradiction from it. This leaves open the possibility of statements that have not yet assigned a truth value. Unproven statements in Intuitionistic logic are not given a truth value. Indeed, you can prove that they have no truth value. There are various ways of interpreting Intuitionistic logic, including the Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov interpretation, see also, Intuitionistic Logic - Semantics. Multi-valued logics allow for more than two values, possibly containing some internal structure. For example, on the interval such structure is a total order. Not all logical systems are truth-valuational in the sense that logical connectives may be interpreted as truth functions, but even non-truth-valuational logics can associate values with logical formulae, as is done in algebraic semantics. The algebraic semantics of intuitionistic logic is given in terms of Heyting algebras, Intuitionistic type theory uses types in the place of truth values. Topos theory uses truth values in a sense, the truth values of a topos are the global elements of the subobject classifier. Having truth values in this sense does not make a logic truth valuational
23.
Alfred Tarski
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Alfred Tarski was a renowned Polish logician, mathematician and philosopher. Tarski taught and carried out research in mathematics at the University of California, Alfred Tarski was born Alfred Teitelbaum, to parents who were Polish Jews in comfortable circumstances relative to other Jews in the overall region. He first manifested his mathematical abilities while in school, at Warsaws Szkoła Mazowiecka. Nevertheless, he entered the University of Warsaw in 1918 intending to study biology, Leśniewski recognized Tarskis potential as a mathematician and encouraged him to abandon biology. Tarski and Leśniewski soon grew cool to each other, however, in later life, Tarski reserved his warmest praise for Kotarbiński, as was mutual. In 1923, Alfred Teitelbaum and his brother Wacław changed their surname to Tarski, the Tarski brothers also converted to Roman Catholicism, Polands dominant religion. Alfred did so even though he was an avowed atheist, Tarski was a Polish nationalist who saw himself as a Pole and wished to be fully accepted as such — later, in America, he spoke Polish at home. In 1929 Tarski married fellow teacher Maria Witkowska, a Pole of Catholic background and she had worked as a courier for the army in the Polish–Soviet War. They had two children, a son Jan who became a physicist, and a daughter Ina who married the mathematician Andrzej Ehrenfeucht, Tarski applied for a chair of philosophy at Lwów University, but on Bertrand Russells recommendation it was awarded to Leon Chwistek. In 1930, Tarski visited the University of Vienna, lectured to Karl Mengers colloquium, thanks to a fellowship, he was able to return to Vienna during the first half of 1935 to work with Mengers research group. From Vienna he traveled to Paris to present his ideas on truth at the first meeting of the Unity of Science movement, in 1937, Tarski applied for a chair at Poznań University but the chair was abolished. Tarskis ties to the Unity of Science movement likely saved his life, thus he left Poland in August 1939, on the last ship to sail from Poland for the United States before the German and Soviet invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II. Tarski left reluctantly, because Leśniewski had died a few months before, oblivious to the Nazi threat, he left his wife and children in Warsaw. He did not see again until 1946. During the war, nearly all his Jewish extended family were murdered at the hands of the German occupying authorities, in 1942, Tarski joined the Mathematics Department at the University of California, Berkeley, where he spent the rest of his career. Tarski became an American citizen in 1945, although emeritus from 1968, he taught until 1973 and supervised Ph. D. candidates until his death. At Berkeley, Tarski acquired a reputation as an awesome and demanding teacher, Tarski was extroverted, quick-witted, strong-willed, energetic, and sharp-tongued. He preferred his research to be collaborative — sometimes working all night with a colleague — and was very fastidious about priority, some students were frightened away, but a circle of disciples remained, many of whom became world-renowned leaders in the field
24.
Saul Kripke
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Saul Aaron Kripke is an American philosopher and logician. He is a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and emeritus professor at Princeton University. Since the 1960s Kripke has been a figure in a number of fields related to mathematical logic, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, metaphysics, epistemology. Much of his work remains unpublished or exists only as tape recordings, Kripke was the recipient of the 2001 Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy. Kripke has made influential and original contributions to logic, especially modal logic and he has also contributed an original reading of Wittgenstein, referred to as Kripkenstein. His most famous work is Naming and Necessity, Saul Kripke is the oldest of three children born to Dorothy K. Kripke and Rabbi Myer S. Kripke. His father was the leader of Beth El Synagogue, the only Conservative congregation in Omaha, Nebraska, Saul and his two sisters, Madeline and Netta, attended Dundee Grade School and Omaha Central High School. He wrote his first completeness theorem in logic at the age of 17. After graduating from school in 1958, Kripke attended Harvard University. During his sophomore year at Harvard, Kripke taught a graduate-level logic course at nearby MIT, upon graduation he received a Fulbright Fellowship, and in 1963 was appointed to the Society of Fellows. After teaching briefly at Harvard, he moved to Rockefeller University in New York City in 1967, in 1988 he received the universitys Behrman Award for distinguished achievement in the humanities. In 2002 Kripke began teaching at the CUNY Graduate Center in midtown Manhattan and he was married to philosopher Margaret Gilbert. He has received degrees from the University of Nebraska, Omaha, Johns Hopkins University, University of Haifa, Israel. He is a member of the American Philosophical Society, an elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and he won the Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy in 2001. He is the cousin once removed of television writer, director. The Saul Kripke Center at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York is dedicated to preserving and promoting Kripkes work, the Saul Kripke Center is directed by Gary Ostertag. Kripkes contributions to philosophy include, Kripke semantics for modal and related logics and his 1970 Princeton lectures Naming and Necessity, that significantly restructured philosophy of language. The most familiar logics in the family are constructed from a weak logic called K
25.
Antony Flew
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Antony Garrard Newton Flew was an English philosopher. Belonging to the analytic and evidentialist schools of thought, Flew was most notable for his work related to the philosophy of religion, during the course of his career he taught at the universities of Oxford, Aberdeen, Keele and Reading, and at York University in Toronto. For much of his career Flew was known as an advocate of atheism. He also criticised the idea of life after death, the free will defence to the problem of evil, in 2003 he was one of the signatories of the Humanist Manifesto III. However, in 2004 he stated an allegiance to deism, more specifically a belief in the Aristotelian God and he stated that in keeping his lifelong commitment to go where the evidence leads, he now believed in the existence of a God. In 2007 a book outlining his reasons for changing his position, There is a God and he was also known for the development of the no true Scotsman fallacy, and his debate on retrocausality with Michael Dummett. Flew, the son of Methodist minister/theologian Robert Newton Flew and his wife Winifred née Garrard, was born in London and he was educated at St Faiths School, Cambridge followed by Kingswood School, Bath. He is said to have concluded by the age of 15 that there was no God, during the Second World War he studied Japanese at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, and was a Royal Air Force intelligence officer. After a period with the Inter-Services Topographical Department in Oxford, he was posted to Bletchley Park in June 1944, after the war, Flew achieved a first class degree in Literae Humaniores at St Johns College, Oxford. He also won the John Locke Scholarship in Mental Philosophy in the following year, Flew was a graduate student of Gilbert Ryle, prominent in ordinary language philosophy. Both Flew and Ryle were among many Oxford philosophers fiercely criticised in Ernest Gellners book Words, a 1954 debate with Michael Dummett over backward causation was an early highlight in Flews career. For a year, 1949–50, Flew was a lecturer in philosophy at Christ Church, from 1950 to 1954 he was a lecturer at the University of Aberdeen, and from 1954 to 1971 he was a professor of philosophy at the University of Keele. He held a professorship at the University of Calgary, 1972–73, between 1973 and 1983 he was professor of philosophy at the University of Reading. At this time, he developed one of his most famous arguments, upon his retirement, Flew took up a half-time post for a few years at York University, Toronto. Politically Flew was a conservative and wrote articles for The Journal of Libertarian Studies. His name appears on letterheads into 1992 as a Vice-President of the Conservative Monday Club and he was one of the signatories to a letter in The Times along with Lord Sudeley, Sir Alfred Sherman, and Dr. Flew married on 28 June 1952. Flew died on 8 April 2010, while nursed in an Extended Care Facility in Reading, England, while an undergraduate, Flew attended the weekly meetings of C. S. Lewiss Socratic Club fairly regularly. Flew also criticised several of the other philosophical proofs for Gods existence and he concluded that the ontological argument in particular failed because it is based on the premise that the concept of Being can be derived from the concept of Goodness
26.
Course in General Linguistics
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Course in General Linguistics is a book compiled by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye from notes on lectures given by Ferdinand de Saussure at the University of Geneva between 1906 and 1911. Words are not mere vocal labels or communicational adjuncts superimposed upon a given order of things. They are collective products of social interaction, essential instruments through which human beings constitute and articulate their world and this typically twentieth-century view of language has profoundly influenced developments throughout the whole range of human sciences. It is particularly marked in linguistics, philosophy, psychology, sociology and anthropology, although Saussure was specifically interested in historical linguistics, the Course develops a theory of semiotics that is more generally applicable. A manuscript containing Saussures original notes was found in 1996, writing in French, Saussure distinguishes between language and speech. Language is a well-defined homogenous object in the mass of speech facts. It belongs both to individual and society, language is a self-contained whole and principle of classification. Language is not complete in any speaker and it is a product that is assimilated by speakers. It exists only within a collectivity, language is a system of signs that express ideas. To explain how the social crystallization of language comes about, Saussure proposes the notion of individual speaking, therefore, as langue is systematic, it is this that Saussure focuses on since it allows an investigative methodology that is scientific in the sense of systematic. Beginning with the Greek word ‘semîon meaning sign, Saussure proposes a new science semiology, the focus of Saussures investigation is the linguistic unit or sign. The sign is described as an entity, made up of the signifier, or sound pattern. The sound pattern is a psychological, not a material concept, both components of the linguistic sign are inseparable. One way to appreciate this is to think of them as being like either side of a piece of paper – one side simply cannot exist without the other, the relationship between signifier and signified is, however, not quite that simple. Saussure is adamant that language cannot be considered a collection of names for a collection of objects, according to Saussure, language is not a nomenclature. Indeed, the insight of Saussures thought is that denotation. For Saussure, there is no essential or natural reason why a particular signifier should be attached to a particular signified, Saussure calls this the arbitrariness of the sign. No two people have precisely the same concept of tree, since no two people have precisely the same experiences or psychology and we can communicate tree, however, for the same reason we can communicate at all, because we have agreed to use it in a consistent way
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
David Chalmers
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David John Chalmers is an Australian philosopher and cognitive scientist specializing in the areas of philosophy of mind and philosophy of language. He is Professor of Philosophy and Director of the Centre for Consciousness at the Australian National University and he is also a University Professor, Professor of Philosophy and Neural Science, and a Director of the Center for Mind, Brain and Consciousness at New York University. In 2013, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, since 2004, Chalmers has been Professor of Philosophy, Director of the Centre for Consciousness, and an ARC Federation Fellow at the Australian National University. Chalmers received his degree in pure mathematics from the University of Adelaide in Australia and continued his studies at the University of Oxford. Chalmers received his PhD in philosophy and cognitive science from Indiana University Bloomington under Douglas Hofstadter, after appearing as a plenary speaker at the first meeting, Chalmers has subsequently taken the role of co-organizer, alongside Stuart Hameroff, of this conference. Chalmers 1996 book, The Conscious Mind, was described by The Sunday Times as one of the best science books of the year. In the book, Chalmers argues that all forms of physicalism that have dominated modern philosophy and he proposes an alternative dualistic view he calls naturalistic dualism. He is the singer of the Zombie Blues band which performed at the Qualia Fest in 2012 in New York. Chalmers is an editor on topics in the philosophy of mind for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, on 14 June 2016 David Chalmers visited Moscow to hold a lecture at Moscow State University focused on solving the Hard problem of consciousness. He also gave an interview about before holding a lecture at the Moscow State University, Chalmers is best known for his formulation of the notion of a hard problem of consciousness in both his 1996 book and in the 1995 paper Facing Up to the Problem of Consciousness. The essential difference between the easy problems and the problem is that the former are at least theoretically answerable via the standard strategy in philosophy of mind. Chalmers argues for a gap from the objective to the subjective. In support of this, Chalmers is famous for his commitment to the possibility of philosophical zombies. These zombies, unlike the zombie of popular fiction, are complete physical duplicates of human beings, Chalmers argues that since such zombies are conceivable to us, they must therefore be logically possible. Since they are possible, then qualia and sentience are not fully explained by physical properties alone. He further speculates that all information-bearing systems may be conscious, leading him to entertain the possibility of conscious thermostats, Chalmers maintains a formal agnosticism on the issue, even conceding that the viability of panpsychism places him at odds with the majority of his contemporaries. After the publication of Chalmerss landmark paper, more than twenty papers in response were published in the Journal of Consciousness Studies and these papers were collected and published in the book Explaining Consciousness, The Hard Problem. John Searle critiqued Chalmerss views in The New York Review of Books, with Andy Clark, Chalmers has written The Extended Mind, an article about the borders of the mind
29.
Plato
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Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Platos entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy. Alfred North Whitehead once noted, the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. In addition to being a figure for Western science, philosophy. Friedrich Nietzsche, amongst other scholars, called Christianity, Platonism for the people, Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy, which originate with him. He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied, few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range, perhaps only Aristotle, Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Platos early life, the philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies, the exact time and place of Platos birth are unknown, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BCE. According to a tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus. Platos mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker, besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children, these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus. The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, and presumably brothers of Plato, but in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, went to Euclides in Megara, as Debra Nails argues, The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite. Thus, Nails dates Platos birth to 424/423, another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping, an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. Ariston appears to have died in Platos childhood, although the dating of his death is difficult. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mothers brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato and these and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Platos family tree
30.
Cratylus (dialogue)
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Cratylus is the name of a dialogue by Plato. Most modern scholars agree that it was mostly during Platos so-called middle period. The individual Cratylus was the first intellectual influence on Plato, aristotle states that Cratylus influenced Plato by introducing to him the teachings of Heraclitus, according to MW. The subject of Cratylus is the correctness of names, in other words, when discussing a ὄνομα and how it would relate to its subject, Socrates compares the original creation of a word to the work of an artist. An artist uses color to express the essence of his subject in a painting, in much the same way, the creator of words uses letters containing certain sounds to express the essence of a words subject. There is a letter that is best for soft things, one for liquid things and he comments, the best possible way to speak consists in using names all of which are like the things they name, while the worst is to use the opposite kind of names. One countering position, held by Hermogenes, is that names have come due to custom. They do not express the essence of their subject, so they can be swapped with something unrelated by the individuals or communities who use them, the line between the two perspectives is often blurred. During more than half of the dialogue, Socrates makes guesses at Hermogenes request as to where names and these include the names of the Olympian gods, personified deities, and many words that describe abstract concepts. He examines whether, for example, giving names of streams to Cronus, dont you think he who gave to the ancestors of the other gods the names “Rhea” and “Cronus” had the same thought as Heracleitus. Do you think he gave both of them the names of streams merely by chance, the Greek term ῥεῦμα may refer to the flow of any medium and is not restricted to the flow of water or liquids. Many of the words which Socrates uses as examples may have come from an idea originally linked to the name, but have changed over time. Those of which he cannot find a link, he assumes have come from foreign origins or have changed so much as to lose all resemblance to the original word. He states, names have been so twisted in all manner of ways, the final theory of relations between name and object named is posited by Cratylus, a disciple of Heraclitus, who believes that names arrive from divine origins, making them necessarily correct. Socrates rebukes this theory by reminding Cratylus of the imperfection of certain names in capturing the objects they seek to signify, from this point, Socrates ultimately rejects the study of language, believing it to be philosophically inferior to a study of things themselves. ρ is a tool for copying every sort of motion, ι for imitating all the small things that can most easily penetrate everything, φ, ψ. σ, and ζ as all these letters are pronounced with an expulsion of breath, δ and τ as both involve compression and stopping of the power of the tongue when pronounced, they are most appropriate for words indicating a lack or stopping of motion. λ, as the tongue glides most of all when pronounced, γ best used when imitating something cloying, as the gliding of the tongue is stopped when pronounced
