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10,000 Days
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10,000 Days is the fourth studio album by American rock band Tool. Recording took place at OHenry Studios in Burbank, California, The Loft and it marked the first time since recording 1993s Undertow that the band had worked at Grandmaster and without producer David Bottrill. It was mixed at Bay 7 in North Hollywood, California and mastered at Gateway Mastering Studios in Portland,10,000 Days spawned three Top 10 rock singles, Vicarious, The Pot and Jambi. It debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200 chart, with first week sales of 564,000 copies, by the end of 2007 the album had sold 2.5 million copies worldwide, and was awarded a Platinum certification by the RIAA. The album would become the bands last release in over a decade, the album was recorded at OHenry Studios in Burbank, California, as well as at The Loft and Grandmaster Studios in Hollywood, California. It was mixed at Bay 7 in North Hollywood, CA and mastered at Gateway Mastering Studios in Portland, the June 2006 issue of Guitar World featured an interview with guitarist Adam Jones discussing the new album. Jones explained that recording techniques for the album involved the use of a pipe bomb microphone, the pipe bomb microphone and other studio related information was further detailed in the June 1,2006 issue of Mix. Drummer Danny Carey operated many of the effects on the interlude tracks on the album using electronic drums called Mandalas. Keenan expected that the songs composed would chronicle that process, hoping that my back would be to share that path. Viewed with the glasses, the artwork produces an illusion of depth, alex Grey, who created a majority of the album art for Lateralus and its accompanying video Parabola, reprised his role for 10,000 Days. The CD face itself is decorated with stylized eyes, arranged in a logarithmic spiral toward the center. As with Tools other albums, the lyrics are not printed within the artwork, vocalist Maynard James Keenan has instead released the lyrics online. On May 5,2006, the bands official webmaster hinted that the four individual photos can be used as the pieces of a kind of puzzle, but the puzzle and its meaning will just be another nut to crack. He described the 10,000 Days cover as a vision of an infinite grid of Godheads during an ayahuasca journey. Grey stated in another interview when making the 10,000 Days cover that it depicts visions received during a DMT trip, on March 27,2006, Billboard. com posted an article about 10,000 Days, which mentioned that Vicarious would be the albums first single. Vicarious was officially released to radio on April 17, and entered both the Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts both at number 2, a music video for the song was released on DVD on December 18,2007. The song has also featured as a playable track on the video game Guitar Hero World Tour. The second single from the album was The Pot, which peaked at No.5 on the Modern Rock chart and it was the bands first number 1 single on the Mainstream Rock chart
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Linguistics
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Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning, phonetics is the study of speech and non-speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound as well as meaning, and include componential sub-sets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology, morphology, modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar are largely based within Noam Chomskys ideological school of generative grammar. In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles. This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance in his theory of transformative or generative grammar. According to Chomsky, competence is an innate capacity and potential for language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used by individuals, groups. The study of parole is the domain of sociolinguistics, the sub-discipline that comprises the study of a system of linguistic facets within a certain speech community. Discourse analysis further examines the structure of texts and conversations emerging out of a speech communitys usage of language, Stylistics also involves the study of written, signed, or spoken discourse through varying speech communities, genres, and editorial or narrative formats in the mass media. In the 1960s, Jacques Derrida, for instance, further distinguished between speech and writing, by proposing that language be studied as a linguistic medium of communication in itself. Palaeography is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of scripts in language. Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic, research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focus on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time. Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages, lexicography involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a dictionary. Computational linguistics is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective, specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of translation and interpretation, as well as in language education – the teaching of a second or foreign language. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education, related areas of study also includes the disciplines of semiotics, literary criticism, translation, and speech-language pathology. Before the 20th century, the philology, first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the science of language
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Logic
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Logic, originally meaning the word or what is spoken, is generally held to consist of the systematic study of the form of arguments. A valid argument is one where there is a relation of logical support between the assumptions of the argument and its conclusion. Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy and mathematics, and recently logic has been studied in science, linguistics, psychology. The concept of form is central to logic. The validity of an argument is determined by its logical form, traditional Aristotelian syllogistic logic and modern symbolic logic are examples of formal logic. Informal logic is the study of natural language arguments, the study of fallacies is an important branch of informal logic. Since much informal argument is not strictly speaking deductive, on some conceptions of logic, formal logic is the study of inference with purely formal content. An inference possesses a purely formal content if it can be expressed as an application of a wholly abstract rule, that is. The works of Aristotle contain the earliest known study of logic. Modern formal logic follows and expands on Aristotle, in many definitions of logic, logical inference and inference with purely formal content are the same. This does not render the notion of informal logic vacuous, because no formal logic captures all of the nuances of natural language, Symbolic logic is the study of symbolic abstractions that capture the formal features of logical inference. Symbolic logic is divided into two main branches, propositional logic and predicate logic. Mathematical logic is an extension of logic into other areas, in particular to the study of model theory, proof theory, set theory. Logic is generally considered formal when it analyzes and represents the form of any valid argument type, the form of an argument is displayed by representing its sentences in the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical language to make its content usable in formal inference. Simply put, formalising simply means translating English sentences into the language of logic and this is called showing the logical form of the argument. It is necessary because indicative sentences of ordinary language show a variety of form. Second, certain parts of the sentence must be replaced with schematic letters, thus, for example, the expression all Ps are Qs shows the logical form common to the sentences all men are mortals, all cats are carnivores, all Greeks are philosophers, and so on. The schema can further be condensed into the formula A, where the letter A indicates the judgement all - are -, the importance of form was recognised from ancient times
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Philosophy
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Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
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Property (philosophy)
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In philosophy, mathematics, and logic, a property is a characteristic of an object, a red object is said to have the property of redness. The property may be considered a form of object in its own right, a property however differs from individual objects in that it may be instantiated, and often in more than one thing. Understanding how different individual entities can in some sense have some of the properties is the basis of the problem of universals. The terms attribute and quality have similar meanings, in classical Aristotelian terminology, a property is one of the predicables. It is a quality of a species, but a quality which is nevertheless characteristically present in members of that species. For example, ability to laugh may be considered a characteristic of human beings. However, laughter is not a quality of the species human. A determinable property is one that can get more specific, for example, color is a determinable property because it can be restricted to redness, blueness, etc. A determinate property is one that become more specific. This distinction may be useful in dealing with issues of identity, in other words, it is the view that non-physical, mental properties inhere in some physical substances. e. The set, p is its indicator function and it may be objected that this defines merely the extension of a property, and says nothing about what causes the property to hold for exactly those values. The ontological fact that something has a property is represented in language by applying a predicate to a subject. However, taking any grammatical predicate whatsoever to be a property, or to have a property, leads to certain difficulties, such as Russells paradox. Other predicates, such as is an individual, or has some properties are uninformative or vacuous, there is some resistance to regarding such so-called Cambridge properties as legitimate. An intrinsic property is a property that an object or a thing has of itself, independently of other things, an extrinsic property is a property that depends on a things relationship with other things. A relation is considered to be a more general case of a property. Relations are true of several particulars, or shared amongst them, holds between two individuals, who would occupy the two ellipses. Relations can be expressed by N-place predicates, where N is greater than 1 and it is widely accepted that there are at least some apparent relational properties which are merely derived from non-relational properties
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Connotation
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A connotation is frequently described as either positive or negative, with regards to its pleasing or displeasing emotional connection. Connotation branches into a mixture of different meanings and these could include the contrast of a word or phrase with its primary, literal meaning, with what that word or phrase specifically denotes. The connotation essentially relates to how anything may be associated with a word or phrase, for example and it is often useful to avoid words with strong connotations when striving to achieve a neutral point of view. A desire for more positive connotations, or fewer negative ones, is one of the reasons for using euphemisms. In logic and semantics, connotation is roughly synonymous with intension, connotation is often contrasted with denotation, which is more or less synonymous with extension. Alternatively, the connotation of the word may be thought of as the set of all its possible referents, a words denotation is the collection of things it refers to, its connotation is what it implies about the things it is used to refer to. The denotation of dog is four-legged canine carnivore, so saying, You are a dog would imply that you were ugly or aggressive rather than stating that you were canine. Denotation Double entendre Extension Extensional definition Intension Intensional definition Metacommunicative competence Pun Subtext
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Word
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In linguistics, a word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. This contrasts deeply with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning, a word may consist of a single morpheme, or several, whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word. A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes, words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term word may refer to a word or to a written word. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, the difficulty of deciphering a word depends on the language. Dictionaries categorize a languages lexicon into lemmas and these can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a word in the opinion of the writers of that language. The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes, when a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion. Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of Minimal Free Forms in 1926, words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. However, some words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves. Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes, according to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations. In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax, words are construed as bundles of features that are united into a structure with form. For example, the word koalas has semantic features, category features, number features, phonological features, the task of defining what constitutes a word involves determining where one word ends and another word begins—in other words, identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the boundaries of spoken language should be placed, Potential pause, A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly. The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries, however, this method is not foolproof, the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words, or fail to separate two or more closely linked words. Indivisibility, A speaker is told to say a sentence out loud, thus, I have lived in this village for ten years might become My family and I have lived in this little village for about ten or so years. These extra words will tend to be added in the boundaries of the original sentence. However, some languages have infixes, which are put inside a word, similarly, some have separable affixes, in the German sentence Ich komme gut zu Hause an, the verb ankommen is separated. Phonetic boundaries, Some languages have rules of pronunciation that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be
