1.
December
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December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars. It is the seventh and last month to have the length of 31 days, December got its name from the Latin word decem because it was originally the tenth month of the year in the Roman calendar, which began in March. The winter days following December were not included as part of any month, later, the months of January and February were created out of the monthless period and added to the beginning of the calendar, but December retained its name. In Ancient Rome, one of the four Agonalia, this day in honor of Sol Indiges was held on December 11 and these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar. The Anglo-Saxons referred to December/January as Ġēolamonaþ, the French Republican Calendar contained December within the months of Frimaire and Nivôse. December contains the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the day with the fewest daylight hours, and the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere, December in the Northern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to June in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa. In the Northern hemisphere, the beginning of the winter is traditionally 21 December or the date of the solstice. The zodiac signs for the month of December are Sagittarius and Capricorn, decembers birth flower is the narcissus. Decembers birthstones are the turquoise, zircon, and tanzanite and this list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance. December 18, Amavasya In Catholic tradition, December is the Month of the Advent of Christ
2.
January
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January is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the first month to have the length of 31 days. The first day of the month is known as New Years Day and it is, on average, the coldest month of the year within most of the Northern Hemisphere and the warmest month of the year within most of the Southern Hemisphere. In the Southern hemisphere, January is the equivalent of July in the Northern hemisphere. Ancient Roman observances during this month include Cervula, and Juvenalia, celebrated January 1 and these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar. January is named after the Latin word for door, since January is the door to the year, traditionally, the original Roman calendar consisted of 10 months totaling 304 days, winter being considered a month-less period. Around 713 BC, the successor of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius, is supposed to have added the months of January and February. Although March was originally the first month in the old Roman calendar, in contrast, each specific calendar year was identified by the names of the two consuls, who entered office on May 1 or March 15 until 153 BC, from when they entered office on January 1. Various Christian feast dates were used for the New Year in Europe during the Middle Ages, including March 25, however, medieval calendars were still displayed in the Roman fashion with twelve columns from January to December. Historical names for January include its original Roman designation, Ianuarius, in Slovene, it is traditionally called január. The name, associated with millet bread and the act of asking for something, was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript. According to Theodor Mommsen,1 January became the first day of the year in 600 AUC of the Roman calendar, a Lusitanian chief called Punicus invaded the Roman territory, defeated two Roman governors, and killed their troops. The Romans resolved to send a consul to Hispania, and in order to accelerate the dispatch of aid, januarys birthstone is the garnet, which represents constancy. Its birth flower is the cottage pink Dianthus caryophyllus or galanthus, the Chinese floral emblem of January is the Prunus mume. The Japanese floral emblem of January is the camellia, the photograph of a large tree covered with ice against a blue sky is a familiar scene during Finlands winter. The zodiac signs for the month of January are Capricorn and Aquarius, all Jewish observances begin on sundown of the day before the date listed and end on sundown of the day listed
3.
February
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February is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. It is the shortest month of the year as it is the month to have a length of less than 30 days. The month has 28 days in common years or 29 days in leap years, February is the third month of meteorological winter in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, February is the last month of summer, February may be pronounced either as. Many people pronounce it as, as if it were spelled Feb-u-ary and this comes about by analogy with January, as well as by a dissimilation effect whereby having two rs close to each other causes one to change for ease of pronunciation. The Roman month Februarius was named after the Latin term februum, January and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period. They were added by Numa Pompilius about 713 BC, February remained the last month of the calendar year until the time of the decemvirs, when it became the second month. At certain intervals February was truncated to 23 or 24 days, the Straight Dope, How come February has only 28 days
4.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
5.
Leap year
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A leap year is a calendar year containing one additional day added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year. By inserting an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected, a year that is not a leap year is called a common year. For example, in the Gregorian calendar, each year has 366 days instead of the usual 365. In the Bahai Calendar, a day is added when needed to ensure that the following year begins on the vernal equinox. For example, Christmas Day fell on a Tuesday in 2001, Wednesday in 2002, the length of a day is also occasionally changed by the insertion of leap seconds into Coordinated Universal Time, owing to the variability of Earths rotational period. Unlike leap days, leap seconds are not introduced on a regular schedule, in the Gregorian calendar, the standard calendar in most of the world, most years that are multiples of 4 are leap years. In each leap year, the month of February has 29 days instead of 28, adding an extra day to the calendar every four years compensates for the fact that a period of 365 days is shorter than a tropical year by almost 6 hours. Some exceptions to this rule are required since the duration of a tropical year is slightly less than 365.25 days. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 were not leap years, over a period of four centuries, the accumulated error of adding a leap day every four years amounts to about three extra days. The Gregorian calendar therefore removes three leap days every 400 years, which is the length of its leap cycle and this is done by removing February 29 in the three century years that cannot be exactly divided by 400. The years 1600,2000 and 2400 are leap years, while 1700,1800,1900,2100,2200 and 2300 are common years, by this rule, the average number of days per year is 365 + 1⁄4 − 1⁄100 + 1⁄400 =365.2425. The rule can be applied to years before the Gregorian reform, the Gregorian calendar was designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter remains close to the vernal equinox. The Accuracy section of the Gregorian calendar article discusses how well the Gregorian calendar achieves this design goal, the following pseudocode determines whether a year is a leap year or a common year in the Gregorian calendar. The year variable being tested is the representing the number of the year in the Gregorian calendar. Care should be taken in translating mathematical integer divisibility into specific programming languages, if then else if then else if then else February 29 is a date that usually occurs every four years, and is called leap day. This day is added to the calendar in leap years as a corrective measure, the Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a calendar and named many of its days after the syzygies of the moon, the new moon. The Nonae or nones was not the first quarter moon but was exactly one nundina or Roman market week of nine days before the ides and this is what we would call a period of eight days
6.
1528
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Year 1528 was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. January 12 – Gustav I of Sweden is crowned king of Sweden, february Peasant uprising in Dalarna, Sweden, rebel campaign fails and the rebel leader, later known as Daljunkern, flees to Rostock. Diego García de Moguer explores the Sierra de la Plata along the Río de la Plata, June 19 – Battle of Landriano, A French army in Italy under Marshal Francis de Bourbon, Count of St. Pol is decisively defeated. September 12 – Andrea Doria defeats his former allies, the French, october 3 – Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón arrives in the Maluku Islands. October 13 – Cardinal Thomas Wolsey founds a college in his birthplace of Ipswich in England, october 20 – The Treaty of Gorinchem is signed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Charles, Duke of Guelders. November 6 – Spanish conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his companions become the first known Europeans to set foot on the shores of what is present-day Texas, montenegro gains autonomy under Turkish power. The Maya peoples drive Spanish Conquistadores out of Yucatán, spain takes direct control of Acapulco. Bubonic plague breaks out in England, the fourth major outbreak of the sweating sickness occurs in England. This time the disease spreads to northern Europe. St Georges Chapel in Windsor Castle is completed, chateau Fontainebleau in France is begun. Michelangelo Buonarroti begins work on the fortifications of Florence, baldassare Castiglione publishes The Book of the Courtier
7.
Gustav I of Sweden
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Initially of low standing, Gustav rose to lead the rebel movement following the Stockholm Bloodbath, in which his father perished. As King, Gustav proved an administrator with a ruthless streak not inferior to his predecessors. He worked to raise taxes, end Feudalism and bring about a Swedish Reformation, replacing the prerogatives of local landowners, noblemen and clergy with centrally appointed governors and bishops. Due to a vibrant dynastic succession, his three sons, Erik, Johan and Karl IX, all held the kingship at different points, Gustav I has subsequently been labelled the founder of modern Sweden, and the father of the nation. Gustav liked to compare himself to Moses, whom he believed to have liberated his people. As a person, Gustav was known for ruthless methods and a bad temper and he founded one of the now oldest orchestras of the world, the Kungliga Hovkapellet. Royal housekeeping accounts from 1526 mention twelve musicians including wind players, today the Kungliga Hovkapellet is the orchestra of the Royal Swedish Opera. Gustav Eriksson, a son of Cecilia Månsdotter Eka and Erik Johansson Vasa, was born in 1496. The birth most likely place in Rydboholm Castle, northeast of Stockholm. The newborn got his name, Gustav, from Eriks grandfather Gustav Anundsson, Erik Johanssons parents were Johan Kristersson and Birgitta Gustafsdotter of the dynasties Vasa and Sture respectively, both dynasties of high nobility. Birgitta Gustafsdotter was the sister of Sten Sture the Elder, regent of Sweden, being a relative and ally of uncle Sten Sture, Erik inherited the regents estates in Uppland and Södermanland when the latter died in 1503. Although a member of a family with considerable properties since childhood, according to genealogical research, Birgitta Gustafsdotter and Sten Sture were descended from King Sverker II of Sweden, through King Sverkers granddaughter Benedikte Sunesdotter. One of King Gustavs great-grandmothers was a half-sister of King Charles VIII of Sweden, since the end of the 14th century, Sweden had been a part of the Kalmar Union with Denmark and Norway. The Danish dominance in this union led to uprisings in Sweden. During Gustavs childhood, parts of the Swedish nobility tried to make Sweden independent, Gustav and his father Erik supported the party of Sten Sture the Younger, regent of Sweden from 1512, and its struggle against the Danish King Christian II. Following the battle of Brännkyrka in 1518, where Sten Stures troops beat the Danish forces, it was decided that Sten Sture and King Christian would meet in Österhaninge for negotiations. To guarantee the safety of the king, the Swedish side sent six men as hostages to be kept by the Danes for as long as the negotiations lasted. However, Christian did not show up for the negotiations, violated the deal with the Swedish side, the six members of the kidnapped hostage were Hemming Gadh, Lars Siggesson, Jöran Siggesson, Olof Ryning, Bengt Nilsson – and Gustav Eriksson
8.
1554
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Year 1554 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. January 5 – A great fire breaks out in Eindhoven, Netherlands, january 12 – Bayinnaung is crowned king of the Burmese Taungoo dynasty. January 25 – São Paulo, Brazil, is founded, february 9 – Thomas Wyatt surrenders to government forces in London. February 12 – After claiming the throne of England the previous year, march 18 – Princess Elizabeth is imprisoned in the Tower of London. April 12 – Mary of Guise becomes Regent of Scotland, july 23–July 25 – Queen Mary I of England marries King Philip of Naples, the only son of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in Winchester, England. August 2 – Battle of Marciano, Senese–French forces are defeated by the Florentine–Imperial army, august 12 – Battle of Renty, French forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise turn back an invasion of Picardy by Charles V. November – English captain John Lok voyages to Guinea, mikael Agricola becomes the bishop of Turku. Saadi conquer the Kingdom of Fez, exact center year of Counter Reformation. Name of beer brewed by New Belgium Brewing Company based on a recipe from this date called 1554
9.
Bayinnaung
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Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was king of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma from 1550 to 1581. Although he is best remembered for his building, Bayinnaungs greatest legacy was his integration of the Shan states into the Irrawaddy-valley-based kingdoms. After the conquest of the Shan states in 1557–1563, the put in an administrative system that reduced the power of hereditary Shan saophas. It eliminated the threat of Shan raids into Upper Burma, a concern to Upper Burma since the late 13th century. His Shan policy was followed by Burmese kings right up to the fall of the kingdom to the British in 1885. He could not replicate this administrative policy everywhere in his far flung empire and his empire was a loose collection of former sovereign kingdoms, whose kings were loyal to him as the Cakkavatti, not the Kingdom of Toungoo. Indeed, Ava and Siam revolted just over two years after his death, by 1599, all the vassal states had revolted, and the Toungoo Empire completely collapsed. He is considered one of the three greatest kings of Burma, along with Anawrahta and Alaungpaya, some of the most prominent places in modern Myanmar are named after him. He is also known in Thailand as Phra Chao Chana Sip Thit. The future king was born Ye Htut on 16 January 1516 to Mingyi Swe, no extant contemporary records, including Hanthawaddy Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon, the extensive chronicle of the kings reign written two years before his death, mention his ancestry. It was only in 1724, some 143 years after the death that Maha Yazawin. According to Maha Yazawin, he was born to a family in Toungoo. He was descended from viceroys of Toungoo Tarabya and Minkhaung I from his fathers side, furthermore, Ye Htut was distantly related to then presiding ruler of Toungoo Mingyi Nyo and his son Tabinshwehti through their common ancestor, Tarabya of Pakhan. Later chronicles simply repeat Maha Yazawins account, in all, the chronicles neatly tie his ancestry to all the previous main dynasties that existed in Upper Burma, Ava, Sagaing, Myinsaing–Pinya and Pagan dynasties. To be sure, the chronicle and oral traditions need not be mutually exclusive since being a tree climber does not preclude his having royal ancestors. Whatever their origin and station in life may have been, both of his parents were chosen to be part of the staff to take care of the royal baby Tabinshwehti in April 1516. Ye Htuts mother was chosen to be the wet nurse of the prince, the family moved into the Toungoo Palace precincts where the couple had three more sons, the last of whom died young. Ye Htut had an elder sister Khin Hpone Soe, and three brothers, Minye Sithu, Thado Dhamma Yaza II, and the youngest who died young
10.
1616
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As of the start of 1616, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Officials in Württemberg charge astronomer Johannes Kepler with practicing forbidden arts and his mother had also been so charged and spent 14 months in prison. January 1 – King James I of England attends the masque The Golden Age Restored, the king asks for a repeat performance on January 6. In 1617, he will be made Earl of Buckingham, after the Earl of Pembroke, he is the 2nd richest nobleman in England. January 10 – English diplomat Sir Thomas Roe presents his credentials to the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, in Ajmer Fort, Roe sailed in the Lyon under the command of captain Christopher Newport, best known for his role in the Virginia colonies. January 15 – After overwintering with the Huron Indians, Samuel de Champlain and Recollect Father Joseph Le Caron visit the Petun and this is Champlains last trip in North America before returning to France. Having secured Canada, he helps create French America, New France, January 29 – Dutch captain Willem Schouten in the Eendracht rounds the southern tip of South America and names it Kaap Hoorn, after his birthplace in Holland. February – English merchants of the East India Company complain that the troubles and wars in Japan since their arrival have put them to much pains. February 1 – James I of England grants Ben Jonson an annual pension of 100 marks, february 19 – First recorded eruption of Mayon Volcano, the Philippines most active volcano. After long negotiations, the Jews are left without any compensation for their plundered belongings, march – Action of 1616, La Goulette, Tunisia, A Spanish squadron under Francisco de Ribera defeats a Tunisian fleet. March 5 – Nicolaus Copernicus De revolutionibus orbium coelestium is placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by the Congregation of the Index of the Roman Catholic Church until corrected. March 11 Galileo Galilei meets Pope Paul V in person, to discuss his position as a defender of Copernicus heliocentrism, the English Roman Catholic priest, Thomas Atkinson is hanged, drawn, and quartered at York, at age 70. The Scornful Lady, a stage play written by Francis Beaumont. March 26–August 30 – English explorer William Baffin, as pilot to Robert Bylot on the Discovery, the expedition also discovers Smith Sound, Lancaster Sound and Devon Island, and reaches latitude 77°45 North, a record which holds for 236 years. April 22 – Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra dies, april 23 – English playwright and poet William Shakespeare dies. April 25 – Sir John Coke, in the Court of Kings Bench, may 25 – King James I of Englands former favourite the Earl of Somerset and his wife Frances are convicted of the murder of Thomas Overbury in 1613. They are spared death and are sentenced to imprisonment in the Tower of London, the sale of peerages and the royal visit of Jamess brother-in-law, Christian IV of Denmark, a notorious drunkard, add further scandal. May 3 – The Treaty of Loudun is signed, ending a series of rebellions in France
11.
Amazon River
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The Amazon River, usually abbreviated to Amazon, in South America is the largest river by discharge of water in the world and, according to some authors, the longest in length. Brazilians call this section the Solimões River above its confluence with the Rio Negro to form what Brazilians call the Amazon at the Meeting of Waters at Manaus, the rivers largest city. The Amazon basin is the largest drainage basin in the world, the portion of the rivers drainage basin in Brazil alone is larger than any other rivers basin. The Amazon enters Brazil with only one-fifth of the flow it finally discharges into the Atlantic Ocean, during what many archaeologists call the formative stage, Amazonian societies were deeply involved in the emergence of South Americas highland agrarian systems. Early human settlements were based on low-lying hills or mounds. Shell mounds were the earliest evidences of inhabitation, they represent piles of refuse and are mainly dated between 7500 and 4000 years BP. They are associated with ceramic age cultures, no preceramic shell mounds have been documented so far by archaeologists, artificial earth platforms for entire villages are the second type of mounds. They are best represented by the Marajoara culture, figurative mounds are the most recent types of occupation. There is ample evidence that the surrounding the Amazon River were home to complex and large-scale indigenous societies, mainly chiefdoms who developed large towns. Archeologists estimate that by the time the Spanish conquistador De Orellana travelled across the Amazon in 1541 and these pre-Columbian settlements created highly developed civilizations. For instance, pre-Columbian indigenous people on the island of Marajó may have developed social stratification, in order to achieve this level of development, the indigenous inhabitants of the Amazon rainforest altered the forests ecology by selective cultivation and the use of fire. Scientists argue that by burning areas of the forest repetitiously, the people caused the soil to become richer in nutrients. This created dark soil areas known as terra preta de índio, further research has hypothesized that this practice began around 11,000 years ago. Some say that its effects on forest ecology and regional climate explain the otherwise inexplicable band of rainfall through the Amazon basin. Many indigenous tribes engaged in constant warfare, james Stuart Olson wrote, The Munduruku expansion dislocated and displaced the Kawahíb, breaking the tribe down into much smaller groups. First came to the attention of Europeans in 1770 when they began a series of attacks on Brazilian settlements along the Amazon River. In March 1500, Spanish conquistador Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first documented European to sail up the Amazon River. Pinzón called the stream Río Santa María del Mar Dulce, later shortened to Mar Dulce, literally, sweet sea, because of its fresh water pushing out into the ocean
12.
1808
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As of the start of 1808, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 12 – The organizational meeting leading to the creation of the Wernerian Natural History Society, January 22 – The Bragança Portuguese Royal Family arrives in Brazil, fleeing from the French army. February – Russia issues an ultimatum to Sweden to join Napoleons Continental System against Great Britain, february 2 – French troops occupy the Papal States. February 6 – The ship Topaz rediscovers the Pitcairn Islands, only one HMS Bounty mutineer is still alive, february 11 – Anthracite coal is first burned as residential heating fuel by Jesse Fell in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. February 21 – Finnish War, Russian troops cross the border into Finland without a declaration of war, march 2 – Russian troops occupy Helsinki and threaten Sveaborg. March 2 – The inaugural meeting of the Wernerian Natural History Society, march 8 – Brazil, With the arrival of the Portuguese royal family in Brazil, the colony became the seat of Portuguese Empire. March 11 – Russian troops occupy Tampere, march 13 – Upon the death of Christian VII, Frederick VI becomes king of Denmark. The next day, Denmark declares war on Sweden, march 19 – Charles IV of Spain abdicates in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. March 22 – Russian troops occupy Turku, april A volcano erupts from an unknown location in the western Pacific. This causes a drop in marine air temperatures during this year. The philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte publishes his Addresses to the German Nation, april 6 – John Jacob Astor incorporates the American Fur Company. April 16 – Troops under colonel Carl von Döbeln clash with Russian troops in Pyhäjoki, may 2 – Peninsular War, The people of Madrid rise up against the French troops. May 3 Finnish War, The fortress of Sveaborg is lost by Sweden to Russia, Peninsular War, The Madrid rebels who rose on May 2 are executed near Príncipe Pío Hill. June 12 – Finnish War, A landing of Swedish troops at Ala-Lemu, near Turku, june 19 – Finnish War, A second landing of Swedish troops at Ala-Lemu fails. June 30 – Finnish War, The Swedish archipelago fleet defeats the Russians in the battle of Turku. July 14 – Troops under Colonel Adlercreutz force the Russians to withdraw in Lapua, july 22 – French General Dupont surrenders to Spanish irregular forces following the Battle of Bailén. August 10 – Troops under Carl von Döbeln defeat a Russian attack in Kauhajoki, august 17 – Battle of Roliça, An Anglo-Portuguese army under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeat an outnumbered French army under General Henri Delaborde. August 21 – Battle of Vimeiro, British troops under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeat the French under General Jean-Andoche Junot, september 27 – The Congress of Erfurt between the emperors Napoleon I of France and Alexander I of Russia starts
13.
John Rennie the Elder
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John Rennie FRSE FRS was a Scottish civil engineer who designed many bridges, canals, and docks. His older brother George remained to assist in the agricultural business. He seems to have employed his vacations in working as a millwright, at this early date the originality of his mind was exhibited by the introduction of cast iron pinions instead of wooden trundles. In 1784 he took a journey south for the purpose of enlarging his knowledge, visiting James Watt at Soho, the machinery was all designed by Rennie, a distinguishing feature being the use of iron instead of wood for the shafting and framing. About 1791 he started in business as an engineer on his own account in Holland Street, Blackfriars, whence he. In 1791, he moved to London and set up his own engineering business, having by then begun to expand into civil engineering, the Kennet and Avon Canal including the Dundas Aqueduct, Caen Hill Locks and Crofton Pumping Station occupied him between 1794 and 1810. In 1802 he revised the plans for the Royal Canal of Ireland from Dublin to the Shannon near Longford, for many years he was engaged in extensive drainage operations in the Lincolnshire and Norfolk fens, and in the improvement of the River Witham. The Eau Brink Cut, a new channel for the River Ouse, was completed just before his death and his later efforts in this line also show that he was a skilful architect, endowed with a keen sense of beauty of design. Waterloo Bridge was considered his masterpiece and was the most prestigious bridge project in England, the Italian sculptor Canova called it ‘the noblest bridge in the world’ and said that ‘it is worth going to England solely to see Rennie’s bridge. Southwark Bridge was built as three cast-iron spans over the river and he also designed the Old Vauxhall Bridge. He devoted much time to the preparation of plans for a government dockyard at Northfleet, Rennies last project was London Bridge, still under construction when he died in 1821 but completed by his son, also John Rennie. Dunleary harbour of Asylum was a difficult and important project. Rennie was responsible for the construction of Howth Harbour on the North side of Dublin bay a decade earlier and this was originally planned as the landing for the Holyhead packets, but it silted up to such an extent that it became unfit for purpose. An Act of Parliament of 1816 authorised the building of Dunleary harbour and he was correct as the sand has built up behind the west pier. The harbour once built was renamed The Royal Harbour of Kingstown in 1821 on the occasion of the visit of George IV, the material for the harbour is Dalkey Hill granite. The granite was provided by Richard Toucher at no cost to the construction team, the foundations of the piers are 300-0 wide and 24-0 below low water level. Many options were considered for the width of the space between the two pier heads, Rennie wrote to the Harbour Commissioners that the opening should be 430-0 wide with the pier heads turned into the harbour to control swells within the harbour. His demands were never met and the opening was built at 1
14.
St Mary's Church, Reculver
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From the early 9th century to the 10th the church was treated as essentially a piece of property, with ownership passing between kings of Mercia and Wessex and the archbishops of Canterbury. By the time of Domesday Book, completed in 1086, St Marys was serving as a parish church, the church was much altered and expanded during the Middle Ages, the last addition, in the 15th century, was of north and south porches leading into the nave. The churchs twin towers were preserved by the intervention of Trinity House, some materials from the structure were incorporated into a replacement church, also dedicated to St Mary, built at Hillborough in the same parish. Much of the rest was used for the building of a new harbour wall at Margate and these are now kept in Canterbury Cathedral, and are among the features that have led to the church being described as an exemplar of Anglo-Saxon church architecture and sculpture. The first church known to have existed at Reculver was founded in 669, the building formed a nave measuring 37. The arches were formed using Roman tiles, but the columns were made for the rather than being Roman in origin. The presence of a stone bench around the inside of the apse has been attributed to influence from the Syrian Church, the walls of the church were rendered inside and out, giving them a plain appearance and hiding the masonry. The grant was made at Reculver, and the charter in which it was recorded was written by a Reculver scribe. In 692 Reculvers abbot Berhtwald was elected Archbishop of Canterbury, from which position he probably offered Reculver patronage, such records also provide the names of other abbots of Reculver, namely Æthelmær, Bære, Æthelheah, Dudeman, Beornwine, Baegmund, Daegmund and Beornhelm. By the early 9th century the monastery had become extremely wealthy, in 811 control of the monastery appears to have been in the hands of Archbishop Wulfred of Canterbury, who is recorded as having deprived it of some of its land. In that year a monumental showdown began between Archbishop Wulfred and King Coenwulf over the control of monasteries, featuring Reculver and Minster-in-Thanet in particular, one copy of the record of this agreement was preserved either at Reculver or at Lyminge. An army of Vikings spent the winter of 851 on the Isle of Thanet, Reculver, like most of the Kentish monasteries, lay in an exposed coastal location, and would have presented an obvious target for Vikings in search of treasure. Reculver may have remained home to a religious community into the 10th century and it is possible that the abbot and community of Reculver took refuge from the Vikings in Canterbury, as the abbess and community of Lyminge did in 804. The Church in East Kent seems broadly to have preserved its primary, character against all the odds, but evidence for the monastery at Reculver is lacking, by the 11th century the monastery had dropped out of sight entirely. The last abbot is recorded as Wenredus, although it is unknown when he was abbot and this may have been nothing more than a temporary resurgence of communal life at Reculver, at least for a period in the earlier eleventh century. The old minster. was provided as a refuge for a body of foreign clerics, by 1066 the monastery had become a parish church, with no baptismal function, and its territory had become part of the endowment of the archbishops of Canterbury. Domesday Book records the annual income from Reculver in 1086 as £42. 7s. This value can be compared with, for example, the £20 due to him from the manor of Maidstone, by the 13th century Reculver parish provided an ecclesiastical benefice of exceptional wealth, which led to disputes between lay and Church interests
15.
Coastal erosion
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Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, drainage or high winds. The study of erosion and sediment redistribution is called coastal morphodynamics and it may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion. On non-rocky coasts, coastal erosion results in rock formations in areas where the coastline contains rock layers or fracture zones with varying resistance to erosion. Softer areas become eroded much faster than harder ones, which result in landforms such as tunnels, bridges, columns. Over time the coast generally evens out, the softer areas fill up with sediment eroded from hard areas, and rock formations are eroded away. Also abrasion commonly happens in areas where there are strong winds, loose sand, the blowing of millions of sharp sand grains creates a sandblasting effect. This effect helps to erode, smooth and polish rocks, the definition of abrasion is grinding and wearing away of rock surfaces through the mechanical action of other rock or sand particles. A place where erosion of a cliffed coast has occurred is at Wamberal in the Central Coast region of New South Wales where houses built on top of the cliffs began to collapse into the sea. This is due to waves causing erosion of the sedimentary material on which the buildings foundations sit. Dunwich, the capital of the English medieval wool trade, disappeared over the period of a few due to redistribution of sediment by waves. The California coast, which has soft cliffs of sedimentary rock and is heavily populated, devils Slide, Santa Barbara, the coast just north of Ensenada, and Malibu are regularly affected. The Holderness coastline on the east coast of England, just north of the Humber Estuary, is one of the fastest eroding coastline in Europe due to its soft clay cliffs and powerful waves. Groynes and other measures to keep it under control has only accelerated the process further down the coast, because longshore drift starves the beaches of sand. The White Cliffs of Dover have also been affected, fort Ricasoli, a historic 17th century fortress in Malta is being threatened by coastal erosion, as it was built on a fault in the headland which is prone to erosion. A small part of one of the walls has already collapsed since the land under it has eroded. Hydraulic action occurs when striking a cliff face compress air in cracks on the cliff face. This exerts pressure on the rock, and can progressively splinter. Over time, the cracks can grow, sometimes forming a cave, the splinters fall to the sea bed where they are subjected to further wave action
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Anglo-Saxon architecture
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Anglo-Saxon architecture was a period in the history of architecture in England, and parts of Wales, from the mid-5th century until the Norman Conquest of 1066. Anglo-Saxon secular buildings in Britain were generally simple, constructed using timber with thatch for roofing. No universally accepted example survives above ground, there are, however, many remains of Anglo-Saxon church architecture. At least fifty churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin with major Anglo-Saxon architectural features, with many claiming to be, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small. It is often impossible to distinguish between pre- and post-Conquest 11th century work in buildings where most parts are later additions or alterations. The round-tower church and tower-nave church are distinctive Anglo-Saxon types, all surviving churches, except one timber church, are built of stone or brick, and in some cases show evidence of re-used Roman work. In recent decades historians have become less confident that all undocumented minor Romanesque features post-date the Norman Conquest. Although once common, it has been incorrect for decades to use the plain term Saxon for anything Anglo-Saxon that is later than the initial period of settlement in Britain. Early Anglo-Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, constructed using timber with thatch for roofing. Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities, the Anglo-Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, in each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth. The fall of Roman Britain at the beginning of the century, according to Bede, allowed an influx of invaders from northern Germany including the Angles. The Angles and the Saxons had their own religion, but Christianity was on its way, St Patrick, a Romano-British man, converted Ireland to Christianity, from where much of Western Scotland was converted and much of Northumbria was reconverted. The architecture though was initially influenced by Coptic monasticism, examples of this can be seen today in the form of rectangular dry-stone corbelled structures such as at Gallarus Oratory, Dingle and Illauntannig, Ireland. Christianity and Irish influence came to England through missionaries, in 635, a centre of Celtic Christianity was established at Lindisfarne, Northumbria, where St Aidan founded a monastery. In 597, the mission of Augustine from Rome came to England to convert the southern Anglo-Saxons, and founded the first cathedral and these churches consisted of a nave with side chambers. In 664 a synod was held at Whitby, Yorkshire, larger churches developed in the form of basilicas, for example at Brixworth. This was however, gradually elided by centuries of English dominance, subsequent Danish invasion marked a period of destruction of many buildings in Anglo-Saxon England, including in 793 the raid on Lindisfarne. Buildings including cathedrals were rebuilt, and the threat of conflict had an influence on the architecture of the time
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Anglo-Saxon art
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By the time of the Conquest the move to the Romanesque style is nearly complete. Anglo-Saxon art survives mostly in illuminated manuscripts, Anglo-Saxon architecture, a number of very fine ivory carvings, Anglo-Saxon taste favoured brightness and colour, and an effort of the imagination is often needed to see the excavated and worn remains that survive as they once were. Perhaps the best known piece of Anglo-Saxon art is the Bayeux Tapestry which was commissioned by a Norman patron from English artists working in the traditional Anglo-Saxon style and these two styles mixed and developed together and by the following century the resulting Anglo-Saxon style had reached maturity. The final phase of Anglo-Saxon art is known as the Winchester School or style, though it was produced in many centres in the south of England, elements of this begin to be seen from around 900, but the first major manuscripts only appear around the 930s. The following lines revert to a style more typical of Frankish manuscripts of the period. It is, in the chronology, the last English manuscript in which developed trumpet spiral patterns are found. The Anglo-Saxon metalwork produced in the Salzburg area of modern Austria has a counterpart in the Cutbercht Gospels in Vienna. By the 10th century Insular elements were relegated to decorative embellishments in England, the first plant ornament, with leaves and grapes, was already seen in an initial in the Leningrad Bede, which can probably be dated to 746. The other large initial in the manuscript is the first historiated initial in the whole of Europe, for some long time scrolls, especially in metal, bone or ivory, are prone to have an animal head at one end and a plant element at the other. Several ambitious projects of illumination are unfinished, such as the Old English Hexateuch, the illustrations give Old Testament scenes an entirely contemporary setting and are valuable images of Anglo-Saxon life. Æthelstan promoted Dunstan, an illuminator, eventually to Archbishop of Canterbury, and also Æthelwold. Illumination in a new style appears in a manuscript of the biographies by Bede of St Cuthbert given by Æthelstan to the monastery in Chester-le-Street about 937. There is a portrait of the king presenting his book to the saint. This is the first real portrait of an English king, and heavily influenced by Carolingian style, however the initials in the text combine Carolingian elements with animal forms in inventive fashion. Anglo-Saxon culture was coming into increasing contact with, and exchanging influences with, decoration included cloisonné, in gold and garnet for high-status pieces. It was probably his work which brought into contact with the royal family. Even the imprecise details given, mostly by Goscelin, are valuable evidence of what Anglo-Saxon metalwork was like. One 11th century lay goldsmith was even a thegn, like Spearhafoc, Mannigs biography, with some precise details, is given in the chronicle maintained by his abbey
