1.
December
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December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars. It is the seventh and last month to have the length of 31 days, December got its name from the Latin word decem because it was originally the tenth month of the year in the Roman calendar, which began in March. The winter days following December were not included as part of any month, later, the months of January and February were created out of the monthless period and added to the beginning of the calendar, but December retained its name. In Ancient Rome, one of the four Agonalia, this day in honor of Sol Indiges was held on December 11 and these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar. The Anglo-Saxons referred to December/January as Ġēolamonaþ, the French Republican Calendar contained December within the months of Frimaire and Nivôse. December contains the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the day with the fewest daylight hours, and the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere, December in the Northern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to June in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa. In the Northern hemisphere, the beginning of the winter is traditionally 21 December or the date of the solstice. The zodiac signs for the month of December are Sagittarius and Capricorn, decembers birth flower is the narcissus. Decembers birthstones are the turquoise, zircon, and tanzanite and this list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance. December 18, Amavasya In Catholic tradition, December is the Month of the Advent of Christ
2.
January
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January is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the first month to have the length of 31 days. The first day of the month is known as New Years Day and it is, on average, the coldest month of the year within most of the Northern Hemisphere and the warmest month of the year within most of the Southern Hemisphere. In the Southern hemisphere, January is the equivalent of July in the Northern hemisphere. Ancient Roman observances during this month include Cervula, and Juvenalia, celebrated January 1 and these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar. January is named after the Latin word for door, since January is the door to the year, traditionally, the original Roman calendar consisted of 10 months totaling 304 days, winter being considered a month-less period. Around 713 BC, the successor of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius, is supposed to have added the months of January and February. Although March was originally the first month in the old Roman calendar, in contrast, each specific calendar year was identified by the names of the two consuls, who entered office on May 1 or March 15 until 153 BC, from when they entered office on January 1. Various Christian feast dates were used for the New Year in Europe during the Middle Ages, including March 25, however, medieval calendars were still displayed in the Roman fashion with twelve columns from January to December. Historical names for January include its original Roman designation, Ianuarius, in Slovene, it is traditionally called január. The name, associated with millet bread and the act of asking for something, was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript. According to Theodor Mommsen,1 January became the first day of the year in 600 AUC of the Roman calendar, a Lusitanian chief called Punicus invaded the Roman territory, defeated two Roman governors, and killed their troops. The Romans resolved to send a consul to Hispania, and in order to accelerate the dispatch of aid, januarys birthstone is the garnet, which represents constancy. Its birth flower is the cottage pink Dianthus caryophyllus or galanthus, the Chinese floral emblem of January is the Prunus mume. The Japanese floral emblem of January is the camellia, the photograph of a large tree covered with ice against a blue sky is a familiar scene during Finlands winter. The zodiac signs for the month of January are Capricorn and Aquarius, all Jewish observances begin on sundown of the day before the date listed and end on sundown of the day listed
3.
February
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February is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. It is the shortest month of the year as it is the month to have a length of less than 30 days. The month has 28 days in common years or 29 days in leap years, February is the third month of meteorological winter in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, February is the last month of summer, February may be pronounced either as. Many people pronounce it as, as if it were spelled Feb-u-ary and this comes about by analogy with January, as well as by a dissimilation effect whereby having two rs close to each other causes one to change for ease of pronunciation. The Roman month Februarius was named after the Latin term februum, January and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period. They were added by Numa Pompilius about 713 BC, February remained the last month of the calendar year until the time of the decemvirs, when it became the second month. At certain intervals February was truncated to 23 or 24 days, the Straight Dope, How come February has only 28 days
4.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
5.
Leap year
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A leap year is a calendar year containing one additional day added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year. By inserting an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected, a year that is not a leap year is called a common year. For example, in the Gregorian calendar, each year has 366 days instead of the usual 365. In the Bahai Calendar, a day is added when needed to ensure that the following year begins on the vernal equinox. For example, Christmas Day fell on a Tuesday in 2001, Wednesday in 2002, the length of a day is also occasionally changed by the insertion of leap seconds into Coordinated Universal Time, owing to the variability of Earths rotational period. Unlike leap days, leap seconds are not introduced on a regular schedule, in the Gregorian calendar, the standard calendar in most of the world, most years that are multiples of 4 are leap years. In each leap year, the month of February has 29 days instead of 28, adding an extra day to the calendar every four years compensates for the fact that a period of 365 days is shorter than a tropical year by almost 6 hours. Some exceptions to this rule are required since the duration of a tropical year is slightly less than 365.25 days. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 were not leap years, over a period of four centuries, the accumulated error of adding a leap day every four years amounts to about three extra days. The Gregorian calendar therefore removes three leap days every 400 years, which is the length of its leap cycle and this is done by removing February 29 in the three century years that cannot be exactly divided by 400. The years 1600,2000 and 2400 are leap years, while 1700,1800,1900,2100,2200 and 2300 are common years, by this rule, the average number of days per year is 365 + 1⁄4 − 1⁄100 + 1⁄400 =365.2425. The rule can be applied to years before the Gregorian reform, the Gregorian calendar was designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter remains close to the vernal equinox. The Accuracy section of the Gregorian calendar article discusses how well the Gregorian calendar achieves this design goal, the following pseudocode determines whether a year is a leap year or a common year in the Gregorian calendar. The year variable being tested is the representing the number of the year in the Gregorian calendar. Care should be taken in translating mathematical integer divisibility into specific programming languages, if then else if then else if then else February 29 is a date that usually occurs every four years, and is called leap day. This day is added to the calendar in leap years as a corrective measure, the Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a calendar and named many of its days after the syzygies of the moon, the new moon. The Nonae or nones was not the first quarter moon but was exactly one nundina or Roman market week of nine days before the ides and this is what we would call a period of eight days
6.
Nika riots
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The Nika riots, or Nika revolt, was a revolt against Emperor Justinian I that took place over the course of a week in Constantinople in AD532. It was the most violent riot in the history of Constantinople, with half the city being burned or destroyed. There were initially four major teams of chariot racing, differentiated by the colour of the uniform in which they competed. These were the Blues, the Greens, the Reds, Emperor Justinian I was a supporter of the Blues. The team associations had become a focus for social and political issues for which the general Byzantine population lacked other forms of outlet. They combined aspects of street gangs and political parties, taking positions on current issues and they frequently tried to affect the policy of the emperors by shouting political demands between races. In 531 some members of the Blues and Greens had been arrested for murder in connection with deaths that occurred during rioting after a recent chariot race. Relatively limited riots were not unknown at chariot races, similar to the football hooliganism that occasionally erupts after association football matches in modern times, the murderers were to be hanged, and most of them were. But on January 10,532, two of them, a Blue and a Green, escaped and were taking refuge in the sanctuary of a surrounded by an angry mob. Facing this, he declared that a race would be held on January 13. The Blues and Greens responded by demanding that the two men be pardoned entirely, on January 13,532, a tense and angry populace arrived at the Hippodrome for the races. The Hippodrome was next to the complex, and thus Justinian could watch from the safety of his box in the palace. From the start, the crowd had been hurling insults at Justinian, by the end of the day, at race 22, the partisan chants had changed from Blue or Green to a unified Nίκα, and the crowds broke out and began to assault the palace. For the next five days, the palace was under siege, the fires that started during the tumult resulted in the destruction of much of the city, including the citys foremost church, the Hagia Sophia. Some of the senators saw this as an opportunity to overthrow Justinian, as they were opposed to his new taxes and they then declared a new emperor, Hypatius, who was a nephew of former Emperor Anastasius I. Justinian, in despair, considered fleeing, but his wife Theodora is said to have dissuaded him, saying, never will I see the day when I am not saluted as empress. As Justinian rallied himself, he created a plan that involved Narses, carrying a bag of gold given to him by Justinian, the slightly built eunuch entered the Hippodrome alone and unarmed, against a murderous mob that had already killed hundreds. Narses went directly to the Blues section, where he approached the important Blues and he also reminded them that the man they were crowning, Hypatius, was a Green
7.
Constantinople
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Constantinople was the capital city of the Roman/Byzantine Empire, and also of the brief Latin, and the later Ottoman empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 AD from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. The first wall of the city was erected by Constantine I, Constantinople never truly recovered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and the decades of misrule by the Latins. The origins of the name of Byzantion, more known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear. The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was likely just a play on the word Byzantion. During this time, the city was also called Second Rome, Eastern Rome, and Roma Constantinopolitana. As the city became the remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew. In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently, the medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr, and later Miklagard and Miklagarth. In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al-kubra and in Persian as Takht-e Rum, in East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople was referred to as Tsargrad or Carigrad, City of the Caesar, from the Slavonic words tsar and grad. This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις, the modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin, meaning into the city or to the city. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script, in time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages. In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpolis/Konstantinoúpoli or simply just the City, apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement, except that it was abandoned by the time the Megarian colonists settled the site anew. A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c.150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Constantinople was built over 6 years, and consecrated on 11 May 330, Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis
8.
1435
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Year 1435 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. January 11 – Swedens first Riksdag of the Estates is summoned under rebel leader Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, february 2 – The Kingdom of Naples passes to Aragon under René of Anjou. October 14 – Eric of Pomerania is reinstated as king of Sweden, however only briefly, francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy. China returns to a policy of isolation, gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia explore the coast of Africa as far as the Angra dos Ruivos
9.
Sicut Dudum
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Sicut Dudum was meant to reinforce Creator Omnium, issued the previous year, condemning Portuguese slave raids in the Canary Islands. Christianity had gained many converts in the Canary Islands by the early 1430s, however, the lack of effective control had resulted in periodic raids on the islands to procure slaves. Eugene excommunicated anyone who enslaved newly converted Christians, the penalty to stand until the captive was restored to their liberty and these people are to be totally and perpetually free, and are to be let go without the exaction or reception of money. The specific reference to Spanish bishops and Bishop Ferdinand of San Marcial del Rubicón in Lanzarote suggests that the Portuguese were not the ones engaged in slave raids in the Canaries. Joel S Panzer views Sicut Dudum as a significant condemnation of slavery, eugene tempered Sicut Dudum with another bull due to the complaints made by King Duarte of Portugal, that allowed the Portuguese to conquer any unconverted parts of the Canary Islands. The king suggested that Portugal be authorized to evangelize and civilize the islands, political weakness compelled the Renaissance Papacy to adopt an acquiescent and unchallenging position when approached for requests for privileges in favour of these ventures. Without a navy of his own to police the islands, the Pope opted in favor of the Portuguese as the lesser of two evils. In 1476 Pope Sixtus IV reiterated the concerns expressed in Sicut Dudum in his papal bull,10 August 2009 Development or Reversal. First Things Magazine, October 2005 Panzer, Joel S, the Popes and Slavery, Homiletic & Pastoral Review Sicut dudum, English translation
10.
Guanches
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Guanches refer to the aboriginal Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands. It is believed that they migrated to the archipelago around 1000 BC or perhaps earlier, the native term guanchinet literally translated means person of Tenerife. It was modified, according to Juan Núñez de la Peña, though etymologically being an ancient, Tenerife-specific, term, the word Guanche is now mostly used to refer to the pre-Hispanic aboriginal inhabitants of the entire archipelago. If this account is accurate, it may suggest that the Guanches were not the inhabitants, or the first ones. Strictly speaking, the Guanches were the peoples of Tenerife. The population seems to have lived in isolation up to the time of the Castilian conquest. The name came to be applied to the populations of all the seven Canary Islands. The first reliable account of the Guanche language was provided by the Genoese explorer Nicoloso da Recco in 1341, inscriptions, glyphs and rock paintings and carvings are quite abundant throughout the islands. Petroglyphs attributed to various Mediterranean civilizations have been found on some of the islands, in 1878 Dr. René Verneau discovered rock carvings in the ravines of Las Balos that resemble Libyan or Numidian writing dating from the time of Roman occupation or earlier. In other locations, Libyco-Berber script has been identified, the geographic accounts of Pliny the Elder and of Strabo mention the Fortunate Isles but do not report anything about their populations. Among the villagers, one did speak Arabic and asked them where they came from, then the king of the village ordered them to bring them back to the continent where they were surprised to be welcomed by Berbers. Apart from the marvelous and fanciful content of history, this account would suggest that Guanches had sporadic contacts with populations from the mainland. Al-Idrisi also described the Guanche men as tall and of a reddish-brown complexion, the Castilian conquest of the Canary Islands began in 1402, with the expedition of Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle to the island of Lanzarote. Gadifer would invade Lanzarote and Fuerteventura with ease since many of the aboriginals, faced issues of starvation and poor agriculture. The other five islands fought back, el Hierro and the Bimbache population were the next to fall, then La Gomera, Gran Canaria, La Palma and in 1496, Tenerife. In the First Battle of Acentejo, called La Matanza, Guanches ambushed the Castilians in a valley, only one in five of the Castilians survived, including the leader of the expedition, Alonso Fernandez de Lugo. Lugo would return later to the island with the alliance of the kings of the part of the island. The northern Menceyatos or provinces fell after the Second Battle of Acentejo with the defeat of the successor of Bencomo, Bentor, Mencey of Taoro – what is now the Orotava Valley – in 1496
11.
Canary Islands
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The Canary Islands, also known as the Canaries, are an archipelago and autonomous community of Spain located on the Atlantic Ocean,100 kilometres west of Morocco. The Canaries are among the outermost regions of the European Union proper and it is also one of the eight regions with special consideration of historical nationality recognized as such by the Spanish Government. The main islands are Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera, the archipelago also includes a number of islands and islets, La Graciosa, Alegranza, Isla de Lobos, Montaña Clara, Roque del Oeste and Roque del Este. In ancient times, the chain was often referred to as the Fortunate Isles. The Canary Islands is the most southerly region of Spain and the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region, the islands have a subtropical climate, with long hot summers and moderately warm winters. The precipitation levels and the level of maritime moderation varies depending on location and elevation, green areas as well as desert exist on the archipelago. Due to their location above the inversion layer, the high mountains of these islands are ideal for astronomical observation. For this reason, two professional observatories, Teide Observatory on the island of Tenerife and Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, have built on the islands. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since 1768, between the 1833 territorial division of Spain and 1927 Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927 a decree ordered that the capital of the Canary Islands be shared, the third largest city of the Canary Islands is San Cristóbal de La Laguna on Tenerife. This city is home to the Consejo Consultivo de Canarias. During the time of the Spanish Empire, the Canaries were the main stopover for Spanish galleons on their way to the Americas, who came south to catch the prevailing northeasterly trade winds. The name Islas Canarias is likely derived from the Latin name Canariae Insulae, meaning Islands of the Dogs, according to the historian Pliny the Elder, the Mauretanian king Juba II named the island Canaria because it contained vast multitudes of dogs of very large size. Another speculation is that the dogs were actually a species of monk seal, critically endangered. The dense population of seals may have been the characteristic that most struck the few ancient Romans who established contact with these islands by sea. Alternatively, it is said that the inhabitants of the island, Guanches, used to worship dogs, mummified them. The ancient Greeks also knew about a people, living far to the west, who are the dog-headed ones, who worshipped dogs on an island. Some hypothesize that the Canary Islands dog-worship and the ancient Egyptian cult of the god, Anubis are closely connected
12.
Pope Eugene IV
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Pope Eugene IV, born Gabriele Condulmer, was Pope from 3 March 1431 to his death in 1447. He is the last pope to take the name Eugene upon his election, Condulmer was born in Venice to a rich merchant family. He entered a community of Canons Regular of San Giorgio in Alga in his native city, at the age of twenty-four he was appointed by his maternal uncle, Pope Gregory XII, as Bishop of Siena. In Siena, the political leaders objected to a bishop who was not only 24, therefore, he resigned the appointment, becoming instead his uncles papal treasurer, protonotary and Cardinal Priest of the Basilica of San Clemente. Pope Martin V named him Cardinal Priest of the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere and he also served as papal legate at Picenum in the March of Ancona. Condulmer was quickly elected to succeed Martin V in the conclave of 1431. He was crowned as Eugene IV at St. Peters Basilica on 11 March 1431 and he is described as tall, thin, with a winning countenance, although many of his troubles were owing to his own want of tact, which alienated parties from him. Upon assuming the chair, Eugene IV took violent measures against the numerous Colonna relatives of his predecessor Martin V. This at once involved him in a serious contest with the house of Colonna that nominally supported the local rights of Rome against the interests of the Papacy. By far the most important feature of Eugene IVs pontificate was the struggle between the Pope and the Council of Basel, the final embodiment of the Conciliar movement. On 23 July 1431, his legate Giuliano Cesarini opened the council, canon Beaupère of Besançon, who had been sent from Basle to Rome, gave the pope an unfavourable and exaggerated account of the temper of the people of Basle and its environs. Distrustful of its purposes and emboldened by the attendance, the Pope issued a bull on 18 December 1431 that dissolved the council. The council resisted this expression of papal prerogative, Eugene IVs action gave some weight to the contention that the Curia was opposed to any authentic measures of reform. The council refused to dissolve, instead renewed the resolutions by which the Council of Constance had declared a council superior to the Pope. A compromise was arranged by the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, who had been crowned emperor at Rome on 31 May 1433 and this situation led also to establishment of an insurrectionary republic at Rome controlled by the Colonna family. The city was restored to obedience by Giovanni Vitelleschi, the militant Bishop of Recanati, in August 1435 a peace treaty was signed at Ferrara by the various belligerents. The Pope moved to Bologna in April 1436 and his condottieri Francesco Sforza and Vitelleschi in the meantime reconquered much of the Papal States. Traditional Papal enemies such as the Prefetti di Vico were destroyed, meanwhile, the struggle with the council sitting at Basel broke out anew
13.
1547
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Year 1547 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. January 8 – the first Lithuanian-language book, Simple Words of Catechism is published in Königsberg, january 16 – Grand Duke Ivan IV of Muscovy becomes the first Tsar of Russia, replacing the 264-year-old Grand Duchy of Moscow with the Tsardom of Russia. January 28 – Edward VI succeeds his father Henry VIII as King of England, february 20 – Edward VI of England is crowned at Westminster Abbey. March 31 – Henry II succeeds his father Francis I as King of France, april 4 – Catherine Parr, widow of King Henry VIII of England, secretly marries Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley. April 24 – Battle of Mühlberg, Emperor Charles V defeats the Lutheran forces of the Schmalkaldic League, august 13 – The Duchy of Brittany unites with the Kingdom of France. September 10 – Battle of Pinkie Cleugh, An English army under the Duke of Somerset, Lord Protector of England, defeats a Scottish army under James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, the first book in the Lithuanian language is printed. Huguenots increasingly immigrate to the English county of Kent, especially Canterbury, the Chambre Ardente is established in Paris for trying heretics. Work on construction of the Château de Chambord in the Loire Valley for Francis I of France ceases, john Dee visits the Low Countries to study navigation with Gemma Frisius. Edward VI of England outlaws execution by boiling
14.
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey
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Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, KG, was an English aristocrat and one of the founders of English Renaissance poetry. He was a first cousin of both Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, the second and fifth wives of King Henry VIII. Like his father and grandfather, he was a brave and able soldier, serving in Henry VIIIs French wars as Lieutenant General of the King on Sea and Land. He was repeatedly imprisoned for rash behaviour, on one occasion for striking a courtier and he assumed the title Earl of Surrey in 1524 when his grandfather died and his father became Duke of Norfolk. In 1532 he accompanied his first cousin Anne Boleyn, the King, in 1536 Surrey also served with his father against the Pilgrimage of Grace rebellion protesting against the Dissolution of the Monasteries. He married Frances de Vere, the daughter of John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford and they had two sons and three daughters, Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, married Mary FitzAlan Margaret Audley Elizabeth Leyburne. Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton, who died unmarried, jane Howard, who married Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland. Margaret Howard, who married Henry Scrope, 9th Baron Scrope of Bolton, katherine Howard, who married Henry Berkeley, 7th Baron Berkeley. The Howards had little regard for the new men who had risen to power at court, such as Thomas Cromwell, Surrey was less circumspect than his father in concealing his disdain. The Howards had many enemies at court, Henry VIII, consumed by paranoia and increasing illness, became convinced that Surrey had planned to usurp the crown from his son Edward. The King had Surrey imprisoned and his father sentenced to death on 13 January 1547, Surrey was beheaded on 19 January 1547 on a charge of treasonably quartering the royal arms. His father survived impending execution only by it being set for the day after the king happened to die, surreys son Thomas became heir to the dukedom of Norfolk instead, inheriting it on the 3rd dukes death in 1554. He is buried in a spectacular painted alabaster tomb in the church of St Michael the Archangel, together, Wyatt and Surrey, due to their excellent translations of Petrarchs sonnets, are known as Fathers of the English Sonnet. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey was portrayed by actor David OHara in The Tudors, house of Treason, the Rise and Fall of a Tudor Dynasty. A Tudor Tragedy, Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, the Ebbs and Flows of Fortune, Life of Thomas Howard, the Duke of Norfolk. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 23–28, Henry VIIIs Last Victim, The Life and Times. Selected Poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, the Poems of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. —with a memoir by the editor Brigden, Susan
15.
1607
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As of the start of 1607, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 13 – The Bank of Genoa fails after the announcement of bankruptcy in Spain. February 24 – Première of Claudio Monteverdis LOrfeo, the earliest fully developed opera in the modern-day repertoire, march 10 – Susenyos defeats the combined armies of Yaqob and Abuna Petros II at the Battle of Gol in Gojjam, which makes him Emperor of Ethiopia. April 25 – Battle of Gibraltar, A Dutch fleet destroys a Spanish fleet anchored in the Bay of Gibraltar, april 26 – English colonists make landfall at Cape Henry, Virginia, later moving up the James River. May 14 – Jamestown, Virginia, is established as the first permanent English settlement in North America, may 15 – Jamestown, Christopher Newport, George Percy, Gabriel Archer, and others travel 6 days exploring along the James River up to the falls and Powhatans village. 200 armed Indians attack the Jamestown settlement, killing 2 and wounding 10, may 28 – Jamestown, The Fort is pallisadoed, we laboured, pallozadoing our fort. June 5 – John Hall marries Susanna, daughter of William Shakespeare, june 10 – Jamestown, Captain John Smith is released from arrest and sworn in as a member of the colony Council. We had made our selves sufficiently strong for these Savages and we had also sowne most of our Corne on two Mountaines. June 22 – Christopher Newport sails back to England, june 27 – Jamestown, The colony bears extreme toil in strengthening the fort. August 13 – The ship Gift of God of the Plymouth Company arrives at the mouth of the modern-day Kennebec River in Maine, English colonists establish Fort St. George, also known as the Popham Colony. The settlement lasts little more than a year, before return to England in the first oceangoing ship built in the New World. September 10 – Jamestown President Edward Maria Wingfield is deposed and John Ratcliffe elected, december – Captain John Smith of the Jamestown Colony is captured by Opchancanough and then sent to Chief Powhatan for execution, Pocahontas rescues him. The rule of Andorra passes jointly to the king of France, Yaqob is defeated in battle and deposed by his cousin Susenyos, who then becomes Emperor of Ethiopia. In the Midland Revolt against Enclosures in England, the term Levellers is first used, missionary Juan Fonte establishes the first Jesuit mission among the Tarahumara, in the Sierra Madre Mountains of Northwest Mexico
16.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
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Sovereign default
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A sovereign default is the failure or refusal of the government of a sovereign state to pay back its debt in full. Cessation of due payments may either be accompanied by formal declaration of a government not to pay its debts, or it may be unannounced. A credit rating agency will take into account in its gradings capital, interest, extraneous and procedural defaults, countries have at times escaped the real burden of some of their debt through inflation. This is not default in the usual sense because the debt is honored and this can be done by printing more money to apply toward their own debts, or by ending or altering the convertibility of their currencies into precious metals or foreign currency at fixed rates. Harder to quantify than an interest or capital default, this often is defined as an extraneous or procedural default of terms of the contracts or other instruments. If potential lenders or bond purchasers begin to suspect that a government may fail to pay back its debt, a dramatic rise in the interest rate faced by a government due to fear that it will fail to honor its debt is sometimes called a sovereign debt crisis. Since a sovereign government, by definition, controls its own affairs, nonetheless, governments may face severe pressure from lending countries. For example, Britain invaded Egypt in 1882, other examples include the United States gunboat diplomacy in Venezuela in the mid-1890s and the United States occupation of Haiti beginning in 1915. Therefore, governments rarely default on the value of their debt. Instead, they enter into negotiations with their bondholders to agree on a delay or partial reduction of their debt. In the case of Greece, these experts generally believe that a delay in organising an orderly default would hurt the rest of Europe even more, the International Monetary Fund often lends for sovereign debt restructuring. A recent example is the Greek bailout agreement of May 2010, such willful defaults can be considered a variety of sovereign theft, this is similar to expropriation. Some also believe that sovereign default is a side of globalization. To declare insolvency, it is sufficient if the state is able to pay part of its due interest or to clear off only part of the debt. This budget balance/margin was covered through new indebtedness with national and foreign citizens, banks, the literature proposes an important distinction between illiquidity and insolvency. If a country is unable to meet pending interest or principle payments because it can not liquify sufficient assets. In this concept the default can be solved as soon as the assets which are only temporarily illiquid become liquid, the weakness of this concept is that is practically impossible to prove that an asset is only temporarily illiquid. Important examples are, default of debts of the Bourbon France after the French Revolution, Default of bonds through Denmark in 1850, which were issued by the government of Holstein instated by the German Confederation
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1793
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January 7 – The Ebel riot in Sweden. January 9 – Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first to fly in a gas balloon in the United States, January 21 – After being found guilty of treason by the French National Convention, Citizen Capet, Louis XVI of France, is guillotined in Paris. January 23 – Second Partition of Poland, The Russian Empire, february 1 – French Revolutionary Wars, France declares war on Great Britain and the Netherlands. February 25 – George Washington holds the first Cabinet meeting as President of the United States, february 27 – The Giles resolutions are introduced to the United States House of Representatives, asking the House to condemn Alexander Hamiltons handling of loans. March 1–3 – John Langdon serves as President pro tempore of the United States Senate, march 4 – George Washington is sworn in as President of the United States in Philadelphia for his second term. March 5 – French troops are defeated by Austrian forces and Liège is recaptured, march 7 – France declares war on Spain. March 18 Second Battle of Neerwinden, A Coalition army of Habsburg Austria, the first republican state in Germany, the Republic of Mainz, is declared by Andreas Joseph Hofmann. April 6 – The Committee of Public Safety is established in France with Georges Danton as its head, april 22 – George Washington signs the Neutrality Proclamation. June – The Macartney Embassy, a British diplomatic mission to China led by George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney, reaches Canton, june 2 – The Girondins are overthrown in France. June 10 – The Jardin des Plantes and the Muséum national dhistoire naturelle are created by the National Convention, the museum opens in Paris the following year and the garden houses one of the first public zoos. July 9 – The Act Against Slavery is passed in Upper Canada, july 13 – Charlotte Corday kills Jean-Paul Marat in his bath. July 17 – Charlotte Corday is executed, july 29 – John Graves Simcoe decides to build a fort and settlement at Toronto, having sailed into the bay there. August 1–November 9 – The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 hits Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,5,000 die, august 10 – French Revolution – Feast of Unity, Crowds in Paris burn monarchist emblems. The Louvre is officially opened in Paris, France, august 23 – The following universal conscription decree is enacted in France, The young men shall go to battle and the married men shall forge arms. The women shall make tents and clothes and shall serve in the hospitals, the old men will be guided to the public places of the cities to kindle the courage of the young warriors and to preach the unity of the Republic and the hatred of kings. September 5 – French Revolution – The National Convention begins the 10-month Reign of Terror, september 8 – The first Círio de Nazaré is celebrated in Belém. October 5 – French Revolutionary Wars, Raid on Genoa – The British Royal Navy boards, october 15–16 – French Revolution, Battle of Wattignies – A French Republican force commanded by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan compels a Habsburg Austrian Coalition army to retire. October 24 – The French Republican Calendar is adopted by the National Convention, november 10 – The dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution reaches a climax with the celebration of the Goddess Reason in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris
