1.
John Bell Hood
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John Bell Hood was a Confederate general during the American Civil War. Hood had a reputation for bravery and aggressiveness that sometimes bordered on recklessness, Hoods education at the United States Military Academy led to a career as a junior officer in both the infantry and cavalry of the antebellum U. S. Army in California and Texas. At the start of the Civil War, he offered his services to his state of Texas. He achieved his reputation for leadership as a brigade commander in the army of Robert E. Lee during the Seven Days Battles in 1862. He led a division under James Longstreet in the campaigns of 1862–63, at the Battle of Gettysburg, he was severely wounded, rendering his left arm useless for the rest of his life. Hood returned to service during the Atlanta Campaign of 1864. There, he dissipated his army in a series of bold, calculated, but unfortunate assaults, Gen. George H. Thomas, after which he was relieved of command. After the war, Hood moved to Louisiana and worked as a cotton broker, John Bell Hood was born in Owingsville, Kentucky, the son of John Wills Hood, a doctor, and Theodosia French Hood. He was a cousin of future Confederate general G. W. Smith, French obtained an appointment for Hood at the United States Military Academy, despite his fathers reluctance to support a military career for his son. Hood graduated in 1853, ranked 44th in a class of 52 that originally numbered 96, at West Point and in later Army years, he was known to friends as Sam. McPherson and John M. Schofield, he received instruction in artillery from George H. Thomas and these three men became Union Army generals who would oppose Hood in battle. The superintendent in 1852–55 was Col. Robert E. Lee and he was later promoted to first lieutenant in August 1858. Hood resigned from the United States Army immediately after the Battle of Fort Sumter and, dissatisfied with the neutrality of his native Kentucky and he joined the Confederate army as a cavalry captain, then was promoted to major and sent to command Brigadier General John B. Magruders cavalry in the lower Virginia Peninsula, Hood and his horsemen took part in a brilliant July 12 skirmish at Newport News, capturing 12 men of the 7th New York Regiment of Volunteers as well as two deserters from Fort Monroe. They received high praise from Generals Lee and Magruder, by September 30, the Texan was promoted to be colonel of the 4th Texas Infantry. At the Battle of Elthams Landing, his men were instrumental in nullifying an amphibious landing by a Union division, Hood replied, I suppose, General, they would have driven them into the river, and tried to swim out and capture the gunboats. The Texas Brigade was held in reserve at Seven Pines, while Hood escaped the battle without an injury, every other field officer in his brigade was killed or wounded. In the pursuit of Union forces, Hood was involved in a dispute over captured ambulances with a superior officer, Evans arrested Hood, but Gen. Lee intervened and retained him in service
2.
Mathew Brady
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Mathew B. Brady was one of the first American photographers, best known for his scenes of the Civil War. He studied under inventor Samuel F. B, Morse, who pioneered the daguerreotype technique in America. Brady opened his own studio in New York in 1844, and photographed Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams, when the Civil War started, his use of a mobile studio and darkroom enabled vivid battlefield photographs that brought home the reality of war to the public. Thousands of war scenes were captured, as well as portraits of generals, after the war, these pictures went out of fashion, and the government did not purchase the master-copies as he had anticipated. Brady’s fortunes declined sharply, and he died in debt, Brady was born on May 18,1822 in Warren County, New York near Lake George, the youngest of three children of Irish immigrant parents, Andrew and Samantha Julia Brady. He himself originally said that he was born in Ireland, at age 16, Brady moved to Saratoga, New York, where he met portrait painter William Page, and became Pages student. In 1839, the two traveled to Albany, New York, and then to New York City, where Brady continued to study painting with Page, and also with Pages former teacher, Samuel F. B. Morse. Morse had met Louis Jacques Daguerre in France in 1839, at first, Bradys involvement was limited to manufacturing leather cases that held daguerreotypes. But soon he became the center of the New York artistic colony that wished to study photography, Morse opened a studio and offered classes, Brady was one of the first students. In 1849, he opened a studio in Washington, D. C. where he met Juliet Handy, in 1850, Brady produced The Gallery of Illustrious Americans, a portrait collection of prominent contemporary figures. The album, which featured noteworthy images including the elderly Andrew Jackson at the Hermitage, was not financially rewarding but invited increased attention to Brady’s work, in 1856, Brady placed an ad in the New York Herald offering to produce photographs, ambrotypes and daguerreotypes. This inventive ad pioneered, in the USA, the use of typeface and fonts that were distinct from the text of the publication, at first, the effect of the Civil War on Bradys business was a brisk increase in sales of cartes de visite to departing soldiers. However, he was taken with the idea of documenting the war itself. He first applied to an old friend, General Winfield Scott, for permission to travel to the battle sites, Lincoln granted permission in 1861, with the proviso that Brady finance the project himself. His efforts to document the American Civil War on a grand scale by bringing his photographic studio onto the battlefields earned Brady his place in history, despite the dangers, financial risk, and discouragement by his friends, Brady was later quoted as saying I had to go. A spirit in my feet said Go, and I went and his first popular photographs of the conflict were at the First Battle of Bull Run, in which he got so close to the action that he barely avoided capture. While most of the time the battle had ceased before pictures were taken, Brady came under fire at the First Battle of Bull Run, Petersburg. He also employed Alexander Gardner, James Gardner, Timothy H. OSullivan, William Pywell, George N. Barnard, roche, and seventeen other men, each of whom was given a traveling darkroom, to go out and photograph scenes from the Civil War
3.
Andrew Stevenson
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Andrew Stevenson was a Democratic politician in the United States. He served in the United States House of Representatives representing Virginia, as Speaker of the House, Andrew Stevenson was born in Culpeper County, Virginia on January 21,1784. He was educated at the College of William and Mary, studied law, Stevenson was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1809 to 1816 and 1818 to 1821. He served as Speaker of the House of Delegates from 1812 to 1815, in 1814 and 1816 he was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress. In 1820 Stevenson won election to the United States House of Representatives, from 1827 to 1834 he was the Speaker of the House. Stevenson began his Congressional career as a Democratic-Republican, as the Democratic-Republican Party began to split in the 1820s and 1830s and reorganized as the Democratic Party, he won reelection as a Crawford Republican, and then as a Jacksonian. Stevenson resigned from Congress in June 1834 to accept appointment as Minister to the United Kingdom, in June of that year the United States Senate denied him confirmation by a vote of 23 to 22. In the Anti-Jacksonian view, this amounted to a quid pro quo that allowed executive branch interference with the prerogatives of the legislative branch and he returned to Virginia and resumed the practice of law. In addition, he presided over the 1835 Democratic National Convention, in February 1836 President Andrew Jackson renominated Stevenson for Minister to Great Britain. He was confirmed 26 votes to 19, and served from 1836 to 1841, the Irish statesman Daniel OConnell was reported to have denounced Stevenson in public as a slave breeder, generally thought to be a more serious matter than simply being a slaveowner. Stevenson, outraged, challenged OConnell to a duel, but OConnell, who had an aversion to dueling, refused. Stevenson presided over the 1848 Democratic National Convention, in 1845 he was elected to the board of visitors of the University of Virginia. From 1856 to 1857 he served as the universitys rector and he died at his Blenheim estate on January 21,1857. He was buried at Enniscorthy Cemetery in Keene, Virginia, Stevenson purchased the Blenheim property in Albemarle County in 1846. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. In 1809, he married Mary Page White, granddaughter of Carter Braxton, who was the mother of John White Stevenson, a Congressman, U. S. Senator, and who also served as Governor of Kentucky. In 1816 he married his wife, Sarah Coles, who was a cousin of Dolley Madison and a sister of Edward Coles. In 1849 he married Mary Schaff, biographical Directory of the United States Congress
4.
James K. Polk
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James Knox Polk was the 11th President of the United States. Polk was born in Pineville, North Carolina, and moved to Tennessee to study law, after building a successful law practice, he was elected to the Tennessee legislature and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825. He left Congress to serve as Governor of Tennessee from 1839 to 1841, after losing re-election as governor in 1840, and losing in another gubernatorial election in 1842, Polk was a dark horse candidate for president in 1844. Though he entered the convention hoping to be nominated for vice president, in the general election, he defeated Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party in large part due to his promise to annex the Republic of Texas. True to his pledge to serve only one term as President, Polk left office in March 1849. He died of cholera three months later, scholars have ranked him favorably on lists of greatest presidents for his ability to promote, obtain support for, and achieve all of the major items on his presidential agenda. However, he has also criticized for leading the country into war against Mexico. Polk has been called the least known consequential president, James Knox Polk, the first of ten children, was born on November 2,1795 in a log house in what is now Pineville, North Carolina in Mecklenburg County, just outside Charlotte. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder, successful farmer and his mother, Jane Polk, was a descendant of a brother of the Scottish religious reformer John Knox. She named her firstborn after her father James Knox, like many early Scots-Irish settlers in the North Carolina mountains, the Knox and Polk families were Presbyterian. While Polks mother Jane remained a devout Presbyterian her entire life, when the parents took the young James to a Presbyterian church to be baptized, the father Samuel refused to declare his belief in Christianity, and the minister refused to baptize the child. In 1803, most of Polks relatives moved to the Duck River area in what is now Maury County, Middle Tennessee, the family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk turning to land speculation and becoming a county judge. His health was problematic and in 1812 his pain became so unbearable that he was taken to Dr. Ephraim McDowell of Danville, Kentucky, Polk was awake during the operation with nothing but brandy available for anesthetic, but it was successful. The surgery may have left Polk sterile, as he did not sire any children, when Polk recovered, his father offered to bring him into the mercantile business, but Polk refused. In July 1813, Polk enrolled at the Zion Church near his home, a year later he attended an academy in Murfreesboro, where he may have met his future wife, Sarah Childress. At Murfreesboro, Polk proved a promising student, in January 1816, Polk was admitted into the University of North Carolina as a second-semester sophomore. The Polk family had connections with the university, then a school of about 80 students, Sam Polk was their land agent for Tennessee. While there, Polk joined the Dialectic Society where he took part in debates
5.
United States Secretary of War
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The Secretary of War was a member of the United States Presidents Cabinet, beginning with George Washingtons administration. A similar position, called either Secretary at War or Secretary of War, had appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation between 1781 and 1789. Benjamin Lincoln and later Henry Knox held the position, when Washington was inaugurated as the first president under the Constitution, he appointed Knox to continue serving. The Secretary of War was the head of the War Department, at first, he was responsible for all military affairs, including naval affairs. In 1798, the Secretary of the Navy was created by statute, from 1886 onward, the Secretary of War was third in the line of succession to the presidency, after the Vice President of the United States and the Secretary of State. The office of Secretary at War was modelled upon Great Britains Secretary at War, the office of Secretary at War was meant replaced both the Commander-in-Chief and the Board of War, and like the President of the Board, the Secretary wore no special insignia. The Inspector General, Quartermaster General, Commissary General, and Adjutant General served on the Secretarys staff, however, the Army itself under Secretary Henry Knox only consisted of 700 men. Parties No party Federalist Democratic-Republican Democratic Whig Republican Confederate States Secretary of War Bell, commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff 1775-2005, Portraits and Biographical Sketches. United States Army Center of Military History, encyclopedia of the United States Cabinet 1789-2010. Charlottesville, Virginia, The Judge Advocate Generals School, U. S. Army
6.
William Henry Harrison
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William Henry Harrison Sr. was the ninth President of the United States, an American military officer, and the last president born as a British subject. He was 68 years,23 days old at the time of his inauguration and he died of complications from pneumonia 31 days into his term, serving the shortest tenure in United States presidential history. He was the first president to die in office, and his death sparked a constitutional crisis. He was the grandfather of Benjamin Harrison, who served as the 23rd United States President from 1889 to 1893, before election as president, Harrison served as the first congressional delegate from the Northwest Territory and the first Governor of Indiana Territory. He gained national fame for leading U. S. forces against Native Americans at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, as a general officer in the subsequent War of 1812, his most notable action was in the Battle of the Thames in 1813. This battle resulted in the death of Tecumseh and the dissolution of the Indian coalition which Tecumseh had led, after the war, Harrison moved to Ohio, where he was elected to the United States House of Representatives. In 1824, the legislature elected him to the United States Senate. He served a term after being appointed as Minister Plenipotentiary to Gran Colombia in May 1828. In Santa Fe de Bogotá, he spoke with president Simón Bolívar, returning to his farm in Ohio, Harrison lived in relative retirement until he was nominated for the presidency as one of several Whig Party candidates in the election of 1836. He received more votes than any other Whig, but was defeated by Democrat Martin Van Buren and he retired again to his farm. Van Buren soon became a target of criticism from the Whigs surrounding economic difficulties following the Panic of 1837. John Tyler of Virginia was selected as his running mate, Harrison and Tyler defeated Van Buren in the 1840 election. However, Harrison died of pneumonia in April 1841, a month after taking office, Tyler then assumed all of the powers and duties of the president, setting a major precedent. Harrison was a member of a prominent political family of entirely English descent, Harrison was also the last U. S. president born as a British subject before American Revolution. Benjamin Harrison V, Williams father, was a Virginia planter who served as a delegate to the Continental Congress, the senior Harrison also served in the Virginia legislature as the fifth governor of Virginia in the years during and after the American Revolutionary War. Williams older brother, Carter Bassett Harrison, represented Virginia in the U. S. House, Harrison was tutored at home before he entered Hampden–Sydney College, the Presbyterian school in Virginia in 1787 at age 14. He remained at the school until 1790, receiving an education that included Latin, Greek, French, logic. Harrisons Episcopalian father removed him from the college, possibly because of a revival that was occurring at the school
7.
John Tyler
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John Tyler was the tenth President of the United States. He was also, briefly, the tenth Vice President, elected to office on the 1840 Whig ticket with William Henry Harrison. Tyler became president after Harrisons death in April 1841, only a month after the start of the new administration. Still, the circumstances of his rise to the presidency. A firm believer in manifest destiny, President Tyler sought to strengthen and preserve the Union through territorial expansion, Tyler, born to an eminent Virginia family, came to national prominence at a time of political upheaval. In the 1820s the nations only political party, the Democratic-Republicans, though initially a Democrat, his opposition to Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren led him to ally with the Whig Party. Tyler served as a Virginia state legislator, governor, U. S. representative and he was put on the ticket to attract states rights Southerners to what was then a Whig coalition to defeat Van Burens re-election bid. Harrisons death made Tyler the first vice president to succeed to the presidency without being elected to the office, because of the short duration of Harrisons one-month term, Tyler served longer than any president in U. S. history who was never elected to the office. A strict constructionist, Tyler found much of the Whig platform unconstitutional, believing that the president should set policy instead of deferring to Congress, he attempted to bypass the Whig establishment, most notably Kentucky Senator Henry Clay. Most of Tylers Cabinet resigned soon into his term, and the Whigs, dubbing him His Accidency, though Tyler was not the first president to veto bills, he was the first to see his veto overridden by Congress. Although he faced a stalemate on domestic policy, he had several achievements, including the Webster–Ashburton Treaty with Britain. He initially sought election to a term as president, but after failing to gain the support of either Whigs or Democrats. When the American Civil War began in 1861, Tyler sided with the Confederate government, although some have praised Tylers political resolve, his presidency is generally held in low esteem by historians. He is considered an obscure president, with presence in American cultural memory. John Tyler was born on March 29,1790, like his future running mate William Henry Harrison, he hailed from Charles City County, Virginia, both descended from aristocratic and politically entrenched families. The Tyler family traced its lineage to colonial Williamsburg in the 17th century, the elder Tyler served four years as Speaker of the House of Delegates before becoming a state court judge. He subsequently served as governor and as a judge on the U. S. District Court at Richmond and his wife, Mary Marot, was the daughter of a prominent plantation owner, Robert Booth Armistead. She died of a stroke when her son John was seven years old, with his two brothers and five sisters, Tyler was raised on Greenway Plantation, a 1, 200-acre estate with a six-room manor house his father had built
8.
Joel Roberts Poinsett
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Joel Roberts Poinsett was an American physician and diplomat. He was the first U. S. Joel Roberts Poinsett was born in 1779 in Charleston, South Carolina, to a physician, Dr. Elisha Poinsett. He was educated in Connecticut and Europe, gaining expertise in languages, the law, in 1800 Poinsett returned to Charleston hoping to pursue a military career. His father did not want his son to be a soldier, hoping to entice his son to settle into the Charleston aristocracy, Dr. Poinsett had his son study law under Henry William DeSaussure, a prominent lawyer of Charleston. Poinsett was not interested in becoming a lawyer, and convinced his parents to him to go on an extended tour of Europe in 1801. DeSaussure sent with him a list of law books including Blackstones Commentaries and Burn’s Ecclesiastical Law, beginning in 1801, Poinsett traveled the European continent. In the spring of 1802, Poinsett left France for Italy traveling through the Alps and he visited the cities of Naples and hiked up Mount Etna on the island of Sicily. In the spring of 1803 he arrived in Switzerland and stayed at the home of Jacques Necker and his daughter, Necker, French Finance Minister from 1776 to 1781 under Louis XVI, had been driven into exile by Napoleon I. On one occasion, Robert Livingston, the United States minister to France, was invited for a visit while he was touring Savoy, France, and Switzerland. Poinsett was compelled to assume the role of interpreter between the deaf Livingston and the aged Necker, whose lack of teeth made his speech almost incomprehensible, fortunately, Madame de Stael tactfully assumed the duty of translation for her elderly father. In October 1803, Poinsett left Switzerland for Vienna, Austria, in December he received word that his father was dead, and that his sister, Susan, was seriously ill. He immediately secured passage back to Charleston, Poinsett arrived in Charleston early in 1804, months after his father had been laid to rest. Hoping to save his sister’s life, Poinsett took her on a voyage to New York, yet, upon arriving in New York City, Susan Poinsett died. As the sole remaining heir, Poinsett inherited a fortune in town houses and lots, plantations, bank stock. Poinsett arrived in the Russian capital of St. Petersburg in November 1806, levett Harris, consul of the United States at St. Petersburg, and the highest American official in the country, hoped to introduce Poinsett at court to Czar Alexander. Learning that Poinsett was from South Carolina, the Empress asked him if he would inspect the cotton factories under her patronage, Poinsett and Consul Harris traveled by sleigh to Cronstadt to see the factories. Poinsett made some suggestions on improvement, which the Dowager Empress accepted, furthermore, he believed that the institution of serfdom made it difficult for Russia to have a merchant marine or become industrialized. In January,1807, Czar Alexander and Poinsett dined at the Palace, Czar Alexander attempted to entice Poinsett into the Russian civil or military service
9.
John Canfield Spencer
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John Canfield Spencer was an American lawyer, politician, judge and United States Cabinet secretary in the administration of President John Tyler. John Canfield Spencer was the son of Ambrose Spencer, Chief Justice of the New York Supreme Court and he married Elizabeth Scott Smith in 1809 and became a master of chancery in 1811. During the War of 1812, Spencer served in the United States Army where he was appointed judge advocate general for the northern frontier. He was a member of the committee that reported unfavorably on the affairs of the Second Bank of the United States, in 1819, he was the Clintonian candidate for U. S. Senator from New York, but due to a three-cornered contest with Bucktail Samuel Young and Federalist Rufus King and he was a member of the New York State Assembly from 1820 to 1822, and was Speaker in 1820. He was a member of the New York State Senate from 1825 to 1828, Spencer sided with the anti-Masons and was the author of a manuscript on Masonic rituals. He was again a member of the New York Assembly from 1831 to 1833 and moved to Albany and he edited the English edition of Alexis de Tocquevilles Democracy in America and served as Secretary of State of New York from 1839 to 1841. In 1841, President John Tyler appointed Spencer to be Secretary of War in his administration, as War Secretary, he proposed a chain of posts extending from Council Bluffs, Iowa to the Columbia River. He also recommended that the government adhere to arrangements made by Army commanders in the field for compensation of the Creek Indians, who had been forced to move west of the Mississippi. In 1842, his son, Philip Spencer, a midshipman, was executed without court-martial along with two other sailors aboard the brig USS Somers for allegedly attempting mutiny. In 1843, Spencer was appointed Secretary of the Treasury after the resignation of Walter Forward, the expenditures of the treasury had exceeded its receipts and he advocated additional import duties on articles such as coffee and tea. To help fund the deficit he engaged in controversial issues of Treasury Notes. He also continued to develop a plan, originally initiated by Forward, for a Board of Exchequer to keep, the Exchequer bill, which reflected continuing interest in some form of independent treasury system, failed due to a political conflict in the United States Congress. As one of few northerners in an administration dominated by southern interests, Spencer found it difficult to serve in his cabinet post. He returned to Albany where he died on May 17,1855 and he was interred in Albany Rural Cemetery beside his wife, Elizabeth. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, John Canfield Spencer at the United States Army John Canfield Spencer at the United States Department of the Treasury July 17 - Interview with John Canfield Spencer. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012
10.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
11.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
12.
Spencer Jarnagin
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Spencer Jarnagin was a United States Senator from Tennessee from 1843 to 1847. Jarnagin was born in what was shortly to become Grainger County and he graduated from Greenville College in 1813 and after the study of law was admitted to the bar in 1817. He served in the Tennessee State Senate from 1833 to 1835, from 1836 to 1851 he served on the Board of Trustees for East Tennessee College, now the University of Tennessee. He continued his practice of law after moving to Athens, Tennessee in 1837, Jarnagin was an elector for the Whig ticket of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler in the U. S. presidential election,1840. In 1841 he was nominated for U. S, Senator by the Whig caucus in the Tennessee General Assembly. However, some of the Democrats in the legislature decided that no Senator would be preferable to a Whig, known as the Immortal Thirteen by Tennessee Democrats, they refused to allow a quorum on the issue. By the time Jarnagin was eventually elected to the seat and sworn in, Jarnagin finally assumed office on October 17,1843 and served until March 4,1847. During this time, he served as the Chairman of the Committee on Revolutionary Claims, Jarnagin moved to Memphis and continued his practice of law there, upon his death on June 25,1853 he was interred in that citys Elmwood Cemetery. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, spencer Jarnagin at Find a Grave
13.
Alfred O. P. Nicholson
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Alfred Osborn Pope Nicholson, a Tennessee Democratic politician and lawyer, was twice a United States Senator from that state. Nicholson was born near Franklin, Tennessee in Williamson County and he attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, graduating in 1827. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1831, opening a law practice in Columbia and he edited the Western Mercury, a paper then published in Columbia, from 1832 to 1835. He also served in the Tennessee House of Representatives from 1833 to 1839, in 1840 he was appointed, on an interim basis, to succeed to the U. S. Senate seat vacated by the death of Senator Felix Grundy. He served in office from December 25,1840 to February 7,1842. From 1843 to 1845 he served in the Tennessee State Senate, moving to Nashville during this period, from 1846 to 1847 he served as a director, and then as president, of the Bank of Tennessee. In 1853 President Franklin Pierce wished to appoint him to the Cabinet and he edited the Washington Union from 1853 to 1856 and subsequently served as public printer to the United States House of Representatives. In 1858 Nicholson was again elected to the United States Senate from Tennessee by the Tennessee General Assembly. He served from March 4,1859 to March 4,1861, when he withdrew from participation in the Senate in anticipation of Tennessee secession from the Union, after the war, Nicholson served as Chief Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1870 until his death. He died on March 23,1876 in Columbia, Tennessee and he was buried in Columbias Rose Hill Cemetery. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, retrieved on 2009-03-23 Alfred O. P. Nicholson
14.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
15.
Tennessee's 7th congressional district
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The 7th Congressional District of Tennessee is a congressional district located in the middle and southwestern parts of the state, connecting suburbs of Nashville to rural areas east of Memphis. Marsha Blackburn, a Republican and the first-ever Tennessee woman not to serve as a stand-in for her husband in Congress, the districts current configuration dates from 1983, when Tennessee gained a district as a result of the 1980 Census. At that time, large portions of the old 6th District were shifted to the 4th and 9th districts, the result was a district that was 200 miles long, but only two miles wide at some points in the Middle Tennessee portion--roughly the width of a highway lane. Redistricting after the 2010 census made the somewhat more compact. The 7th is a safe seat for the Republican Party. In fact, it has long been reckoned as the states most Republican area outside the traditional heartland in East Tennessee. Democrats have made two serious bids for the district since it took on its current form in 1983. Most of the residents have not been represented by a Democrat since 1973. Even though the district lost its share of Memphis and eastern Shelby County, the districts politics are dominated by the wealthy suburbs of Nashville, such as Brentwood, Franklin and Spring Hill. These areas boast some of the highest median incomes in the state and they give the 7th a character similar to other highly affluent suburban districts in the South. Republicans dominate every level of government in the areas, which tend to elect some of Tennessees most conservative state legislators. The only area where Democrats compete on anything resembling an even basis is the largest city wholly in the district, Clarksville, which long elected Democrats to the state legislature. The rural areas of the district are similar to the rural portions of the 8th. However, most of the Democrats in the 7ths rural areas are as conservative on issues as their suburban counterparts. They have long been more willing to support Republicans at the level than their counterparts in the 8th. The district has a strong military presence, as it includes Tennessees share of Fort Campbell. Tennessees congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
16.
Sam Houston
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Samuel Sam Houston was an American politician and soldier, best known for his role in bringing Texas into the United States as a constituent state. His victory at the Battle of San Jacinto secured the independence of Texas from Mexico in one of the shortest decisive battles in modern history, Houston was born at Timber Ridge Plantation in Rockbridge County, Virginia. After moving to Tennessee, he spent time with the Cherokee Nation, performed service during the War of 1812. In 1827, Houston was elected Governor of Tennessee as a Jacksonian, in 1829, he resigned as governor and relocated to the Arkansas Territory. In 1832, Houston was involved in an altercation with a U. S. Congressman, shortly afterwards, he moved west to Coahuila y Tejas, then a Mexican state, and became a leader of the Texas Revolution. After the war, Houston became a key figure in Texas and was elected as the first and he supported annexation by the United States and upon achieving it in 1845, he became a U. S. As governor, he refused to swear loyalty to the Confederacy when Texas seceded from the Union in 1861 with the outbreak of the American Civil War, to avoid bloodshed, he refused an offer of a Union army to put down the Confederate rebellion. Instead, he retired to Huntsville, Texas, where he died before the end of the war, Houstons name has been honored in numerous ways. He is the namesake of the city of Houston, Texass most populous city, Sam Houston was the fifth son of Major Samuel Houston and Elizabeth Paxton. Houstons paternal ancestry is traced to his great-great grandfather Sir John Houston. His second son, John Houston, emigrated to Ulster, Ireland, under the system of primogeniture, he did not inherit the estate. A historic plaque near Larne in County Antrim, Northern Ireland tells the story of the Houston family and it is located in Ballyboley Forest Park near the site of the original John Houston estate. After several years in Ireland, John Houston immigrated in 1735 with his family to the North American colonies, Houston decided to migrate south with other Scots-Irish, who settled in the backcountry of lands in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. Scots-Irish newcomers included the Lyle family of the Raloo area, who helped found Timber Ridge Presbyterian Church, gradually, John Houston developed his land and purchased slaves. His son, Robert, inherited his fathers land, the youngest of Roberts five sons was Samuel Houston. Samuel Houston became a member of Morgans Rifle Brigade and was commissioned a major during the American Revolutionary War, at the time, militia officers were expected to pay their own expenses. He had married Elizabeth Paxton and inherited his fathers land, but he was not a manager and got into debt. Their children were born on his familys plantation near Timber Ridge Church, including Sam Houston on March 2,1793, the fifth of nine children and the fifth son
17.
Robert L. Caruthers
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Robert Looney Caruthers was an American judge, politician, and professor. He served as a Tennessee state attorney general in the late 1820s and early 1830s and he also served one term in the United States House of Representatives. In 1863, he was elected Governor of Tennessee by the states Confederates, Caruthers was born near Carthage, Tennessee, the youngest of seven children of Samuel and Elizabeth Looney Caruthers. His father had represented Sullivan County at the convention of the State of Franklin in the 1780s. After his death, Robert went to live with an uncle in Columbia, Tennessee and he later attended Washington College near Jonesborough and Greeneville College in Greeneville, and studied law under Judge Samuel Powell in Greeneville. Caruthers returned to Carthage in 1823 to practice law and he served as the clerk for the Tennessee House of Representatives for the 1823–1824 term, and worked as editor of the Tennessee Republican newsletter. In 1826, he moved to Lebanon, Tennessee, and married Sally Sanders and that same year, he was appointed attorney general for the Sixth Judicial District by Governor Sam Houston. He served in this position until 1832, in 1834, he was elected brigadier general in the Tennessee militia. In 1836, he and Alfred O. P. Nicholson published A Compilation of the Statutes of Tennessee, in 1835, Caruthers was elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives, representing Wilson County. He served on the House Judiciary Committee, and did not seek reelection and he was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives for Tennessees 7th District for the 1841–1843 term. Once again, he served just one term, and did not seek reelection, in 1844, he was the Whig elector for Tennessees at-large district, and as such, canvassed the state for unsuccessful presidential candidate Henry Clay. In 1852, Caruthers was appointed by Governor William B, campbell to fill the term of Nathan Green as Middle Tennessees justice on the Tennessee Supreme Court. The following year, the legislature voted to give Caruthers a full term. In 1854, after the constitution was amended to allow popular election of justices. One of Caruthers most important decisions on the court was his opinion in Rippy v. State, Caruthers opinion reinstated the sufficient grounds rule. He wrote of Grainger, no case has been more perverted and misapplied by advocates and juries and he remained pro-Union until the Battle of Fort Sumter in April 1861, after which he aligned himself with the Confederacy. In August 1861, he resigned from the court to represent Tennessee in the Provisional Confederate Congress, Caruthers was officially elected on August 6, but the state constitution required that the governor-elect take the Oath of Office before the General Assembly. Since the Union Army controlled most of Middle and West Tennessee at this time, the Assembly was unable to convene, Confederates continued to recognize Harris as governor until the end of the war
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Tennessee Senate
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The Tennessee Senate is the upper house of the U. S. state of Tennessees state legislature, which is known formally as the Tennessee General Assembly. The Tennessee Senate, according to the constitution of 1870, is composed of 33 members. Senators are to be elected from districts of equal population. In 1921, Anna Lee Keys Worley became the first women to serve in the Tennessee Senate, until 1966, Tennessee state senators served two-year terms. That year the system was changed, by amendment, to allow four-year terms. In that year, senators in even-numbered districts were elected to two-year terms and this created a staggered system in which only half of the senate is up for election at any one time. Districts are to be sequentially and consecutively numbered, the scheme basically runs from east to west, the Senate elects one of its own members as Speaker, the Speaker automatically becomes Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee. The current Speaker of the Senate and Lieutenant Governor is Randy McNally, one of the main duties of the Speaker is to preside over the Senate and make Senate committee appointments. The Speaker also controls staffing and office space with Senate staff, the Speaker serves as an ex-officio member of all standing committees
19.
Nashville, Tennessee
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Nashville is the capital of the U. S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Davidson County. It is located on the Cumberland River in the central part of the state. The city is a center for the music, healthcare, publishing, banking and transportation industries and it is known as a center of the country music industry, earning it the nickname Music City, U. S. A. Since 1963, Nashville has had a consolidated city-county government which includes six municipalities in a two-tier system. Nashville is governed by a mayor, vice-mayor, and 40-member Metropolitan Council, thirty-five of the members are elected from single-member districts, five are elected at-large. Reflecting the citys position in government, Nashville is home to the Tennessee Supreme Courts courthouse for Middle Tennessee. According to 2015 estimates from the U. S. Census Bureau, the balance population, which excludes semi-independent municipalities within Nashville, was 654,610. The 2015 population of the entire 13-county Nashville metropolitan area was 1,830,345, the 2015 population of the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Columbia combined statistical area, a larger trade area, was 1,951,644. The town of Nashville was founded by James Robertson, John Donelson, and it was named for Francis Nash, the American Revolutionary War hero. Nashville quickly grew because of its location, accessibility as a port on the Cumberland River, a tributary of the Ohio River. By 1800, the city had 345 residents, including 136 African American slaves and 14 free blacks, in 1806, Nashville was incorporated as a city and became the county seat of Davidson County, Tennessee. In 1843, the city was named the permanent capital of the state of Tennessee, by 1860, when the first rumblings of secession began to be heard across the South, antebellum Nashville was a prosperous city. The citys significance as a port made it a desirable prize as a means of controlling important river. In February 1862, Nashville became the first state capital to fall to Union troops, the state was occupied by Union troops for the duration of the war. Within a few years after the Civil War, the Nashville chapter of the Ku Klux Klan was founded by Confederate veteran John W. Morton, meanwhile, the city had reclaimed its important shipping and trading position and developed a solid manufacturing base. The post–Civil War years of the late 19th century brought new prosperity to Nashville and these healthy economic times left the city with a legacy of grand classical-style buildings, which can still be seen around the downtown area. Circa 1950 the state approved a new city charter that provided for the election of city council members from single-member districts. This change was supported because at-large voting diluted the minority populations political power in the city and they could seldom gain a majority of the population to support a candidate of their choice
20.
Stewart County, Tennessee
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Stewart County is a county located in the U. S. state of Tennessee. As of the 2010 census, the population was 13,324, Stewart County is home to Fort Donelson, the site of a Confederate stand against the Unions push up the Cumberland River during the Civil War. Stewart County was created in 1803 from a portion of Montgomery County, and was named for Duncan Stewart, during the Battle of Fort Donelson, the county seat, Dover, was burned by Union troops to prevent its capture by General Nathan B. Tobaccoport Saltpeter Cave was intensely mined for saltpeter, possibly during the War of 1812, Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from the cave. This area fell under Union control in February 1862, early in the Civil War, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 493 square miles, of which 459 square miles is land and 34 square miles is water. The county lies in a section of the northwestern Highland Rim. The Cumberland River traverses the county, the Tennessee River provides the countys border with Henry County to the west. Federal and state agencies control nearly 44% of the land in the county, the population density was 27 people per square mile. There were 5,977 housing units at a density of 13 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 95. 27% White,1. 29% Black or African American,0. 61% Native American,1. 46% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,0. 23% from other races, and 1. 10% from two or more races. 1. 00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the family size was 2.91. In the county, the population was out with 23. 90% under the age of 18,7. 50% from 18 to 24,28. 40% from 25 to 44,25. 40% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 99.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.50 males, the median income for a household in the county was $32,316, and the median income for a family was $38,655. Males had an income of $31,106 versus $21,985 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,302, about 10. 60% of families and 12. 40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12. 90% of those under age 18 and 15. 60% of those age 65 or over. The county is part of Tennessees 8th congressional district, and traditionally votes Democratic, however, Stewart County has been trending Republican in recent presidential elections
21.
Mount Olivet Cemetery (Nashville)
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Mount Olivet Cemetery is a 206-acre cemetery located in Nashville, Tennessee. Mount Olivet has been operated since its establishment in 1856. It serves as the resting place for many of Middle Tennessees political and business leaders, including several former governors of Tennessee, U. S. Senators. After the American Civil War, women of Nashville formed an association to raise funds to purchase a plot of land at the cemetery for the interment of Confederate dead. It became known as Confederate Circle and it was used for the interment of Confederate soldiers who had died on nearby battlegrounds and as a memorial to their sacrifice. Women organized such memorial associations and raised money for interment of Confederate soldiers in major cities across the South, the memorial association arranged for burials of about 1,500 soldiers at Confederate Circle. Confederate veterans were eligible for interment there. In the 1990s, a home was added to the grounds of Mount Olivet. Immediately adjacent to the west, Calvary Cemetery has long served as the burying place of Middle Tennessee Catholics. The two facilities are separated only by grass, one can walk from one cemetery to the other, cars cannot pass between the two. Approximately one mile to the south is Greenwood Cemetery, where many of the most prominent African-American residents of Middle Tennessee have been buried, Mount Olivet Cemetery is located at 1101 Lebanon Road, approximately two miles east of downtown Nashville. It is open to the public during daylight hours, adelicia Acklen, wealthy Nashville businesswoman and socialite. John Meredith Bass, Mayor of Nashville from 1833 to 1834, senate, Bill Frist Francis Furman, Nashville businessman during the Reconstruction Era. A building is named in his honor on the campus of Vanderbilt University, sidney Clarence Garrison, second President of Peabody College from 1938 to 1945. S. Senator from Tennessee and 13th Attorney General of the United States, george Blackmore Guild, Mayor of Nashville from 1891 to 1895. Robert Kennon Hargrove, a Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, E. Bronson Ingram, founder of Ingram Industries Inc. Kercheval, Tennessee State Senator and Mayor of Nashville David Lipscomb, founder of Nashville Bible School William Litterer, george Maney, Confederate Civil War general and U. S. Ambassador to Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay Jack C. Colonel who was killed in the Battle of Raymond, thomas Owen Morris, Mayor of Nashville from 1906 to 1908
22.
Democratic-Republican Party
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The new party controlled the presidency and Congress, as well as most states, from 1801 to 1825, during the First Party System. It began in 1791 as one faction in Congress, and included many politicians who had opposed to the new constitution. They called themselves Republicans after their ideology Republicanism and they distrusted the Federalist commitment to republicanism. The party splintered in 1824 into the Jacksonian movement and the short-lived National Republican Party, the term Democratic-Republican is used especially by modern political scientists for the first Republican Party. It is also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans, historians typically use the title Republican Party. An Anti-Administration faction met secretly in the capital to oppose Hamiltons financial programs. Jefferson denounced the programs as leading to monarchy and subversive of republicanism, Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to challenge the Federalists, which Hamilton was building up with allies in major cities. Foreign affairs took a role in 1794–95 as the Republicans vigorously opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain. Republicans saw France as more democratic after its revolution, while Britain represented the hated monarchy, the party denounced many of Hamiltons measures as unconstitutional, especially the national bank. The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast and it demanded states rights as expressed by the Principles of 1798 articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that would allow states to nullify a federal law. Above all, the party stood for the primacy of the yeoman farmers, Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Hamiltonian Federalists. The party came to power in 1801 with the election of Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election, the Federalists—too elitist to appeal to most people—faded away, and totally collapsed after 1815. The Republicans dominated the First Party System, despite internal divisions, the party selected its presidential candidates in a caucus of members of Congress. They included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe, by 1824, the caucus system had practically collapsed. After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England, by 1824, the party was split four ways and lacked a center, as the First Party System collapsed. The emergence of the Second Party System in the 1830s realigned the old factions, one remnant followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren into the new Democratic Party by 1828. Another remnant led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay formed the National Republicans in 1828, the precise date of founding is disputed, but 1791 is a reasonable estimate, some time by 1792 is certain. The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis, in most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest
23.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
24.
Whig Party (United States)
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The Whig Party was a political party active in the middle of the 19th century in the United States. Four US presidents belonged to the party while in office and it emerged in the 1830s as the immediate successor to the National Republican and Anti-Masonic Parties, and was also rooted in the tradition of the Federalist Party. Along with the rival Democratic Party, it was central to the Second Party System from the early 1840s to the mid-1860s and it originally formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson and his Democratic Party. In particular, the Whigs supported the supremacy of the US Congress over the Presidency and favored a program of modernization, banking and it appealed to entrepreneurs, planters, reformers and the emerging urban middle class, but had little appeal to farmers or unskilled workers. It included many active Protestants, and voiced a moralistic opposition to the Jacksonian Indian removal, Party founders chose the Whig name to echo the American Whigs of the 18th century who fought for independence. The underlying political philosophy of the American Whig Party was not directly related to the British Whig party, the Whig Party nominated several presidential candidates in 1836. General William Henry Harrison of Ohio was nominated in 1840, former Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky in 1844, another war hero, General Winfield Scott of New Jersey was the Whig Partys last presidential nominee, in 1852. In its two decades of existence, the Whig Party had two of its candidates, Harrison and Taylor, elected president, John Tyler succeeded to the presidency after Harrisons death in 1841, but was expelled from the party later that year. Millard Fillmore, who became president after Taylors death in 1850, was the last Whig president, the party fell apart because of the internal tension over the expansion of slavery to the territories. Most Whig Party leaders eventually quit politics or changed parties, the northern voter base mostly gravitated to the new Republican Party. In the South, most joined the Know Nothing Party, which unsuccessfully ran Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election, the Constitutional Union Party experienced significant success from conservative former Whigs in the Upper South during the 1860 presidential election. Whig ideology as a policy orientation persisted for decades and played a role in shaping the modernizing policies of the state governments during Reconstruction. The name Whig derived from a term that Patriots used to refer to themselves during the American Revolution and it indicated hostility to the British Sovereign, and despite the identical name, did not directly derive from the British Whig Party. The American Whigs were modernizers who saw President Andrew Jackson as a man on horseback with a reactionary opposition to the forces of social, economic. Casting their enemy as King Andrew, they sought to identify themselves as opponents of governmental overreaching. Despite the apparent unity of Jeffersons Democratic-Republicans from 1800 to 1824, as Jackson purged his opponents, vetoed internal improvements, and killed the Second Bank of the United States, alarmed local elites fought back. In 1831, Henry Clay re-entered the Senate and started planning a new party and he defended national rather than sectional interests. His Jacksonian opponents, however, distrusted the government and opposed all federal aid for internal improvements
25.
Know Nothing
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The Native American Party, renamed the American Party in 1855 and commonly known as the Know Nothing movement, was an American political party that operated nationally in the mid-1850s. The motivators of the Partys rise were,1. )Nativist sentiment caused by the sudden, unprecedented influx of German and Irish immigrants in the late 1840s,2. )A rapid, steep decline in wages caused by the sudden influx of very large numbers of Irish immigrants fleeing the potato famine,3. )The threat members perceived that the expansion of slavery into factory labor. In the eyes of supporters of both the Free Soil and Know Nothing movements, the existence of black slavery threatened to reduce free, white workers to wage slaves, and 4. )Fear that land in the western territories would be awarded to wealthy slave plantation owners rather than to white small farmers. It was due to fear that slavery would destroy the economic prospects of working families that the Party enrolled massive numbers of voters in the wake of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The Partys most prominent leaders were U. S, the American Party nominated former President Millard Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election. Anti-Catholicism had been a factor in colonial America but played little role in American politics until the arrival of large numbers of Irish and it then reemerged in nativist attacks on Catholic immigration. It appeared in New York politics as early as 1843, under the banner of the American Republican Party, the movement quickly spread to nearby states, using that name or Native American Party or variants of it. They succeeded in a number of local and Congressional elections, notably in 1844 in Philadelphia, in the early 1850s, numerous secret orders grew up, of which the Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star Spangled Banner came to be the most important. They merged in New York in the early 1850s as an order that quickly spread across the North, reaching non-Catholics. The name Know Nothing originated in the organization of the party. When a member was asked about its activities, he was supposed to reply, outsiders called them Know Nothings, and the name stuck. In 1855, the Know Nothings first entered politics under the American Party label, the immigration of large numbers of Irish and German Catholics to the United States in the period between 1830 and 1860 made religious differences between Catholics and Protestants a political issue. Violence occasionally erupted at the polls, Protestants alleged that Pope Pius IX had put down the failed liberal Revolutions of 1848 and that he was an opponent of liberty, democracy and Republicanism. One Boston minister described Catholicism as the ally of tyranny, the opponent of material prosperity, the foe of thrift, the enemy of the railroad, the caucus, and the school. In 1849, a secret society, the Order of the Star Spangled Banner, was created by Charles B. Allen in New York City. Fear of Catholic immigration led to a dissatisfaction with the Democratic Party, activists formed secret groups, coordinating their votes and throwing their weight behind candidates sympathetic to their cause. When asked about these organizations, members were to reply I know nothing. Immigration during the first five years of the 1850s reached a level five times greater than a decade earlier, most of the new arrivals were poor Catholic peasants or laborers from Ireland and Germany who crowded into the tenements of large cities
26.
Constitutional Union Party (United States)
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The Constitutional Union Party was a political party in the United States created in 1860. It was made up of conservative former Whigs who wanted to avoid secession over the slavery issue and these former Whigs teamed up with former Know-Nothings and a few Southern Democrats who were against secession to form the Constitutional Union Party. They hoped that by not taking a firm stand either for or against slavery or its expansion and this party united Southern Whigs and Democrats under the Georgia Platform, which affirmed Georgias acceptance of the Compromise as a final resolution to the issue of slavery. However, the party never expanded outside of the Deep South states of Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama, the 1860 incarnation of the Constitutional Union Party united remnants of both the defunct Whig and Know-Nothing Parties who were unwilling to join either the Democrats or the Republicans. The convention nominated John Bell of Tennessee for President and Edward Everett of Massachusetts for Vice President, in the 1860 election, the Constitutional Unionists received the great majority of their votes from former southern Whigs or Know-Nothings. A few of their votes were cast by former Democrats who were against secession, douglas in the North and John C. California and Everetts home state of Massachusetts were the only states in which the party received more than 5% of the popular vote. The party and its purpose disappeared after 1860 as the states began to secede. Bell and many other Constitutional Unionists later supported the Confederacy during the Civil War, Everett supported the Union and in 1863 gave a speech at Gettysburg before Lincolns famous Gettysburg Address. National Union Party Southern Unionist United States presidential election,1860 Blum, John M. William S. McFeely, Edmund S. Morgan, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr, Kenneth M. Stampp, the National Experience, A History of the United States. Newly Formed Party Party Platform of 1860 OurCampaigns overview of Constitutional Union Convention 1860
27.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
28.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
29.
Plantations in the American South
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
30.
23rd United States Congress
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It met in Washington, D. C. from March 4,1833 to March 4,1835, during the fifth and sixth years of Andrew Jacksons presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fifth Census of the United States in 1830, the Senate had an Anti-Jacksonian or National Republican majority, and the House had a Jacksonian or Democratic majority. The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress, Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the Changes in membership section. For the beginning of this congress, the size of the House was increased from 213 seats to 240 seats, Senators are listed in order of seniority, and Representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress, preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress, hatch Clerk, Walter S. Franklin Sergeant at Arms, Thomas B. Randolph Doorkeeper, Overton Carr Postmaster, William J. McCormick Chaplain, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress
31.
United States presidential election, 1860
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The United States presidential election of 1860 was the nineteenth quadrennial presidential election to select the President and Vice President of the United States. The election was held on Tuesday, November 6,1860, the United States had been divided during the 1850s on questions surrounding the expansion of slavery and the rights of slave owners. Incumbent President James Buchanan, like his predecessor Franklin Pierce, was a northerner with sympathies for the South and he recommended that Supreme Court Justice Robert Grier vote proslavery in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case of 1857. This was so unpopular it backfired on Buchanans presidency, allowing the Republican Party to win a majority in the House in 1858, in 1860, these issues broke the Democratic Party into Northern and Southern factions, and a new Constitutional Union Party appeared. In the face of an opposition, the newly created Republican Party secured a majority of the electoral votes. The 1860 presidential election marked the end of the Souths political dominance over the nation, moreover, since 1791, Southerners had comprised a majority of the Supreme Court. The 1860 presidential election conventions were unusually tumultuous, due in particular to a split in the Democratic Party that led to rival conventions, three other candidates, Isaac Toucey from Connecticut, James Pearce from Maryland, and Jefferson Davis from Mississippi also received votes. Douglas, a moderate on the slavery issue who favored “popular sovereignty”, was ahead on the first ballot, on the 57th ballot, Douglas was still ahead, but 51.5 votes short of nomination. In desperation, the agreed on May 3 to stop voting. The Democrats convened again at the Front Street Theater in Baltimore, Maryland and this time,110 Southern delegates walked out when the convention would not adopt a resolution supporting extending slavery into territories whose voters did not want it. Some considered Horatio Seymour a compromise candidate for the National Democratic nomination at the convention in Baltimore. Seymour wrote a letter to the editor of his local newspaper declaring unreservedly that he was not a candidate for either spot on the ticket, after two ballots, the remaining Democrats nominated the ticket of Stephen A. Douglas from Illinois for president. Benjamin Fitzpatrick from Alabama was nominated for president, but he refused the nomination. That nomination ultimately went instead to Herschel Vespasian Johnson from Georgia, Breckinridge, Vice President of the United States Daniel S. When the Democrats reconvened in Baltimore, they rejoined and this larger group met immediately in Baltimore’s Institute Hall, with Cushing again presiding. They adopted the pro-slavery platform rejected at Charleston, and nominated Vice President John C, Breckinridge for President, and Senator Joseph Lane from Oregon for Vice President. Yancey and some of the bolters, almost entirely from the Lower South, met on June 28 in Richmond, along with the South Carolina and this convention affirmed the nominations of Breckinridge and Lane. Besides the Democratic Parties in the states, the Breckinridge/Lane ticket was also supported by the Buchanan administration
32.
Andrew Jackson
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Andrew Jackson was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 and was the founder of the Democratic Party. Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson served in Congress, as president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the common man against what he saw as a corrupt aristocracy and to preserve the Union. Jackson was born in 1767 somewhere near the border between North and South Carolina, into a recently immigrated Scots-Irish farming family. During the American Revolutionary War, Jackson acted as a courier, at age 13, he was captured and mistreated by the British. He moved to Tennessee and practiced as a lawyer, in 1791, he married Rachel Donelson Robards. The couple later learned that Rachels previous husband had failed to finalize their divorce, Jackson served briefly in the U. S. House of Representatives and the U. S. Senate. Upon returning to Tennessee, he was appointed a judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court, in 1801, Jackson was appointed colonel in the Tennessee militia, and was elected its commander the following year. He built the Hermitage plantation in 1804, in 1806, he killed a man in a duel over a matter of honor regarding his wife. He led Tennessee militia and U. S. Army regulars during the Creek War of 1813-1814, Jackson won a decisive victory in the War of 1812 over the British army at the Battle of New Orleans, making him into a national hero. Because Spanish Florida was a refuge for blacks escaping slavery, who allied with the Seminole Indians, Jackson invaded the territory in 1816 to destroy the Negro Fort. He led an invasion in 1818, as part of the First Seminole War, resulting in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. Jackson briefly served as Floridas first Territorial Governor in 1821, Jackson was nominated by several state legislatures to be a candidate for president in 1824. Although he earned a plurality in both the electoral and popular vote against three major candidates, Jackson failed to get a majority and lost in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams, Jacksons supporters founded what became the Democratic Party. He ran again for president in 1828 against Adams, building and expanding upon his base of support in the West and South, he won in a landslide. He blamed the death of his wife, Rachel, which occurred after the election, on the Adams campaigners, as president, Jackson faced a threat of secession by South Carolina over the Tariff of Abominations, which Congress had enacted under Adams. In contrast to several of his successors, he denied the right of a state to secede from the union or to nullify federal law. The Nullification Crisis was defused when the tariff was amended and Jackson threatened the use of force if South Carolina attempted to secede. Jackson believed strongly in majority rule and he supported direct election of senators and abolition of the Electoral College, believing that these reforms would provide average citizens with greater power
33.
Second Bank of the United States
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The banks formal name, according to section 9 of its charter as passed by Congress, was The President, Directors, and Company, of the Bank of the United States. A private corporation with public duties, the bank handled all fiscal transactions for the U. S. Government, and was accountable to Congress, twenty percent of its capital was owned by the federal government, the banks single largest stockholder. Four thousand private investors held 80% of the capital, including one thousand Europeans. The bulk of the stocks were held by a few hundred wealthy Americans, in its time, the institution was the largest monied corporation in the world. The federal deposits endowed the BUS with its regulatory capacity, failing to secure recharter, the Second Bank of the United States became a private corporation in 1836, and underwent liquidation in 1841. A national alliance arose to legislate a central bank to address these needs, calhoun of South Carolina and Henry Clay of Kentucky was decisive in the successful chartering effort. The charter was signed into law by Madison on April 10,1816, opposition to the banks revival emanated from two interests. if Congress could incorporate a bank, it might emancipate a slave. Hostile to the effects of the central bank, private banks—proliferating with or without state charters—had scuttled rechartering of the first BUS in 1811. These interests played significant roles in undermining the institution during the administration of U. S. President Andrew Jackson, Government land sales in the West, fueled by European demand for agricultural products, ensured that a speculative bubble would form. When the U. S. Further, it transpired that branch directors for the Baltimore office had engaged in fraud and larceny. Resigning in January 1819, Jones was replaced by Langdon Cheves who continued the contraction in credit in an effort to stop inflation and stabilize the bank, the central banks reaction to the crisis—a clumsy expansion, then a sharp contraction of credit—indicated its weakness, not its strength. The effects were catastrophic, resulting in a recession with mass unemployment. The financial crisis raised doubts among the American public as to the efficacy of paper money, upon this widespread disaffection the anti-bank Jacksonian Democrats would mobilize opposition to the BUS in the 1830s. The national bank was in disrepute among most Americans when Nicholas Biddle. Under Biddles guidance, the BUS evolved into a banking institution that produced a strong and sound system of national credit. From 1823 to 1833, Biddle expanded credit steadily, but with restraint, albert Gallatin, former Secretary of the Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, wrote in 1831 that the BUS was fulfilling its charter expectations. By the time of Jacksons inauguration in 1829, the bank appeared to be on solid footing. Public perceptions of the bank were generally positive
34.
Spoils system
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Thereafter the spoils system was largely replaced by a nonpartisan merit at the federal level of the United States. Similar spoils systems are common in nations that traditionally have been based on tribal organization or other kinship groups. Before 1829, moderation had prevailed in the transfer of power from one U. S. president to another. Andrew Jacksons first inauguration, March 4,1829, signaled a departure from the past. These promises were honored by a number of removals after Jackson assumed power. At the beginning of Jacksons administration, fully 919 officials were removed from government positions, the hardest changed organization within the federal government proved to be the post office. The post office was the largest department in the federal government, in one year 423 postmasters were deprived of their positions, most with extensive records of good service. By the late 1860s, citizens began demanding civil service reform, running under the Liberal Republican Party in 1872, they were soundly defeated by Ulysses S. Grant. After the assassination of James A. Garfield by a rejected office-seeker in 1881, while few jobs were covered under the law initially, the law allowed the President to transfer jobs and their current holders into the system, thus giving the holder a permanent job. The Pendleton Acts reach was expanded as the two political parties alternated control of the White House every election between 1884 and 1896. After each election the outgoing President applied the Pendleton Act to jobs held by his political supporters, by 1900, most federal jobs were handled through civil service and the spoils system was limited only to very senior positions. The separation between the activity and the civil service was made stronger with the Hatch Act of 1939 which prohibited federal employees from engaging in many political activities. Illinois modernized its bureaucracy in 1917 under Frank Lowden, but Chicago held on to patronage in city government until the city agreed to end the practice in the Shakman Decrees of 1972 and 1983, Modern variations on the spoils system are often described as the political machine. Patronage Political corruption Separation of powers Soft despotism Whig Party Griffith, the Modern Development of the City in the United Kingdom and the United States Hoogenboom, Ari Arthur. Outlawing the Spoils, A history of the civil service reform movement, 1865–1883 Ostrogorski, democracy and the Party System in the United States Rubio, Philip F. A History of Affirmative Action, 1619–2000 University Press of Mississippi Van Riper, History of the United States Civil Service Greenwood Press Civil Service Reform. The Civil Service and the Patronage
35.
Hugh Lawson White
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Hugh Lawson White was a prominent American politician during the first third of the 19th century. He succeeded Andrew Jackson and served in the United States Senate, representing Tennessee, from 1825 until his resignation in 1840 and he also served as a state supreme court justice, and president of the Knoxville branch of the Bank of Tennessee. An ardent strict constructionist and lifelong states rights advocate, White was one of President Jacksons most trusted allies in Congress in the late 1820s and early 1830s. White fought against the bank, tariffs, and the use of federal funds for internal improvements. In 1833, at the height of the Nullification Crisis, White, as the Senates president pro tempore, suspicious of the growing power of the presidency, White began to distance himself from Jackson in the mid-1830s, and realigned himself with Henry Clay and the burgeoning Whig Party. He was eventually forced out of the Senate when Jacksons allies, led by James K. Polk, gained control of the Tennessee state legislature, White was born in what is now Iredell County, North Carolina, the eldest son of James White and Mary Lawson White. James, a Revolutionary War veteran, moved his family to the Tennessee frontier in the 1780s, in 1786, he constructed Whites Fort, which would eventually develop into Knoxville, Tennessee. Young Hugh was a sentinel at the fort, and helped manage its small gristmill, in 1791, Whites Fort was chosen as the capital of the newly created Southwest Territory, and James Whites friend, William Blount, was appointed governor of the territory. Hugh Lawson White worked as Blounts personal secretary, and was tutored by early Knoxville minister and educator, in 1793, he fought in the territorial militia under John Sevier during the Cherokee–American wars. Historian J. G. M. White studied law in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, under James Hopkins, two years later, he married Elizabeth Carrick, the daughter of his mentor, Samuel. In 1801, White was appointed judge of the Superior Court of Tennessee, in 1807, he resigned after being elected to the state legislature. He left the legislature in 1809, following his appointment to the states Court of Errors. He resigned this position in 1815, when he was elected to the state senate and he served in the state senate until 1817. As a state legislator, White helped reform the land laws. In 1812, White was named president of the Knoxville branch of the Bank of Tennessee, White was described as a very cautious banker, and his bank was one of the few in the state to survive the Panic of 1819. In 1821, President James Monroe appointed White to a commission to settle claims against Spain, in 1825, the Tennessee state legislature chose White to replace Andrew Jackson in the United States Senate. White argued that if the U. S, following Jacksons election to the presidency in 1828, White became one of the Jackson Administrations key congressional allies. White was chairman of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, which drew up the Indian Removal Act of 1830, a major initiative of Jackson
36.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
37.
Battle of Fort Sumter
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Following declarations of secession by seven Southern states, South Carolina demanded that the U. S. Army abandon its facilities in Charleston Harbor. On 26 December 1860, Major Robert Anderson of the U. S, an attempt by U. S. President James Buchanan to reinforce and resupply Anderson using the unarmed merchant ship Star of the West failed when it was fired upon by shore batteries on 9 January 1861. South Carolina authorities then seized all Federal property in the Charleston area except for Fort Sumter, during the early months of 1861, the situation around Fort Sumter increasingly began to resemble a siege. In March, Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard, Beauregard energetically directed the strengthening of batteries around Charleston harbor aimed at Fort Sumter. Conditions in the fort, growing ever dire due to shortages of men, food, the resupply of Fort Sumter became the first crisis of the administration of the newly inaugurated U. S. President Abraham Lincoln following his victory in the election of November 6,1860. Beginning at 4,30 a. m. on April 12, although the Union garrison returned fire, they were significantly outgunned and, after 34 hours, Major Anderson agreed to evacuate. There were no deaths on either side as a result of this engagement. Following the battle, there was support from both North and South for further military action. Lincolns immediate call for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion resulted in an additional four southern states also declaring their secession, on February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama. A February peace conference met in Washington, D. C. the remaining eight states declined pleas to join the Confederacy. The seceding states seized numerous Federal properties within their boundaries, including buildings, arsenals, President James Buchanan protested but took no military action in response. Several forts had been constructed in Charlestons harbor, including Fort Sumter and Fort Moultrie, Fort Moultrie on Sullivan Island was the oldest—it was the site of fortifications since 1776—and was the headquarters of the U. S. Army garrison. When the garrison began clearing away the dunes, the papers objected, Major Robert Anderson of the 1st U. S. Artillery regiment had been appointed to command the Charleston garrison that fall because of rising tensions, Anderson had served an earlier tour of duty at Fort Moultrie and his father had been a defender of the fort during the American Revolutionary War. Throughout the fall, South Carolina authorities considered both secession and the expropriation of property in the harbor to be inevitable. S. In contrast to Moultrie, Fort Sumter dominated the entrance to Charleston Harbor and, South Carolina authorities considered Andersons move to be a breach of faith. Buchanan, a former U. S. Secretary of State and diplomat, had used carefully crafted ambiguous language to Pickens, from Major Andersons standpoint, he was merely moving his existing garrison troops from one of the locations under his command to another. He had received instructions from the War Department on December 11, written by Major General Don Carlos Buell, Assistant Adjutant General of the Army and you are to hold possession of the forts in this harbor, and if attacked you are to defend yourself to the last extremity
38.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
39.
Nathanael Greene
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When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible, he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washingtons most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United States are named after him and he suffered financial difficulties in the post-war years and died in 1786. Greene was the son of Nathanael Greene, a Quaker farmer and smith, Nathanael was born on Forge Farm at Potowomut in the township of Warwick, Rhode Island on August 7,1742. His mother Mary Mott was his fathers second wife and his fathers sect discouraged literary accomplishments, so Greene educated himself with a special study of mathematics and law. The Rev. Ezra Stiles, later president of Yale University, was an influence in the young Nathanaels life. In 1770, Greene moved to Coventry, Rhode Island to take charge of the family-owned foundry and he sympathized strongly with the Whig or Patriot element among the colonists. In July 1774, he married Catharine Littlefield, also known as Caty or Kitty and they had six children who survived infancy. He was Quaker by birth, and struggled to reconcile the faiths commitment to pacifism throughout his military career and he continued to serve despite this, as did many other Quakers in the American Revolution. In August 1774, Greene helped organize a militia which was chartered as the Kentish Guards that October. His participation in the group was challenged because he had a pronounced limp, at this time, he began to acquire many expensive volumes on military tactics and began to teach himself the art of war. In December 1774, he was on an appointed by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in fighting the British and organizing the militia led to his expulsion from the pacifistic Quakers, on May 8,1775, he was promoted from private to major general of the Rhode Island Army of Observation formed in response to the Siege of Boston. He was appointed a brigadier of the Continental Army by the Continental Congress on June 22,1775, George Washington assigned Greene the command of the city of Boston after it was evacuated by the British in March 1776. Severe illness prevented him taking part in the Battle of Long Island. Greene was also a Rhode Island Freemason and bore a masonic jewel, Greene was prominent among those who advised a retreat from New York City. He also advocated the burning of the city so that the British might not use it and he justified this by asserting that the majority of property was owned by Loyalists. While Washington agreed with this, the proposal was rejected by Congress and he was placed in command of Fort Constitution on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River. On October 25,1776, he succeeded General Israel Putnam in command of Fort Washington, Greene ordered Colonel Magaw, who was in immediate command, to defend the place until he should hear from him again, and reinforced it to meet General Howes attack
40.
Battle of Kings Mountain
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Ferguson had arrived in North Carolina in early September 1780 to recruit troops for the Loyalist militia and protect the flank of Lord Cornwallis main force. Ferguson issued a challenge to the militias to lay down their arms or suffer the consequences. In response, the Patriot militias led by Benjamin Cleveland, James Johnston, William Campbell, John Sevier, Joseph McDowell, receiving intelligence on the oncoming attack, Ferguson decided to retreat to the safety of Lord Cornwallis army. However, the Patriots caught up with the Loyalists at Kings Mountain near the border with South Carolina, achieving a complete surprise, the Patriot militiamen attacked and surrounded the Loyalists, inflicting heavy casualties. After an hour of battle, Ferguson was fatally shot while trying to break the rebel line, although victorious, the Patriots had to retreat quickly from the area for fear of Cornwallis advance. Later they executed nine Loyalist prisoners after a short trial, the battle was a pivotal moment in the Southern campaign. The surprising victory of the American patriot militia over the Loyalists came after a string of defeats at the hands of Lord Cornwallis. With Ferguson dead and his Loyalist militia destroyed, Cornwallis was forced to abandon his plan to invade North Carolina, Major Patrick Ferguson was appointed Inspector of Militia on May 22,1780. The Battle of Musgrove Mill, August 19,1780 occurred near a ford of the Enoree River, the whole battle took perhaps an hour and within that period, sixty-three Tories were killed, an unknown number wounded, and seventy were taken prisoner. The Patriots lost only four dead and twelve wounded. Shelby’s forces covered sixty miles with Ferguson in hot pursuit before making their escape, William Campbell and his 400 Virginia men at the Sycamore Shoals muster in advance of the October 7,1780 Battle of Kings Mountain north of present day Blacksburg, South Carolina in North Carolina. On September 2, Ferguson and the militia he had already recruited marched west in pursuit of Shelby toward the Appalachian Mountain hill country on what is now the Tennessee/North Carolina border. North Carolina Patriot militia leaders Isaac Shelby and John Sevier, from the Washington District, met, the detachments of Shelby, Sevier and Campbell were met by 160 North Carolina militiamen led by Charles McDowell and his brother Joseph. Campbells cousin, Arthur Campbell, brought 200 more Virginians and their movement had been made possible by easing tensions with the Cherokee, thanks to diplomacy by Benjamin Clevelands brother-in-law, Indian agent Joseph Martin. The Overmountain Men crossed Roan Mountain the next day, and proceeded in a direction for about thirteen days in anticipation of fighting the British Loyalist forces. By September 30, they had reached Quaker Meadows, the Burke County, North Carolina home of the McDowell brothers, meanwhile, two deserters from the Patriot militia reached Patrick Ferguson and informed him of the large body of militia advancing towards him. The request did not reach Cornwallis until one day after the battle, on October 1, Ferguson reached North Carolinas Broad River, where he issued another pugnacious public letter, calling the local militia to join him lest they be pissed upon by a set of mongrels. On October 4, the Patriot militia reached Fergusons former camp at Gilbert Town, on October 6, they reached Cowpens, South Carolina, where they received word that Ferguson was east of them, heading towards Charlotte and Cornwallis
41.
Admission to practice law
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An admission to practice law is acquired when a lawyer receives a license to practice law. In jurisdictions with two types of lawyer, as barristers and solicitors, barristers must gain admission to the bar whereas for solicitors there are distinct practising certificates. Becoming a lawyer is a widely varied process around the world, Common to all jurisdictions are requirements of age and competence, some jurisdictions also require documentation of citizenship or immigration status. However, the most varied requirements are those surrounding the preparation for the license, whether it includes obtaining a law degree, passing an exam, in English, admission is also called a law license. Basic requirements vary from country to country, as described below, in some jurisdictions, after admission the lawyer needs to maintain a current practising certificate to be permitted to offer services to the public. Legal practice in Kenya is governed by the Advocates Act, Chapter 16 of the Laws of Kenya, only lawyers admitted to the Bar, known as Advocates of the High Court of Kenya, have the right of audience before Kenyan courts. The call is made in court by taking an oath before the Chief Justice who pronounces the admission. Usually, several lawyers are admitted to the Bar at the same session, to maintain eligibility to practice before courts, one must pay an annual fee for a practising certificate to the Law Society of Kenya, although the certificate is issued by the Court Registrar. Non-payment renders one ineligible to appear before courts, to appear before the Supreme Court, one must be an advocate of seven years standing. Admission to practice is a matter for each State, New Zealand practitioners may apply for admission pursuant to Trans-Tasman Mutual Recognition Act 1997. New South Wales A person is admitted as a legal practitioner after completing the required academic and these matters are dealt with in the Legal Profession Act 2004. The applicant applies to the Legal Profession Admission Board who assesses applications, after admission, a person is then entitled to apply for a practising certificate from the Law Society of New South Wales, or the NSW Bar Association. The practising certificate requires the payment of fees, insurance and a contribution to the fidelity fund, furthermore, the Legal Profession Rules 2008 replace articles of clerkship with supervised workplace training and make changes to the process of admission to practice. In the Peoples Republic of China, one must first obtain a degree, pass the National Judicial Examination. Hong Kong makes a distinction between barristers and solicitors, Admission to either profession requires a law degree and a Postgraduate Certificate in Laws. The apprenticeship to become a barrister is only one year, while a solicitor must apprentice for two years, foreign lawyers may be admitted as solicitors by passing the Overseas Qualified Lawyers Examination and satisfying a three months residence requirement. Foreign lawyers may also be admitted as barristers by passing the Barristers Qualification Examination, in India, prospective lawyers must complete an undergraduate law degree after 12 years of schooling and obtain an Honours Law Degree, where the course is a five years course. The first undergraduate foundational and generic degree, is awarded three years of study, and the professional Law Degree called the LL. B
42.
Franklin, Tennessee
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Franklin is a city in and county seat of Williamson County, Tennessee, United States. Located about 21 miles south of Nashville, it is one of the cities of the Nashville metropolitan area. Since 1980, its population has increased more than fivefold and, based on its 2013 estimated population of 68,886, it is ranked as the seventh-largest city in Tennessee. The city of Franklin was founded October 26,1799, by Abram Maury, Maury named the town after national founding father Benjamin Franklin, who was a close friend of Dr. Hugh Williamson, a member of the Continental Congress after whom Williamson County was named. Ewen Cameron built the first European-American house in the town of Franklin, Cameron was born February 23,1768, in Balgalkan, Ferintosh, Scotland. He emigrated to Virginia in 1785 and from there came to Tennessee, Cameron died February 28,1846, having lived 48 years in the same log house. His second wife, Mary, and he are buried in the old City Cemetery and his descendants have lived in Franklin continuously since 1798, when his son Duncan was born. During the American Civil War, the Battle of Franklin was fought in the city on November 30,1864, forty-four buildings were converted to use as field hospitals. The Carter, Carnton, and the Lotz historic homes are still standing from this era, long a suburb to Nashville, Tennessee, Franklin has expanded more than fivefold since 1980, when its population was 12,407. In 2012, it had an population of 68,280. This makes it rank as the seventh-largest city in the state, many of its residents commute to businesses in Nashville, but considerable growth has occurred in Franklin and the county of a regional economy. In the early morning hours of Christmas Eve of 1988, one died when an F4 tornado struck the city. Franklin is located at 35°55′45″N 86°51′27″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 78.0 km².77.8 km² of it is land and 0.2 km² of it is covered by water. Since the late 20th century, the city has grown rapidly in population, as of the census of 2010,62,487 people,16,128 households, and 11,225 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,393.3 people per square mile, the 17,296 housing units averaged 575.9 per square mile. The average household size was 2.55 and the family size was 3.09. In the city, the population was distributed as 27. 9% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,38. 1% from 25 to 44,19. 2% from 45 to 64, the median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.2 males
43.
Murfreesboro, Tennessee
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Murfreesboro is a city in and the county seat of Rutherford County, Tennessee. The population was 108,755 according to the 2010 census, in 2014, census estimates showed a population of 120,954. The city is the center of population of Tennessee and is part of the Nashville metropolitan area, which includes thirteen counties and it is Tennessees fastest growing major city and one of the fastest growing cities in the country. Murfreesboro is also home to Middle Tennessee State University, the largest undergraduate university in the state of Tennessee, in 2006, Murfreesboro was ranked by Money as the 84th best place to live in the United States, out of 745 cities with a population over 50,000. In 1811, the Tennessee State Legislature established a county seat for Rutherford County, author Mary Noailles Murfree was his great-granddaughter. As Tennessee settlement expanded to the west, the location of the capital in Knoxville became inconvenient for most newcomers. In 1818, Murfreesboro was designated as the capital of Tennessee, eight years later, however, it was itself replaced by Nashville. On December 31,1862, the Battle of Stones River and this was a major engagement of the American Civil War, and between December 31 and January 2,1863, the rival armies suffered a combined total of 23,515 casualties. It was the bloodiest battle of the war by percentage of casualties, following the Confederate retreat after the drawn Battle of Perryville in central Kentucky, the Confederate army moved through East Tennessee and then turned northwest to defend Murfreesboro. General Braxton Braggs veteran cavalry successfully harassed Union General William Rosecrans troop movements, however, they could not completely prevent supplies and reinforcements from reaching Rosecrans. Despite the large number of casualties, the battle was inconclusive, nevertheless, it is usually considered a Union victory, since afterwards General Bragg retreated 36 miles south to Tullahoma. Even so, the Union army did not move against Bragg until a full six months later in June 1863. The battle was significant since it did provide the Union army with a base to push the eventual drive further south and these eventually allowed the Union to divide the Eastern and Western theaters, followed by Shermans March to the Sea. The Stones River National Battlefield is now a historical site. General Rosecrans move to the depended on a secure source of provisions. Soon after the battle, Brigadier General James St. Clair Morton, Chief Engineer of the Army of the Cumberland, was ordered to build Fortress Rosecrans, the fortifications covered about 225 acres and were the largest built during the war. Fortress Rosecrans consisted of eight lunettes, four redoubts and connecting fortifications, the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad and the West Fork of the Stones River both passed through the fortress, while two roads provided additional transportation. The fortress was completed in June 1863, and only then did Rosecrans dare to move south, the fortress was never attacked, in part because the Union troops held the town of Murfreesboro hostage by training their artillery on the courthouse
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Hardy Murfree
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Hardy Murfree was a lieutenant colonel from North Carolina during the American Revolutionary War. Murfree was born on June 5,1752 at Murfrees Landing, North Carolina and his parents were William Murfree and Mary Moore. Murfree, a lieutenant in the Hertford County militia when the Revolutionary War began, was commissioned on September 1,1775, the regiment was commanded by Colonel Robert Howe, who was later a major general. He was then a major serving under General Anthony Wayne, and was thereafter promoted to lieutenant colonel. On July 17,1781, British forces led by Banastre Tarleton, Murfree led the militia that repulsed the attack at Skinners Bridge. Around 1807, Murfree migrated to Williamson County, Tennessee, living on land granted to him after the American Revolution, Murfree was a member of the North Carolina chapter of the Society of the Cincinnati. He was a Freemason for all of his life, active in both North Carolina and Tennessee. Murfree married Sally Brickell on February 17,1780 and they had five children, William Hardy Murfree, Fanny Noailles Murfree, Mary Moore Murfree, Matthias Brickell Murfree and Sally Murfree. Their great-granddaughter was the noted Tennessee writer Mary Noailles Murfree and his wife Sally died on March 29,1802. Murfree died on April 6,1809, in 1811 the Tennessee State Legislature renamed the town of Cannonsburgh to Murfreesboro in his honor
45.
Felix Grundy
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Felix Grundy was a congressman and senator from Tennessee and served as the 13th Attorney General of the United States. Born in Berkeley County, Virginia, Grundy moved to Brownsville, Pennsylvania and he was educated at home and at the Bardstown Academy in Bardstown, Kentucky. He then studied law and was admitted to the Kentucky bar and commenced practice in Springfield, Kentucky, in 1799, he was chosen to represent Washington County at the convention that drafted the second Kentucky Constitution. From 1800 to 1802, he represented Washington County in the Kentucky House of Representatives and he then moved to Nelson County, which he represented in the Kentucky House from 1804 to 1806. On December 10,1806, he was commissioned a justice on the Kentucky Court of Appeals. He was elevated to Chief Justice of the court on April 11,1807, later that year, he resigned and moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where he again took up the practice of law. He was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the 12th and 13th Congresses and served from March 4,1811 and he then became a member of the Tennessee House of Representatives from 1819 to 1825, and in 1820 was commissioner to settle the boundary line between Tennessee and Kentucky. He was elected as a Jacksonian in 1829 to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy in the term ending March 4,1833, caused by the resignation of John H. Eaton to join the Cabinet of President Andrew Jackson, reelected in 1832 and served from October 19,1829, to July 4,1838, when he resigned to accept a Cabinet position. During this time he served as chairman of the U. S. Senate Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads and he entered the Cabinet when he was appointed Attorney General of the United States by President Martin Van Buren in July 1838. During this stint in the house of the U. S. Congress he served as chairman of the U. S. Senate Committee on Revolutionary Claims in the 26th Congress. He is interred in the Mount Olivet Cemetery in Nashville, Tennessee, there are four Grundy Counties, including the one in Illinois, named in his honor. Grundy County and its county seat, Grundy Center, Iowa, are also named in his honor. Grundy Centers annual festival Felix Grundy Days, are held each July and he was a mentor to future President James K. Polk. Polk purchased Grundys home called Grundy Place and changed the name to Polk Place and he lived and died there after his presidency. Baylor, Orville W. Felix Grundy, 1777-1840, democracys Lawyer, Felix Grundy of the Old Southwest. Biographical Cyclopedia of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Allen, William B. Bradley & Gilbert
46.
Tariff of Abominations
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The Tariff of Abominations was a protective tariff passed by the Congress of the United States on May 19,1828, designed to protect industry in the northern United States. Enacted during the presidency of John Quincy Adams, it was labeled the Tariff of Abominations by its southern detractors because of the effects it had on the antebellum Southern economy and it set a 62% tax on 92% of all imported goods. Industries in the northern United States were being driven out of business by low-priced imported goods, the reaction in the South, particularly in South Carolina, would lead to the Nullification Crisis that began in late 1832. The tariff marked the point of U. S. tariffs. The first protective tariff was passed by Congress in 1816, its rates were increased in 1824. Those in Western states and manufacturers in the Mid-Atlantic States argued that the strengthening of the nation was in the interest of the entire country and this same reasoning swayed two-fifths of U. S. The 1828 tariff was signed by President Adams, although he realized it could weaken him politically. In the Presidential election of 1828, Andrew Jackson defeated Adams with a tally of 642,553 votes. Faced with a market for goods and pressured by British abolitionists, the British reduced their imports of cotton from the United States. The tariff forced the South to buy manufactured goods from U. S. manufacturers, mainly in the North, at a higher price, while southern states also faced a reduced income from sales of raw materials. The South Carolina legislature, although it printed and distributed 5,000 copies of the pamphlet, the expectation of the tariff’s opponents was that with the election of Jackson in 1828, the tariff would be significantly reduced. In Washington, a split on the issue occurred between Jackson and Vice-President Calhoun. On July 14,1832, Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832 which made some reductions in tariff rates, Calhoun resigned on December 28 of the same year. The reductions were too little for South Carolina, in November 1832 the state called for a convention. By a vote of 136 to 26, the convention adopted an ordinance of nullification drawn by Chancellor William Harper. It declared that the tariffs of both 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable in South Carolina
47.
National Road
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The National Road was the first major improved highway in the United States built by the federal government. Built between 1811 and 1837, the 620-mile road connected the Potomac and Ohio Rivers and was a main path to the West for thousands of settlers. When rebuilt in the 1830s, it became the second U. S. road surfaced with the macadam process pioneered by Scotsman John Loudon McAdam, construction began heading west in 1811 at Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac River. The road has also referred to as the Cumberland Turnpike, the Cumberland–Brownsville Turnpike, the Cumberland Pike, the National Pike. Today, much of the alignment is followed by U. S. Route 40, with various portions bearing the Alternate U. S. Route 40 designation, or various state-road numbers. In 2002, the road, including extensions east to Baltimore and west to St. Louis, was designated the Historic National Road. Construction of the Cumberland Road was authorized on March 29,1806, from there, where the Braddock Road turned north towards Pittsburgh, the new National Road/Cumberland Road continued west to Wheeling, West Virginia, also on the Ohio River. The contract for the construction of the first section was awarded to Henry McKinley on May 8,1811, for more than 100 years, a simple granite stone was the only marker of the roads beginning in Cumberland, Maryland. In June 2012, a monument and plaza were built in that towns Riverside Park, completed in 1824, these feeder routes formed what is referred to as an eastern extension of the federal National Road. On May 15,1820, Congress authorized an extension of the road to St. Louis, on the Mississippi River, in 1849, a bridge was completed to carry the National Road across the Ohio River at Wheeling. The Wheeling Suspension Bridge, designed by Charles Ellet Jr. was at the time the worlds longest bridge span at 1,010 feet from tower to tower, maintenance costs on the Cumberland Road were becoming more than Congress was willing to bear. In agreements with Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, the road was to be reconstructed and resurfaced, the section that ran over Haystack Mountain, just west of Cumberland, was abandoned and a new road was built through the Cumberland Narrows. On April 1,1835, the section from Wheeling to Cumberland was transferred to Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. The last congressional appropriation was made May 25,1838, and in 1840, Congress voted against completing the unfinished portion of the road, construction of the National Road stopped in 1839. Much of the road through Indiana and Illinois remained unfinished and was transferred to the states. In 1912, the Cumberland National Road was chosen to become part of the National Old Trails Road, five Madonna of the Trail monuments, donated by the Daughters of the American Revolution, were erected along the old National Road. In 1927, the National Road was designated as the part of U. S. Highway 40, which still generally follows the National Roads alignment with occasional bypasses, realignments. The mostly parallel Interstate 70 now provides a route for through travel without the many sharp curves, steep grades
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bell, John (political leader)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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