1.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
2.
Jury
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A jury is a sworn body of people convened to render an impartial verdict officially submitted to them by a court, or to set a penalty or judgment. Modern juries tend to be found in courts to ascertain the guilt, or lack thereof, in Anglophone jurisdictions, the verdict may be guilty or not guilty. The old institution of grand juries still exists in places, particularly the United States. The modern criminal court jury arrangement has evolved out of the juries in England. Members were supposed to inform themselves of crimes and then of the details of the crimes and their function was therefore closer to that of a grand jury than that of a jury in a trial. The word jury derives from Anglo-Norman juré, Juries are most common in common law adversarial-system jurisdictions. In the modern system, juries act as triers of fact, a trial without a jury is known as a bench trial. The petit jury hears the evidence in a trial as presented by both the plaintiff and the defendant, after hearing the evidence and often jury instructions from the judge, the group retires for deliberation, to consider a verdict. The majority required for a verdict varies, in some cases it must be unanimous, while in other jurisdictions it may be a majority or supermajority. A jury that is unable to come to a verdict is referred to as a hung jury, the size of the jury varies, in criminal cases involving serious felonies there are usually 12 jurors. In civil cases many trials require fewer than twelve jurors, grand juries carry out this duty by examining evidence presented to them by a prosecutor and issuing indictments, or by investigating alleged crimes and issuing presentments. A grand jury is traditionally larger than and distinguishable from the jury used during a trial. It is not required that a suspect be notified of grand jury proceedings, grand juries can also be used for filing charges in the form of a sealed indictment against unaware suspects who are arrested later by a surprise police visit. In addition to their role in screening criminal prosecutions and assisting in the investigation of crimes, grand juries in California, Florida. A third kind of jury, known as a jury can be convened in some common law jurisdiction in connection with an inquest by a coroner. A coroner is an official, who is charged with determining the circumstances leading to a death in ambiguous or suspicious cases. A coroners jury is generally a body that a coroner can convene on a basis in order to increase public confidence in the coroners finding where there might otherwise be a controversy. Serving on a jury is normally compulsory for individuals who are qualified for jury service, a jury is intended to be an impartial panel capable of reaching a verdict
3.
Flowchart
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A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow or process, showing the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem, Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields. Flowcharts are used in designing and documenting simple processes or programs, like other types of diagrams, they help visualize what is going on and thereby help understand a process, and perhaps also find flaws, bottlenecks, and other less-obvious features within it. There are many different types of flowcharts, and each type has its own repertoire of boxes and notational conventions. The two most common types of boxes in a flowchart are, a step, usually called activity. A flowchart is described as cross-functional when the page is divided into different swimlanes describing the control of different organizational units, a symbol appearing in a particular lane is within the control of that organizational unit. Flowcharts depict certain aspects of processes and they are complemented by other types of diagram. Similarly, in UML, a standard concept-modeling notation used in development, the activity diagram. Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams and Drakon-charts are a notation for process flow. The terms flowchart and flow chart are used interchangeably, the underlying graph structure of a flowchart is a flow graph, which abstracts away node types, their contents and other ancillary information. The Gilbreths tools quickly found their way into industrial engineering curricula, a 1944 graduate of Mogensens class, Art Spinanger, took the tools back to Procter and Gamble where he developed their Deliberate Methods Change Program. In 1947, ASME adopted a symbol set derived from Gilbreths original work as the ASME Standard, Operation, douglas Hartree in 1949 explained that Herman Goldstine and John von Neumann had developed a flowchart to plan computer programs. His contemporary account is endorsed by IBM engineers and by Goldstines personal recollections, Flowcharts became a popular means for describing computer algorithms. The popularity of flowcharts decreased in the 1970s when interactive computer terminals, algorithms can be expressed much more concisely as source code in such languages. Often pseudo-code is used, which uses the common idioms of such languages without strictly adhering to the details of a particular one, nowadays flowcharts are still used for describing computer algorithms. Modern techniques such as UML activity diagrams and Drakon-charts can be considered to be extensions of the flowchart, however, there are several of these classifications. For example, Andrew Veronis named three basic types of flowcharts, the system flowchart, the general flowchart, and the detailed flowchart and that same year Marilyn Bohl stated in practice, two kinds of flowcharts are used in solution planning, system flowcharts and program flowcharts. In addition, many techniques exist that are similar to flowcharts but carry a different name
4.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
5.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP
6.
Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
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The Eighth Amendment of the United States Constitution prohibits the federal government from imposing excessive bail, excessive fines, or cruel and unusual punishment. The U. S. Supreme Court has ruled that this amendments Cruel, the phrases in this amendment originated in the English Bill of Rights of 1689. This amendment was adopted on December 15,1791, along with the rest of the United States Bill of Rights. The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows, Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel, the Eighth Amendment was adopted, as part of the Bill of Rights, in 1791. Oates was sentenced to imprisonment including an annual ordeal of being out for two days pillory plus one day of whipping while tied to a moving cart. The Oates case eventually became a topic of the U. S. Supreme Court’s Eighth Amendment jurisprudence, the punishment of Oates involved ordinary penalties collectively imposed in a barbaric, excessive and bizarre manner. The reason why the judges in Oates perjury case were not allowed to impose the penalty may be because such a punishment would have deterred even honest witnesses from testifying in later cases. England’s declaration against cruel and unusual punishments was approved by Parliament in February 1689, Parliament then enacted the English Bill of Rights into law in December 1689. Members of parliament characterized the punishment in the Oates case as not just barbarous and inhuman, in England, the cruel and unusual punishments clause was a limitation on the discretion of judges, and required judges to adhere to precedent. For the bill of rights has particularly declared, that excessive fines ought not to be imposed, nor cruel, Virginia adopted this provision of the English Bill of Rights in the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, and the Virginia convention that ratified the U. S. Constitution recommended in 1788 that this also be included in the Constitution. Virginians such as George Mason and Patrick Henry wanted to ensure that this restriction would also be applied as a limitation on Congress, Mason warned that, otherwise, Congress may inflict unusual and severe punishments. Henry emphasized that Congress should not be allowed to depart from precedent, What has distinguished our ancestors. --That they would not admit of tortures, or cruel, but Congress may introduce the practice of the civil law, in preference to that of the common law. They may introduce the practice of France, Spain, and Germany, ultimately, Henry and Mason prevailed, and the Eighth Amendment was adopted. James Madison changed ought to shall, when he proposed the amendment to Congress in 1789, in England, sheriffs originally determined whether to grant bail to criminal suspects. Since they tended to abuse their power, Parliament passed a statute in 1275 whereby bailable and non-bailable offenses were defined, the Kings judges often subverted the provisions of the law. It was held that an individual may be held without bail upon the Sovereigns command, eventually, the Petition of Right of 1628 argued that the King did not have such authority. Thereafter, judges were compelled to set bail, but they often required impracticable amounts, finally, the English Bill of Rights held that excessive bail ought not to be required
7.
Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
8.
Jury nullification
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Jury nullification is a finding by a trial jury in contradiction to the jurys belief about the facts of the case. This may happen in both civil and criminal trials, in a civil trial, a jury nullifies by finding a defendant not liable, even though members of the jury may believe the defendant is liable. This may occur when members of the jury disagree with the law the defendant has been charged with breaking, a jury can similarly unjustly and illegally convict a defendant on the ground of disagreement with an existing law, even if no law is broken. A jury verdict that is contrary to the letter of the law only to the particular case before it. If a pattern of acquittals develops, however, in response to repeated attempts to prosecute a statutory offence, a pattern of jury nullification may indicate public opposition to an unwanted legislative enactment. In the past, it was feared that a judge or panel of government officials might be unduly influenced to follow established legal practice. Similarly, juries are routinely cautioned by courts and some not to allow sympathy for a party or other affected persons to compromise the fair. These instructions are criticized by advocates of jury nullification, juries have also refused to convict due to the perceived injustice of a law in general, or of the way the law is applied in particular cases. There have also been cases where the jury has refused to convict due to their own prejudices, jury nullification is the source of much debate. Some maintain that it is an important safeguard of last resort against wrongful imprisonment and government tyranny, others view it as a violation of the right to a jury trial, which undermines the law. Some view it as a violation of the oath sworn by jurors, United States v. Green,556 F. 2d 71. Some fear that nullification could be used to violence against socially unpopular factions. They point to the danger that a jury may choose to convict a defendant who has not broken the letter of the law, however, judges retain the rights both to decide sentences and to disregard juries guilty verdicts, acting as a check against malicious juries. Jury nullification may also occur in civil suits, in which the verdict is generally a finding of liability or lack of liability, the main deontic issue involved in jury nullification is the tension between democratic self-government and integrity. The argument has been raised that prosecutors are not allowed to seek jury nullification, however, for a prosecutor to nullify a jury in this context would require negating the presumption of innocence. Nevertheless, there is doubt as to the ability of a jury to nullify the law. Today, there are several issues raised by jury nullification, such as whether, a judge may remove jurors for cause when they refuse to apply the law as instructed. A judge may punish a juror for exercising the power of jury nullification, all legal arguments, except perhaps on motions in limine to exclude evidence, should be made in the presence of the jury
9.
Factor analysis
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Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. For example, it is possible that variations in six observed variables mainly reflect the variations in two unobserved variables, factor analysis searches for such joint variations in response to unobserved latent variables. The observed variables are modelled as linear combinations of the potential factors, factor analysis aims to find independent latent variables. Followers of factor analytic methods believe that the information gained about the interdependencies between observed variables can be used later to reduce the set of variables in a dataset. Users of factor analysis believe that it helps to deal with data sets where there are numbers of observed variables that are thought to reflect a smaller number of underlying/latent variables. Factor analysis is related to principal component analysis, but the two are not identical, there has been significant controversy in the field over differences between the two techniques. PCA is a basic version of exploratory factor analysis that was developed in the early days prior to the advent of high-speed computers. From the point of view of exploratory analysis, the eigenvalues of PCA are inflated component loadings, suppose we have a set of p observable random variables, x 1, …, x p with means μ1, …, μ p. Here, the ε i are unobserved stochastic error terms with zero mean and finite variance, in matrix terms, we have x − μ = L F + ε. If we have n observations, then we will have the dimensions x p × n, L p × k, each column of x and F denote values for one particular observation, and matrix L does not vary across observations. Also we will impose the following assumptions on F, F and ε are independent, any solution of the above set of equations following the constraints for F is defined as the factors, and L as the loading matrix. Then note that from the conditions just imposed on F, we have C o v = C o v, or Σ = L C o v L T + C o v, or Σ = L L T + Ψ. Note that for any orthogonal matrix Q, if we set L = L Q and F = Q T F, hence a set of factors and factor loadings is unique only up to orthogonal transformation. Suppose a psychologist has the hypothesis there are two kinds of intelligence, verbal intelligence and mathematical intelligence, neither of which is directly observed. Evidence for the hypothesis is sought in the scores from each of 10 different academic fields of 1000 students. If each student is chosen randomly from a population, then each students 10 scores are random variables. e. It is a combination of two factors. For example, the hypothesis may hold that the average students aptitude in the field of astronomy is +, the numbers 10 and 6 are the factor loadings associated with astronomy
10.
Drunk drivers
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People driving under the influence of alcohol are commonly referred to as drunk drivers, or drink-drivers. When charged with this as a crime, it may either be referred to as a DUI or a DWI, studies have been performed to identify commonalities between severe drunk drivers. Laws are also in place to protect citizens from the consequences incurred by drunk drivers, although situations differ and each person is unique, some common traits have been identified among drunk drivers. In the study personality traits and mental health of severe drunk drivers in Sweden,162 Swedish DUI offenders of all ages were studied to find links in psychological factors and characteristics. There are a variety of characteristics common among DUI offenders which are discussed, including, anxiety, depression, inhibition, low assertiveness, neuroticism. There is also a specific personality type found, typically more antisocial. Offenders who begin drinking at an age for thrills and fun are more likely to be antisocial later in their lives. The majority of the sample, 72%, came from what is considered more normal circumstances, the smaller portion of the sample, 28%, comes from what is generally considered less than desirable circumstances, or not normal. They tended to start drinking heavily earlier in life and exhibited more premorbid risk factors, had a more severe substance abuse, various characteristics associated with drunk drivers were found more often in one gender than another. Females were more likely to be affected by mental and physical health problems, have family and social problems, have a greater drug use. However, the females tended to have legal issues than the typical male offender. Some specific issues females dealt with were that almost half of the female alcoholics had previously attempted to commit suicide, in general the sample, when paralleled with control groups, was tested to be much more impulsive in general. Another commonality among the group was that the DUI offenders were more underprivileged when compared with the general population of drivers. A correlation has been found between lack of conscientiousness and accidents, meaning that low conscientiousness drivers were often involved in driving accidents than other drivers. Through this testing a previously overlooked character trait of DUI offenders was uncovered by the low scores on the openness to experience domain. This area includes intellectual curiosity, receptivity to the world of fantasy and imagination, appreciation of art and beauty, openness to inner emotions, values. In all these factors, there is only one which indicates relapses for driving under the influence. Not only can personality traits of DUI offenders be dissimilar from the rest of the population and they are unique in that they often drink despite the severity of legal and financial sanctions imposed on them by society
11.
Euthanasia
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Euthanasia is the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering. There are different euthanasia laws in each country, the British House of Lords Select Committee on Medical Ethics defines euthanasia as a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering. In the Netherlands and Flanders, euthanasia is understood as termination of life by a doctor at the request of a patient, Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which include voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary. Voluntary euthanasia is legal in some countries, non-voluntary euthanasia is illegal in all countries. Involuntary euthanasia is illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder. As of 2006, euthanasia is the most active area of research in contemporary bioethics, in some countries there is a divisive public controversy over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of euthanasia. Jurisdictions where euthanasia is legal include the Netherlands, Canada, Colombia, Belgium, like other terms borrowed from history, euthanasia has had different meanings depending on usage. Bacon referred to an outward euthanasia—the term outward he used to distinguish from a spiritual concept—the euthanasia which regards the preparation of the soul, in current usage, euthanasia has been defined as the painless inducement of a quick death. Another approach incorporates the notion of suffering into the definition, the third element incorporated into many definitions is that of intentionality – the death must be intended, rather than being accidental, and the intent of the action must be a merciful death. Beauchamp and Davidson also highlight Baruch Brodys an act of euthanasia is one in one person. Kills another person for the benefit of the person, who actually does benefit from being killed. Prior to Draper, Beauchamp and Davidson had also offered a definition that includes these elements and their definition specifically discounts fetuses in order to distinguish between abortions and euthanasia, In summary, we have argued. In discussing his definition, Wreen noted the difficulty of justifying euthanasia when faced with the notion of the right to life. In response, Wreen argued that euthanasia has to be voluntary, and that euthanasia is, as such. Other commentators incorporate consent more directly into their definitions, hence, euthanasia can be voluntary only. Euthanasia may be classified according to whether a person gives informed consent into three types, voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary, however, others see consent as essential. Euthanasia conducted with the consent of the patient is termed voluntary euthanasia, active voluntary euthanasia is legal in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Passive voluntary euthanasia is legal throughout the U. S. per Cruzan v. Director, when the patient brings about his or her own death with the assistance of a physician, the term assisted suicide is often used instead
12.
Anarchy
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Anarchy is the condition of a society, entity, group of people, or a single person that rejects hierarchy. The term originally meant leaderlessness, but in 1840, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon adopted the term in his treatise What Is Property, to refer to a new political philosophy, anarchism, which advocates stateless societies based on voluntary associations. In practical terms, anarchy can refer to the curtailment or abolition of traditional forms of government and it could also mean a nation or anywhere on earth that is inhabited, that has no system of government or central rule. The word anarchy comes from the ancient Greek ἀναρχία, which combines ἀ, not, without and ἀρχή, ruler, leader, thus, the term refers to a person or society without rulers or without leaders. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant treated anarchy in his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View as consisting of Law and Freedom without Force. Thus, for Kant, anarchy falls short of being a civil state because the law is only an empty recommendation if force is not included to make this law efficacious. For there to be such a state, force must be included while law and freedom are maintained, Kant identified four kinds of government, Law and freedom without force. Anarchism is a philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of social, some individualist anarchists are also socialists or communists while some anarcho-communists are also individualists or egoists. Anarchism as a movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Since the 1890s, the term libertarianism has been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States, right-libertarians are divided into minarchists and anarcho-capitalists or voluntarists. Outside the English-speaking world, libertarianism generally retains its association with left-wing anarchism, many of these societies can be considered to be anarchic in the sense that they explicitly reject the idea of centralized political authority. The egalitarianism typical of human hunter-gatherers is interesting when viewed in an evolutionary context, one of humanitys two closest primate relatives, the chimpanzee, is anything but egalitarian, forming hierarchies that are dominated by alpha males. In Society Against the State Pierre Clastres examines stateless societies where cultural practices and attitudes avert the development of hierarchy. He dismisses the notion that the state is the outcome of the evolution of human societies
13.
Tyrant
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A tyrant, in its modern English usage, is an absolute ruler unrestrained by law or person, or one who has usurped legitimate sovereignty. Often described as a character, a tyrant defends his position by oppressive means. The original Greek term, however, merely meant an authoritarian sovereign without reference to character, bearing no pejorative connotation during the Archaic, Plato and Aristotle define a tyrant as one who rules without law, and uses extreme and cruel tactics–against his own people as well as others. It is defined further in the Encyclopédie as a usurper of sovereign power who makes his subjects the victims of his passions and unjust desires, which he substitutes for laws. During the seventh and sixth centuries BC, tyranny was often looked upon as a stage between narrow oligarchy and more democratic forms of polity. However, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, a new kind of tyrant. Tyranny includes a variety of types of government – by a tyrant. The definition is extended to other leadership and to oppressive policies. For example, a teacher may find the school administration, the textbook or standardized tests to be oppressive, the English noun tyrant appears in Middle English use, via Old French, from the 1290s. The final -t arises in Old French by association with the present participles in -ant, the word tyranny is used with many meanings, not only by the Greeks, but throughout the tradition of the great books. The Oxford English Dictionary offers alternative definitions, a ruler, an illegitimate ruler, the term is usually applied to vicious dictators who achieve bad results for the governed. The definition of a tyrant is cursed by subjectivity, oppression, injustice and cruelty do not have standardized measurements or thresholds. The Greeks defined both usurpers and those inheriting rule from usurpers as tyrants, Old words are defined by their historical usage. It is difficult to determine characteristics of tyrants were defining rather than descriptive. Biblical quotations do not use the word tyrant, but express opinions very similar to those of the Greek philosophers, citing the wickedness, cruelty, like a roaring lion or a charging bear is a wicked ruler over a poor people. A ruler who lacks understanding is a cruel oppressor, but one who hates unjust gain will enjoy a long life, proverbs 28, 15–16 By justice a king gives stability to the land, but one who makes heavy extractions ruins it. Proverbs 29,4 The Greek philosophers stressed the quality of rule rather than legitimacy or absolutism, both Plato and Aristotle speak of the king as a good monarch and the tyrant as a bad one. Both say that monarchy, or rule by a man, is royal when it is for the welfare of the ruled
14.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
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Jury trial
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A jury trial, or trial by jury, is a legal proceeding in which a jury makes a decision or findings of fact, which then direct the actions of a judge. It is distinguished from a trial in which a judge or panel of judges makes all decisions. Only the United States makes routine use of trials in a wide variety of non-criminal cases. The availability of a trial by jury in American jurisdictions varies, as a result, this practice continues in American civil laws, but in modern English law, only criminal proceedings and some inquests are likely to be heard by a jury. Jury trials are of far less importance in countries that do not have a common law system, ancient Athens had a mechanism, called dikastaí, to assure that no one could select jurors for their own trial. For normal cases, the courts were made up of dikastai of up to 500 citizens. For capital cases—those that involved death, loss of liberty, exile, loss of civil rights, in such large juries, the unanimity rule would be unrealistic, and verdicts were reached by majority. Jurists cast a ceramic disk with an axle in its middle, thus the way they voted was kept secret because the jurists would hold their disk by the axle by thumb and forefinger, thus hiding whether its axle was hollow or solid. Since Periclean times, jurists were compensated for their sitting in court, the institution of trial by jury was ritually depicted by Aeschylus in the Eumenides, the third and final play of his Oresteia trilogy. In the play, the innovation is brought about by the goddess Athena, the god Apollo takes part in the trial as the advocate for the defendant Orestes and the Furies as prosecutors for the slain Clytaemnestra. In the event the jury is split six to six, and Athena dicates that in such a case, capital trials were held in front of juries composed of hundreds or thousands of people in the commitias or centuries, the same as in Roman trials. Roman law provided for the selection of judices, who would be responsible for resolving disputes by acting as jurors. High government officials and their relatives were barred from acting as judices and those previously found guilty of serious crimes were also barred as were gladiators for hire, who likely were hired to resolve disputes through trial by combat. A Swabian ordinance of 1562 called for the summons of jurymen, and various methods were in use in Emmendingen, Oppenau, and Oberkirch. Hauensteins charter of 1442 secured the right to be tried in all cases by 24 fellow equals, the modern jury trial was first introduced in the Rhenish provinces in 1798, with a court consisting most commonly of 12 citizens. In Constance the jury trial was suppressed by decree of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1786, an 1873 draft on criminal procedure produced by the Prussian Ministry of Justice proposed to abolish the jury and replace it with the mixed system, causing a significant political debate. In the Weimar Republic the jury was abolished by the Emminger Reform of 4 January 1924 and they had no professional lawyers, but many of their farmer-warriors, like Njal, the truth-teller, were learned in folk custom and in its intricate judicial procedure. A Danish town in England often had, as its main officers and these juries differed from the modern sort by being self-informing, instead of getting information through a trial, the jurors were required to investigate the case themselves
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Grand jury
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Grand jury is a legal body empowered to conduct official proceedings and investigate potential criminal conduct, and determine whether criminal charges should be brought. A grand jury may compel the production of documents and compel sworn testimony of witnesses to appear before it, Grand jury is separate from the courts, which do not preside over its functioning. Grand juries perform both accusatory and investigatory functions, investigatory functions of grand juries include obtaining and reviewing documents and other evidence, and hearing sworn testimonies of witnesses who appear before it. Grand jurys accusatory function is to determine there is probable cause to believe that one or more persons committed a certain offence within the venue of district court. Grand jury in the United States is usually composed of 16 to 23 citizens, though in Virginia, in Ireland, they also functioned as local government authorities. In Japan, Law of July 12,1948 created the Kensatsu Shinsakai, Grand jury is so named because traditionally it has greater number of jurors than trial jury, called a petit jury. The function of a jury is to accuse persons who may be guilty of an offense. It is a means for lay citizens, representative of the community and it can also make presentments on crime and maladministration in its area. The traditional number of the jury is 23. No indictment or presentment can be made except by concurrence of at least twelve of the jurors, the grand jury may accuse upon their own knowledge, but it is generally done upon the testimony of witnesses under oath and other evidence heard before them. The proceedings of grand jury are, in the first instance, at the instigation of the government or other prosecutor, the accused has no knowledge nor right to interfere with their proceedings. If the grand jury returns an indictment as a bill, the indictment is said to be founded and party stand indicted. Grand jury only hears evidence on behalf of the prosecution for the finding of an indictment only in the nature of inquiry or accusation, however, they ought to be thoroughly persuaded of the truth of indictment, so far as their evidence goes. The first instance of a jury can be traced back to the Assize of Clarendon in 1166. Henrys chief impact on the development of the English monarchy was to increase the jurisdiction of the courts at the expense of the feudal courts. Itinerant justices on regular circuits were sent out each year to enforce the Kings Peace. To make this system of criminal justice more effective, Henry employed the method of inquest used by William the Conqueror in the Domesday Book. In each shire, a body of important men was sworn to report to the sheriff all crimes committed since the last session of the circuit court, thus originated the more recent grand jury that presents information for an indictment
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Petit jury
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In common law, a petit jury hears the evidence in a trial as presented by both the plaintiff and the defendant. After hearing the evidence and often jury instructions from the judge, the majority required for a verdict varies. In some cases it must be unanimous, while in other jurisdictions it may be a majority or supermajority, a jury that is unable to come to a verdict is referred to as a hung jury. The size of the varies, in criminal cases involving serious felonies there are usually 12 jurors. A number of countries that are not in the English common law tradition have quasi-juries on which lay judges or jurors, however, the common law trial jury is the most common type of jury system. In civil cases many trials require fewer than twelve jurors, juries are almost never used in civil cases outside the United States and Canada. Other states with a common law tradition sometimes use them in cases, in cases involving a governmental eminent domain power. Civil law countries generally do not use civil juries, civil juries are available in the United States and Canada in almost all cases where the only remedy sought is money damages
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Deliberation
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Deliberation is a process of thoughtfully weighing options, usually prior to voting. Deliberation emphasizes the use of logic and reason as opposed to power-struggle, creativity, group decisions are generally made after deliberation through a vote or consensus of those involved. In legal settings a jury famously uses deliberation because it is given specific options, like guilty or not guilty, along with information and arguments to evaluate. In deliberative democracy, the aim is for elected officials and the general public to use deliberation rather than power-struggle as the basis for their vote. In countries with a system, the jurys deliberation in criminal matters can involve both rendering a verdict and determining the appropriate sentence. In civil cases, the decision is whether to agree with the plaintiff or the defendant. Typically, a jury must come to a decision before delivering a verdict, however. One of the most famous depictions of this phase of a trial in practice is the film,12 Angry Men. In political philosophy, there is a range of views regarding how deliberation becomes a possibility within particular governmental regimes. Most recently, the uptake of deliberation by political philosophy embraces it alternatively as a component or the death-knell of democratic systems. Much of contemporary democratic theory juxtaposes an optimism about democracy against excessively hegemonic, fascist, thus, the position of deliberation is highly contested and is defined variously by different camps within contemporary political philosophy. In its most general sense, deliberation describes a process of interaction between various subjects/subjectivities dictated by a set of norms, rules, or fixed boundaries. Existential deliberation is a term coined by the theorists of the public sphere. Existential deliberation theorists contend that deliberation is a state, rather than a process that can be deployed. As such, deliberation is a thing that only might happen in face-to-face encounters. This utilizes the insights of radical deliberation, in that the political is a discharge of potential into an otherwise sterile social field. Advocates of “public deliberation” as an essential democratic practice focus on processes of inclusiveness, radical deliberation refers to a philosophical view of deliberation inspired by the events of the student revolution in May 1968. The account of mechanisms or technologies is in some sense paradoxical, on the one hand, for Mouffe, the fact of the configuration of the social is the only foundational political stability - that and the certainty of a penultimate articulations deferral
19.
Jury selection
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Jury selection are many methods used to choose the people who will serve on a jury. The jury pool, also known as the venire, is first selected from among the community using a random method. Jury lists are compiled from voter registrations and driver license/state ID renewals, from those lists, summons are mailed. A panel of jurors is then assigned to a courtroom, the prospective jurors are randomly selected to sit in the jury box. At this stage they will be questioned in court by the judge and/or attorneys in the United States, depending on the jurisdiction, attorneys may have an opportunity to mount a challenge for cause argument or use one of a limited number of peremptory challenges. In some jurisdictions that have capital punishment, the jury must be death-qualified to remove those who are opposed to the death penalty, Jury selection and techniques for voir dire are taught to law students in trial advocacy courses. However, attorneys sometimes use expert assistance in choosing the jury. The jury selected is said to have been empaneled, selected jurors are generally subjected to a system of examination whereby both the prosecution and defense can object to a juror. In common law countries, this is known as voir dire, in some jurisdictions, the attorneys for the parties may question the potential jurors, in other jurisdictions, the trial judge conducts the voir dire. No justifications have to be brought to exclude a specific juror, in some jurisdictions, attorneys also have the right to make a challenge for cause argument to the judge. This is an argument over whether a particular background or beliefs make them biased. In the United States the process of voir dire is often more in depth than in other countries. The amount of privacy that the jurors are afforded when asked questions raises the issue of the definition of impartial jury. Some people question if the intensive questioning of potential jurors looks not just for inherent bias, on the other hand, proponents argue that this method gives both sides more confidence in the verdict. In the United States, capital cases, the jury must often be death-qualified, a death-qualified jury is one in which all members of the venire that categorically object to capital punishment are removed. This has the effect of ensuring that the jury will be willing to hand down a sentence of death, the United States Supreme Court has ruled that the practice is constitutional. Critics object to death-qualification because empirical evidence has shown that jurors are more likely to convict defendants of crimes than are jurors generally. In the 1970s and 1980s in the United States, scientific jury selection — the use of expert assistance to effectively use peremptory challenges — became more common
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Scientific jury selection
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Scientific jury selection, often abbreviated SJS, is the use of social science techniques and expertise to choose favorable juries during a criminal or civil trial. Scientific jury selection is used during the selection phase of the trial — when lawyers have the opportunity to question jurors and they. The practice is confined to the American legal system. SJS has roots in criminal trials during the Vietnam War era, SJS practitioners determine what background characteristics and attitudes predict favorable results, and then coordinate with attorneys in choosing the jury. SJSs potential to skew the jury has led to some reform proposals. The limited fictional portrayals of SJS have been negative towards the practice, during jury selection in the United States, attorneys have two options for excluding potential jurors. The first option is a challenge for cause, in which attorneys must state the reason for a challenge, the party is allowed to respond. The second option is a challenge, where an attorney can exclude a juror without stating any reason. While challenges for cause are unlimited, attorneys have a number of peremptory challenges, sometimes as few as four. Attorneys have long used peremptory challenges to exclude undesirable prospective jurors, much of the early efforts were based on lawyers folklore about who makes a good juror for their case. Early examples of scientific jury selection were similar, for example, in the 1975 Joan Little trial, defense attorneys used an astrologer to help choose the jury. More rigorous methodology was on display during the first major use of SJS, during that trial, social scientists used demographic characteristics to identify biases in favor of conviction. Although surveys had indicated that 80% of citizens in conservative Harrisburg, Pennsylvania would convict the defendants, a jury consultant helped pick the jury in the O. J. Simpson murder trial. Prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi gives more credit to the change of venue. He argues that transferring the case to a section of Los Angeles with more blacks in the pool was most detrimental to the selection of a prosecution-friendly jury. Incidentally, the prosecutor fired her court-appointed jury consultant early in the process, since the 1980s, large jury consulting and trial consulting firms have sprouted up with multi-million dollar incomes, mostly from such high-stakes civil litigation. Jury consultants argue that they operate in a process the same way lawyers do. The theory behind SJS is that juror attitudes predict voting preferences most effectively, by discovering what relationships exist between certain attitudes, attorneys can exclude those from the jury whose attitudes would predispose them to a bad verdict
21.
Juries in the United States
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There are three types of juries in the United States, criminal grand juries, criminal petit juries, and civil juries. In the United States Constitution, juries are mentioned in Article Three and the Fifth, the Sixth, juries are not available in courts of American Samoa established pursuant to the Constitution of American Samoa. Declaration of Independence accused George III of depriving us in many cases, Constitution states that all trials shall be by jury. The U. S. Supreme Court noted the importance of the right in its 1968 ruling of Duncan v. Louisiana. The framers of the constitutions strove to create an independent judiciary, providing an accused with the right trial by a jury of his peers gave him an inestimable safeguard against the corrupt or overzealous prosecutor and against the compliant, biased, or eccentric judge. A grand jury decides whether or not there is evidence that a person has committed a crime in order to put him or her on trial. If a grand jury decides there is evidence, the person is indicted. A grand jury has 16-23 members, and its proceedings are not open to the public, unlike with a petit jury, the defendant is not allowed to appear before a grand jury. A petit jury, also known as a jury, is the standard type of jury used in criminal cases in the United States. Petit juries are responsible for deciding whether or not a defendant is guilty of violating the law in a specific case and they consist of 6-12 people and their deliberations are private. Their decision is known as a verdict and decides whether a person is guilty or not guilty. shall be by Jury, most states constitutions also grant the right of trial by jury in lesser criminal matters, though most have eliminated that right in offenses punishable by fine only. The Supreme Court has ruled that if imprisonment is for six months or less, trial by jury is not required, meaning a state may choose whether or not to permit trial by jury in such cases. Specifically, the Supreme Court has held that no offense can be deemed petty for purposes of the right to trial by jury where imprisonment for more than six months is authorized. Justice Black and Justice Douglas concurred, stating that they would have required a trial in all criminal proceedings in which the sanction imposed bears the indicia of criminal punishment. Chief Justice Burger, Justice Harlan and Justice Stewart objected to setting this limitation at six months for the States, no jury trial was required when the trial judge suspended sentence and placed defendant on probation for three years. The Supreme Court found that the disadvantages of such a sentence, onerous though they may be, may be outweighed by the benefits that result from speedy, such interpretations have been criticized on the grounds that all is not a word that constitution-makers use lightly. In the cases Apprendi v. New Jersey, and Blakely v. Depending upon the state a jury must be unanimous for either a guilty or not guilty decision. In the event of a jury, charges against the defendant are not dropped
