1.
Konkani language
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Konkani is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages and is spoken along the South western coast of India. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages mentioned in the 8th schedule of the Indian Constitution, the first Konkani inscription is dated 1187 A. D. It is a minority language in Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Konkani is a member of the southern Indo-Aryan language group. It retains elements of Old Indo-Aryan structures and shows similarities with both western and eastern Indo-Aryan languages and it is quite possible that Old Konkani was just referred to as Prakrit by its speakers. Among the inscriptions at the foot of the statue of Bahubali at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka are two lines reading thus, Sri Chamundaraje Karaviyale and Sri Ganga raje sutthale karaviyale. The first line was inscribed circa 981 AD and the line in 116-17 AD. The language of these lines is Konkani according to Dr. S. B, considering these arguments, these inscriptions at Sravanabelegola may be considered the earliest Konkani inscriptions in Devanagari script. Reference to the name Konkani is not found in prior to 13th century. The first reference of the name Konkani is in Abhanga 263 of the 13th century Marathi saint poet, Konkani has been known by a variety of names, Canarim, Concanim, Gomantaki, Bramana, and Goani. It is called Amchi Bhas by native speakers, and Govi or Goenchi Bhas by others, learned Marathi speakers tend to call it Gomantaki. Konkani was commonly referred to as Lingua Canarim by the Portuguese, the Portuguese later started referring to Konkani as Lingua Concanim. The name Canarim or Lingua Canarim, which is how the 16th century European Jesuit and it is possible that the term is derived from the Persian word for coast, kinara, if so, it would mean the language of the coast. The problem is that this term overlaps with Kanarese or Kannada, All the European authors, however, recognised two forms of the language in Goa, the plebeian, called Canarim, and the more regular, called Lingua Canarim Brámana or simply Brámana de Goa. The latter was the choice of the Europeans, and also of other castes, for writing, sermons. There are different views as to the origin of the word Konkan, the word Konkan comes from the Kukkana tribe, who were the original inhabitants of the land Konkani originated from. According to some Hindu legends, Parashurama shot his arrow into the sea, the new piece of land thus recovered came to be known as Konkan meaning piece of earth or corner of earth, kōṇa + kaṇa. This legend is mentioned in Sahyadrikhanda of the Skanda Purana, Konkan is synonymous with Konkani, but it is today divided into three states, Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. Olivinho Gomes in his essay Medieval Konkani Literature also mentions the Mundari substratum, Goan Indologist Ramakrishna Shenvi Dhume identified many Austroloid Munda words in Konkani, like mund, mundkar, dhumak, goem-bab
2.
Indo-Aryan languages
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The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages are the dominant language family of the Indian subcontinent. They constitute a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family, Indo-Aryan speakers form about one half of all Indo-European speakers, and more than half of all Indo-European languages recognized by Ethnologue. While the languages are spoken in South Asia, pockets of Indo-Aryan languages are found to be spoken in Europe. The largest in terms of speakers are Hindustani, Bengali, Punjabi. Proto-Indo-Aryan, or sometimes Proto-Indic, is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages and it is intended to reconstruct the language of the Proto-Indo-Aryans. Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan which is attested as Vedic. Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a number of archaic features lost in Vedic. Vedic has been used in the ancient preserved religious hymns, the canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. Mitanni-Aryan is of age to the language of the Rigveda. The language of the Vedas – commonly referred to as Vedic Sanskrit by modern scholars – is only marginally different from Proto-Indo-Aryan the proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. From the Vedic, Sanskrit developed as the language of culture, science and religion, as well as the court, theatre. Sanskrit is, by convention, referred to by scholars as Classical Sanskrit in contra-distinction to the so-called Vedic Sanskrit. Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects continued to evolve, the oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardha Magadhi, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, Apabhramsa is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production, the Sravakachar of Devasena is now considered to be the first Hindi book, the next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Turco-Mongol Mughal empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoptation of the language by the Mughal emperors. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani and this Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian, Arabic, and Turkic elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects. The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali and Hindustani, others include Sindhi, Gujarati, Odia, Marathi, the Indo-Aryan languages of Northern India and Pakistan form a dialect continuum
3.
Indo-European languages
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The Indo-European languages are a language family of several hundred related languages and dialects. There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to the estimate by Ethnologue, the most widely spoken Indo-European languages by native speakers are Spanish, English, Hindustani, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, and Punjabi, each with over 100 million speakers. Today, 46% of the population speaks an Indo-European language as a first language. The Indo-European family includes most of the languages of Europe, and parts of Western, Central. It was also predominant in ancient Anatolia, the ancient Tarim Basin and most of Central Asia until the medieval Turkic migrations, all Indo-European languages are descendants of a single prehistoric language, reconstructed as Proto-Indo-European, spoken sometime in the Neolithic era. Several disputed proposals link Indo-European to other language families. In the 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent began to notice similarities among Indo-Aryan, Iranian, in 1583, English Jesuit missionary Thomas Stephens in Goa wrote a letter to his brother in which he noted similarities between Indian languages and Greek and Latin. Another account to mention the ancient language Sanskrit came from Filippo Sassetti, a merchant born in Florence in 1540, writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian. However, neither Stephens nor Sassettis observations led to further scholarly inquiry and he included in his hypothesis Dutch, Albanian, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, later adding Slavic, Celtic, and Baltic languages. However, Van Boxhorns suggestions did not become known and did not stimulate further research. Ottoman Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi visited Vienna in 1665–1666 as part of a diplomatic mission, gaston Coeurdoux and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a comparison of Sanskrit, Latin and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Thomas Young first used the term Indo-European in 1813, deriving from the extremes of the language family. A synonym is Indo-Germanic, specifying the familys southeasternmost and northwesternmost branches, a number of other synonymous terms have also been used. Franz Bopps Comparative Grammar appeared between 1833 and 1852 and marks the beginning of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline, the classical phase of Indo-European comparative linguistics leads from this work to August Schleichers 1861 Compendium and up to Karl Brugmanns Grundriss, published in the 1880s. Brugmanns neogrammarian reevaluation of the field and Ferdinand de Saussures development of the theory may be considered the beginning of modern Indo-European studies. This led to the laryngeal theory, a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics. Isolated terms in Luwian/Hittite mentioned in Semitic Old Assyrian texts from the 20th and 19th centuries BC, Hittite texts from about 1650 BC, Armenian, writing known from the beginning of the 5th century AD
4.
Konkan
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Konkan, also known as the Konkan Coast or Kokan, is a rugged section of the western coastline of India. It is a 720 km long coastline and it consists of the coastal districts of western Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra. The ancient Saptakonkana is a larger region. The word Konkan derived from two marathi words koṇa and kaṇa, the Konkan region is a relatively small strip of flat land at the western foothills of the Western Ghats. The Konkan division is an administrative sub-division of Maharashtra which comprises all the districts of the state. The Sahyadri Mountain range forms the boundary of the Konkan. The southern boundary is the Gangavali River, the Mayura River forms the northern boundary. The Gangavali flows in the district of in present-day Karnataka State, the towns of Karwar, Ankola, Kumta, Honavar and Bhatkal fall within the Konkan. The exact identity of the Mayura River, the limits of the historic Konkan, is indeterminate. The two districts in the state capital Mumbai are also part of Konkan division, maharashtras konkan area consists of,1. Palghar 2. Thane 3. Mumbai city 4. Mumbai suburb 5. Raigarh 6. Ratnagiri 7. Tribal communities in Konkan include Konkana, Warli and Kolcha in Southern Gujarat, Dadra and Nagarhaveli, katkaris are found more in Raigad and also some in Ratnagiri district
5.
Goa
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Goa /ˈɡoʊ. ə/ is a state in India within the coastal region known as the Konkan in western India. It is bounded by Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the east and it is Indias smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Goa is Indias richest state, with a GDP per capita two and a half times that of the country, Panaji is the states capital, while Vasco da Gama is its largest city. The historic city of Margao still exhibits the influence of the Portuguese. Goa is a former Portuguese province, the Portuguese overseas territory of Portuguese India existed for about 450 years until it was annexed by India in 1961. Goa is visited by large numbers of international and domestic tourists each year for its beaches, places of worship and it has rich flora and fauna, owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, a biodiversity hotspot. In ancient literature, Goa was known by names, such as Gomanchala, Gopakapattana, Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Govem. In the 3rd century BC, Goa was known as Aparantha and is mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy, in the 13th century, the Greeks referred to Goa as Nelkinda. Other historical names for Goa are Sindapur, Sandabur, and Mahassapatam, Goas history goes back 20, 000–30,000 years. The rock art engravings exhibit the earliest traces of life in India. Upper Paleolithic or Mesolithic rock art engravings have been found on the bank of the river Kushavati at Usgalimal. Petroglyphs, cones, stone-axe, and choppers dating to 10,000 years ago have been found in places in Goa, such as Kazur, Mauxim. Evidence of Palaeolithic life is seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigao, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds poses a problem for determining the exact time period. Early Goan society underwent radical change when Indo-Aryan and Dravidian migrants amalgamated with the aboriginal locals, in the 3rd century BC, Goa was part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Buddhist monks laid the foundation of Buddhism in Goa, between the 2nd century BC and the 6th century AD, Goa was ruled by the Bhojas of Goa. The rule later passed to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 578 and 753, and later the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed from 753 to 963, from 765 to 1015, the Southern Silharas of Konkan ruled Goa as the feudatories of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Over the next few centuries, Goa was successively ruled by the Kadambas as the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, in 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. The kingdoms grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 it was forced to surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara empire, the Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga
6.
Canara Konkani
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Kukna is a minority language spoken by the Saraswat Konkani people of Karnataka and in some parts of Kerala. The Karnataka Saraswat dialects are referred to as Canara Konkani, the Kerala dialects are referred to as Travancore Konkani or Kerala Konkani. The word Canara is a Portuguese corruption of the word Kannada, the early Portuguese conquistadors referred to Konkani as lingoa Canarim as a reference to Canara. Kukna is distinguished from the dialect spoken by the Catholics of Mangalore which has a separate language glotto code, Kukna is mainly spoken as a minority language in the Indian States of Karnataka, and in some parts of Kerala and Maharashtra. The speakers are concentrated in the districts of Uttara Kannada district, Udupi, francis Xavier which was established in 1560 and abolished in 1812. According to the 1991 census of India,40. 1% Konkani speakers hail from the state of Karnataka, in Karnataka over 80% of them are from the coastal districts of North and South Canara, including Udupi. 3. 6% of the Konkani speakers are from Kerala, based on local language influence, Konkani speaking people are classified into three main regions, This is the region north of the Gangolli river, starts from the Kali river of Karwar. North Canarites are called baḍgikār or simply baḍgi in Konkani, North Canara Konkani has more of Goan Konkani influence than Kannada influence compared to South Canara Konkani. The major Konkani speaking communities include, Karwar Konkani is different from Mangalorean or south Kanara konkani and it is similar to Goan Konkani but mixed with Kannada accented words. Although people of Karwar have their tongue as Konkani. Konkani speakers in North Canara are bilingual, they are conversant in Kannada as well as Konkani. A few are conversant in Marathi too and this is the region south of the Gangolli river. South Canarites are called ṭenkikār tenkabagli or simply ṭenki in Konkani, the Rajapur Saraswat, Kudalkar, Daivajna, Kumbhar, Gaud Saraswats and Chitrapur Saraswats are some of the Konkani speaking communities of this region. 15% of Dakshina Kannada speaks Konkani, South Canara Saraswats, both Gaud Saraswat and Chitrapur Saraswat affectionately refer to their dialect as āmcigelẽ This region has recently been bifurcated into Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts. Konkani speakers in South Canara are trilingual, they are conversant in Konkani, Kannada, some of the towns in South Canara have separate Konkani names. Udupi is called ūḍup and Mangalore is called kodiyāl in Konkani, Konkani speakers are found predominantly in the Cochin and Ernakulam Alappuzha, Kollam districts of Kerala, the earstwhile kingdom of Travancore. Kudumbis, Gaud Saraswats, Vaishya Vani of Cochin, and Daivajna are the major communities, the Konkani dialect of the Gaud Saraswats is affectionately referred to as koccimā̃y by members of that community. Konkani speakers in this region are bilingual, they are conversant in Konkani as well as Malayalam, Konkani in Karnataka has been in contact with Kannada and Tulu, thus showing Dravidian influence on its syntax
7.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
8.
Maharashtra
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Four Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Maharashtras second capital as well as its winter capital. Maharashtras business opportunities along with its potential to offer a standard of living attract migrants from all over India. Ancient and medieval Maharashtra included the empires of the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Mughals, the major rivers of the state are Godavari, and Krishna. The Narmada and Tapti Rivers flow near the border between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state in India. The state has several popular Hindu places of pilgrimage including Pandharpur, Dehu and Alandi, other places that attract pilgrims from other parts of India and beyond include Hazur Sahib Gurudwara at Nanded, Sai Baba shrine at Shirdi and Dikshabhumi at Nagpur. Maharashtra is the wealthiest and one of the most developed states in India, as of 2011, the state had a per capita income of ₹1.0035 lakh, more than the national average of ₹0.73 lakh. Its GDP per capita crossed the ₹1.20 lakh threshold for the first time in 2013, however, as of 2014, the GDP per capita reduced to ₹1.03 lakh Agriculture and industries are the largest parts of the states economy. Major industries include chemical products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, Jai Maharashtra The modern Marathi language developed from the Maharashtri Prakrit, and the word Mahratta is found in the Jain Maharashtri literature. The terms Maharashtra, Maharashtri, Marathi and Maratha may have derived from the same root, however, their exact etymology is uncertain. But the Marathas as a people do not seem to be mentioned before the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the most widely accepted theory among the linguistic scholars is that the words Maratha and Maharashtra ultimately derived from a combination of Maha and rashtrika. The word rashtrika is a Sanskritized form of Ratta, the name of a tribe or dynasty of petty chiefs ruling in the Deccan region. Another theory is that the term is derived from Maha and ratha / rathi, an alternative theory states that the term derives from the word Maha and Rashtra. However, this theory has not found acceptance among scholars who believe it to be the Sanskritised interpretation of later writers. Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, around 230 BCE Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, in 90 CE Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty, made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. The state was ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally
9.
Languages with official status in India
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The Constitution of India designates the official language of the Government of India as Hindi written in the Devanagari script, as well as English. There is no national language as declared by the Constitution of India, Hindi and English are used for official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings, judiciary, communications between the Central Government and a State Government. States within India have the liberty and powers to specify their own language through legislation. Other Indian languages are spoken by around 10% or less of the population. States specify their own language through legislation. During the British Raj, English was used for purposes at the federal level, plans to make Hindi the sole official language of the Republic met with resistance in some parts of the country. Hindi continues to be used today, in combination with other State official languages at the state level, the Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i. e. on 26 January 1965. The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non Hindi-speaking areas of India, as a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act,1963, which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965. Some of these protests turned violent. The Indian constitution draws a distinction between the language to be used in Parliamentary proceedings, and the language in which laws are to be made, Parliamentary business, according to the Constitution, may be conducted in either Hindi or English. In contrast, the constitution requires the text of all laws, including Parliamentary enactments and statutory instruments, to be in English. The constitution provides that all proceedings in the Supreme Court of India, the countrys highest court, Parliament has the power to alter this by law, but has not done so. However, in many courts, there is, with consent from the president. Such proposals have been successful in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, the Union government is required by law to progressively increase the use of Hindi in its official work, which it has sought to do through persuasion, incentive and goodwill. The Official Language Act provides that the Union government shall use both Hindi and English in most administrative documents that are intended for the public, the Official Languages Rules, in contrast, provide for a higher degree of use of Hindi in communications between offices of the central government. Communications between different departments within the government may be in either Hindi or English, although a translation into the other language must be provided if required. Notes and memos in files may be in either Hindi or English, in addition, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to a government officer or authority has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in India
10.
Christianity in Goa
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Christianity is the second largest religious grouping in Goa, India. According to the 2011 census, 25% of the population are Christian, the Christian population is almost entirely Roman Catholic, and Goan Catholics form a significant ethnoreligious group. There is a proportion of Christians in Velhas Conquistas than in Novas Conquistas. Christianity in Goa has pre-Portuguese roots, according to a few such as H. O. These roots are probably the same as those of the Saint Thomas Christians or Nasranis of Kerala, Christianity, here at this time, was believed to be spread by Saint Thomas and/or Saint Bartholomew who preached in the Malabar and Konkan coasts respectively. The metallic crucifix found in a wall of a house at Old Goa by Afonso de Albuquerque, a road was later named after this crucifix — “Rua de Crucifixo”. Ibn Batutas testimony that in 1342 AD, he found Christian settlements on the banks of the River Agashini, the Saint Thomas Cross with Pahlavi inscription found by Fr J. Cosme Costa on the banks of the river Zuari. An article in the Examiner on Pre-Portuguese Christianity which speaks of Thomas crosses on the Hill of Colvale which people would hide in olden days, after the Portuguese Conquest of Goa in 1510 and its subsequent rule by Portugal, Goas indigenous population underwent a large scale conversion to Christianity. The state of Goa became the center of Christianization in the east, the evangelization activities of Goa was divided in 1555 by the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, Pedro Mascarenhas. He allotted Bardez to the Franciscans, Tiswadi to the Dominicans, after conversion, locals were usually granted Portuguese citizenship. The rapid rise of converts in Goa has been described as mostly the result of Portuguese economic and political control over the Hindus, the process of Christianization was simultaneously accompanied by Lusitanisation, as the Christian converts typically assumed a Portuguese veneer. This was most visible by the discarding of old Hindu names for new Christian Portuguese names, converts usually adopted the surnames of the Portuguese priest, governor, soldier or layman who stood as godfather for their baptism ceremony. Mahabal Kamati of Curtorim became Aleisco Menezes in 1607, while Chandrappa Naik of Gandaulim became António Dias in 1632, in 1595, Vittu Prabhu became Irmao de diago Soares and the son of Raulu Kamat became Manuel Pinto in Aldona, Bardez. Ram Kamat of Punola became Duarte Lobo in 1601, while Tados Irmaose of Anjuna became João de Souza in 1658, however, the converted Hindus retained their mother tongue and caste status, even after becoming Christian. Based on their previous caste affiliations, the new converts were usually lumped into their new respective Catholic castes, the converts from the priestly Brahmin class were Bamonns. All converted Brahmins were lumped into the Christian caste of Bamonn, the converts from the Kshatriya caste who formed the second largest group were Chardos, and converts from the labour class Shudra which formed the largest group became Sudirs. The Portuguese demolished almost all the temples from the Velhas conquests. The temple art, along with its literature was destroyed, but these temples and their idols were relocated in other places in Goa, especially in the Novas conquistas. In 1560, the Inquisition established an office in Goa and it was finally abolished in 1812
11.
Front vowel
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Front vowels are sometimes also called bright vowels because they are perceived as sounding brighter than the back vowels. Near-front vowels are essentially a type of front vowels, no language is known to contrast front and near-front vowels based on frontness alone, rounded front vowels are typically centralized, that is, near-front in their articulation. This is one reason they are written to the right of unrounded front vowels in the IPA vowel chart, in articulation, front vowels contrast with raised vowels and retracted vowels. In this conception, front vowels are a broader category than those listed in the IPA chart, including, raised or retracted vowels may be fronted by certain consonants, such as palatals and in some languages pharyngeals. For example, /a/ may be fronted to next to /j/ or /ħ/ and this change can be allophonic variation, or it can have become phonemic. English follows the French pattern, but without as much regularity, however, for native or early borrowed words affected by palatalization, English has generally altered the spelling after the pronunciation Back vowel List of phonetics topics
12.
Back vowel
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A back vowel is any in a class of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are also called dark vowels because they are perceived as sounding darker than the front vowels. Near-back vowels are essentially a type of vowels, no language is known to contrast back and near-back vowels based on backness alone. In their articulation, back vowels do not form a single category, unrounded back vowels are typically centralized, that is, near-back in their articulation. This is one reason they are written to the left of rounded vowels in the IPA vowel chart. Front vowel List of phonetics topics Relative articulation
13.
Close vowel
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A close vowel, also known as a high vowel, is any in a class of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as possible to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. The term close is prescribed by the International Phonetic Association, close vowels are often referred to as high vowels, as in the Americanist phonetic tradition, because the tongue is positioned high in the mouth during articulation. In the context of the phonology of any language, a high vowel can be any vowel that is more close than a mid vowel. That is, close-mid vowels, near-close vowels, and close vowels can all be considered high vowels
14.
Mid vowel
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A mid vowel is any in a class of vowel sounds used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned midway between a vowel and a close vowel. The only mid vowel with a symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet is the mid central vowel with ambiguous rounding. The IPA divides the space into thirds, with the close-mid vowels such as or. Thus a true mid front unrounded vowel can be transcribed as either a lowered ⟨e̞⟩ or as a raised ⟨ɛ̝⟩, one, the Amstetten dialect of Austro-Bavarian, contrasts four heights of front unrounded, front rounded, and back vowels in addition to having an open central vowel. These have been transcribed with the available IPA symbols /i e ɛ æ/, /y ø œ ɶ/, /u o ɔ ɑ/, and /a/. However, the vowels transcribed /æ ɶ ɑ/ are one-third the distance between open /a/ and close /i y u/, precisely the IPA definition of open-mid vowels, thus Amstetten Bavarian may be an example of a language that contrasts mid vowels with both open-mid and close-mid vowels
15.
Open vowel
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An open vowel is a vowel sound in which the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth. Open vowels are also called low vowels in reference to the low position of the tongue. In the context of the phonology of any language, a low vowel can be any vowel that is more open than a mid vowel. That is, open-mid vowels, near-open vowels, and open vowels can all be considered low vowels, the diaeresis indicates centralization, so ⟨ä⟩ could mean near-front and ⟨ɒ̈⟩ could mean near-back. However, in practice the diaeresis is assumed to mean central, while ⟨a̠⟩ and ⟨ɒ̟⟩ are used for the front and back articulations, the short versions do not contrast directly with the open central vowel, which can only be long
16.
Diphthong
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A diphthong, also known as a gliding vowel, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets, that is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel, in many dialects of English, the phrase no highway cowboys /ˌnoʊ ˈhaɪweɪ ˈkaʊbɔɪz/ has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable. Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other organs do not move. For instance, in English, the word ah is spoken as a monophthong, where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables—for example, in the English word re-elect—the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong. Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation, however, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds. Diphthongs use two vowel sounds in one syllable to make a speech sound, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as in English sun, in which ⟨ʌ⟩ represents a monophthong. Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols, as in English high or cow, in which ⟨aɪ⟩ and ⟨aʊ⟩ represent diphthongs, diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel symbol. Transcribing the diphthongs as ⟨aɪ̯ aʊ̯⟩ is a precise or narrower transcription. The non-syllabic diacritic, the inverted breve below ⟨◌̯⟩, is placed under the prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable. When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted, other common indications that the two letters are not separate vowels are a superscript, ⟨aᶦ aᶷ⟩, or a tie bar, ⟨a͡ɪ a͡ʊ⟩ or ⟨a͜ɪ a͜ʊ⟩. The tie bar can be useful when its not clear which letter represents the syllable nucleus, superscripts are especially used when an on- or off-glide is particularly fleeting. The period ⟨. ⟩ is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic, if two vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables, meaning that they do not form a diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus, lower can be transcribed ⟨ˈloʊ. ər⟩, with a period separating the first syllable, /loʊ/, from the second syllable, the non-syllabic diacritic is only used when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no ambiguity, as in ⟨haɪ kaʊ⟩, no words in English have the vowel sequences *, so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary. The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant, thus in eye, however, when the diphthong is analysed as a single phoneme, both elements are often transcribed with vowel letters. There are many languages that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of a glide, in closing diphthongs, the second element is more close than the first, in opening diphthongs, the second element is more open. Closing diphthongs tend to be falling, and opening diphthongs are rising, as open vowels are more sonorous. However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the worlds languages, in Finnish, for instance, the opening diphthongs /ie̯/ and /uo̯/ are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong
17.
Stop consonant
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In phonetics, a stop, also known as a plosive or oral occlusive, is a consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be made with the blade or body, lips. The terms stop, occlusive, and plosive are often and inaccurately used interchangeably, linguists who distinguish them may not agree on the distinction being made. The terms refer to different features of the consonant, stop refers to the airflow that is stopped. Occlusive refers to the articulation, which occludes the vocal tract, Plosive refers to the release burst of the consonant. Therefore, a plosive is a stop that is released, typically into an open speech sound such as a vowel. It is inaccurate to call a stop an plosive. Either occlusive or stop may be used as a term covering the other together with nasals. That is, occlusive may be defined as oral occlusives plus nasal occlusives, Ladefoged and Maddieson prefer to restrict stop to oral occlusives. They say, what we call simply nasals are called nasal stops by some linguists and we avoid this phrase, preferring to reserve the term stop for sounds in which there is a complete interruption of airflow. In addition, they use plosive for a stop, stops in their usage include ejective and implosive consonants. If a term such as plosive is used for oral obstruents, in other cases, however, it may be the word plosive that is restricted to the glottal stop. Note that, generally speaking, stops do not have plosion, in English, for example, there are stops with no audible release, such as the /p/ in apt. However, pulmonic stops do have plosion in other environments, in Ancient Greek, the term for stop was ἄφωνον, which means unpronounceable, voiceless, or silent, because stops could not be pronounced without a vowel. This term was calqued into Latin as mūta, and from there borrowed into English as mute, for more information on the Ancient Greek terms, see Ancient Greek phonology § Terminology. All languages in the world have stops, and most have at least the voiceless stops, however, there are exceptions, Colloquial Samoan lacks the coronal, and several North American languages, such as the northern Iroquoian and southern Iroquoian languages, lack the labial. Formal Samoan has only one word with velar, colloquial Samoan conflates /t/, ni‘ihau Hawaiian has for /k/ to a greater extent than Standard Hawaiian, but neither distinguish a /k/ from a /t/. It may be accurate to say that Hawaiian and colloquial Samoan do not distinguish velar
18.
Fricative consonant
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Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. This turbulent airflow is called frication, a particular subset of fricatives are the sibilants. When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a channel, but in addition. English, and are examples of sibilants, the usage of two other terms is less standardized, Spirant can be a synonym of fricative, or refer to non-sibilant fricatives only. Strident could mean just sibilant, but some authors include also labiodental, lateral or uvular fricatives in the class. However, at the place of articulation, the tongue may take several shapes, domed, laminal, or apical, and each of these is given a separate symbol. Prototypical retroflexes are subapical and palatal, but they are written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars. The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, voiced uvular fricative voiced pharyngeal fricative No language distinguishes voiced fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both. For the pharyngeal, approximants are more numerous than fricatives, a fricative realization may be specified by adding the uptack to the letters. Likewise, the downtack may be added to specify an approximant realization, however, in languages such as Arabic, they are true fricatives. In addition, is called a voiceless labial-velar fricative. True doubly articulated fricatives may not occur in any language, Fricatives are very commonly voiced, though cross-linguistically voiced fricatives are not nearly as common as tenuis fricatives. Other phonations are common in languages that have those phonations in their stop consonants, however, phonemically aspirated fricatives are rare. Contrasts with in Korean, aspirated fricatives are found in a few Sino-Tibetan languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages. The record may be Cone Tibetan, which has four contrastive aspirated fricatives, /sʰ/ /ɕʰ/, /ʂʰ/, some South Arabian languages have /z̃/, Umbundu has /ṽ/, and Kwangali and Souletin Basque have /h̃/. In Coatzospan Mixtec, appear allophonically before a vowel, and in Igbo nasality is a feature of the syllable. H is not a fricative in English, until its extinction, Ubykh may have been the language with the most fricatives, some of which did not have dedicated symbols or diacritics in the IPA. This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English, by contrast, approximately 8. 7% of the worlds languages have no phonemic fricatives at all
19.
Voiceless alveolar affricate
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A voiceless alveolar affricate is a type of affricate consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound, there are several types with significant perceptual differences, The voiceless alveolar sibilant is the most common type and has an abrupt hissing sound, as the ts in English cats. The voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant, also called apico-alveolar or grave, has a weak hushing sound reminiscent of retroflex affricates and it is found e. g. in Basque, where it contrasts with a more conventional non-retracted laminal alveolar affricate. The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant affricate or, using the alveolar diacritic from the Extended IPA, is similar to the th in English eighth. It is found as a realization of the sequence /tr/ in some Sicilian dialects of Standard Italian. The voiceless alveolar affricate is found in certain languages, such as Cherokee, Icelandic. The voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate is a type of consonantal sound, the sound is transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨t͡s⟩ or ⟨t͜s⟩. Some international auxiliary languages, such as Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua also include this sound, the stop component of this affricate is laminal alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge. For simplicity, this affricate is usually called after the sibilant fricative component, the hissing effect in this variety of is very strong. Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, acoustically, it is close to or laminal. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the following sections are named after the fricative component. Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only
20.
Voice (phonetics)
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Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterise speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless or voiced. It can also refer to a classification of sounds that tend to be associated with vocal cord vibration. That is the primary use in phonology to describe phonemes or in phonetics to describe phones. At the articulatory level, a sound is one in which the vocal cords vibrate. For example, voicing accounts for the difference between the pair of sounds associated with the English letters s and z, the two sounds are transcribed as and to distinguish them from the English letters, which have several possible pronunciations, depending on the context. If one places the fingers on the box, one can feel a vibration while zzzz is pronounced. In most European languages, with an exception being Icelandic, vowels. When used to classify speech sounds, voiced and unvoiced are merely used to group phones and phonemes together for the purposes of classification. The International Phonetic Alphabet has distinct letters for many voiceless and voiced pairs of consonants, in addition, there is a diacritic for voicedness, ⟨◌̬⟩. Diacritics are typically used with letters for prototypically voiceless sounds, in Unicode, the symbols are encoded U+032C ◌̬ COMBINING CARON BELOW and U+0325 ◌̥ COMBINING RING BELOW. For the example, ₍s̬₎ could be an with voicing in the middle, partial voicing can also be indicated in the normal IPA with transcriptions like and. The distinction between the use of voice and the phonological use rests on the distinction between phone and phoneme. The difference is best illustrated by a rough example, the English word nods is made up of a sequence of phonemes, represented symbolically as /nɒdz/, or the sequence of /n/, /ɒ/, /d/, and /z/. Each symbol is a representation of a phoneme. That awareness is an inherent part of speakers mental grammar that allows them to recognise words, however, phonemes are not sounds in themselves. Rather, phonemes are, in a sense, converted to phones before being spoken. The /z/ phoneme, for instance, can actually be pronounced as either the phone or the phone since /z/ is frequently devoiced, even in fluent speech, the sequence of phones for nods might be transcribed as or, depending on the presence or strength of this devoicing. While the phone has articulatory voicing, the phone does not have it, what complicates the matter is that for English, consonant phonemes are classified as either voiced or voiceless even though it is not the primary distinctive feature between them
21.
Retroflex consonant
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A retroflex consonant is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants, especially in Indology, other terms occasionally encountered are domal and cacuminal. The Latin-derived word retroflex means bent back, some consonants are pronounced with the tongue fully curled back so that articulation involves the underside of the tongue tip. These sounds are described as true retroflex consonants. Retroflex consonants, like other consonants, come in several varieties. The tongue may be flat or concave, or even with the tip curled back. The point of contact on the tongue may be with the tip, with the blade, the point of contact on the roof of the mouth may be with the alveolar ridge, the area behind the alveolar ridge, or the hard palate. Finally, both sibilant and nonsibilant consonants can have a retroflex articulation, the greatest variety of combinations occurs with sibilants, because for these, small changes in tongue shape and position cause significant changes in the resulting sound. Retroflex sounds in general have a duller, lower-pitched sound than other alveolar or postalveolar consonants, and especially the grooved alveolar sibilants. The farther back the point of contact with the roof of the mouth, the concave is the shape of the tongue. The main combinations normally observed are, Laminal post-alveolar, with a flat tongue and these occur, for example, in Polish cz, sz, ż, dż and Mandarin zh, ch, sh, r. Apical post-alveolar, with a somewhat concave tongue and these occur, for example, in Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Subapical palatal, with a highly concave tongue and these occur particularly in the Dravidian languages. These are the dullest and lowest-pitched type, and when following a vowel often add strong r-coloring to the vowel and these are not a place of articulation, as the IPA chart implies, but a shape of the tongue analogous to laminal and apical. Apical alveolar, with a somewhat concave tongue and these occur, for example, in peninsular Spanish and Basque. These sounds dont quite fit on the front-to-back, laminal-to-subapical continuum, with a relatively dull, the subapical sounds are sometimes called true retroflex because of the curled-back shape of the tongue, while the other sounds sometimes go by other names. For example, Ladefoged and Maddieson prefer to call the laminal post-alveolar sounds flat post-alveolar, the retroflex approximant /ɻ/ is an allophone of the alveolar approximant /ɹ/ in many dialects of American English, particularly in the Midwestern United States. Polish and Russian possess retroflex sibilants, but no stops or liquids at this place of articulation, in African languages retroflex consonants are also very rare, reportedly occurring in a few Nilo-Saharan languages
22.
Retroflex lateral flap
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The retroflex lateral flap is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It has no symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet, but the diacritic forms ⟨ɭ̆ ⟩ and ⟨ɺ˞ ⟩ are sometimes seen, and a dedicated ad hoc symbol ⟨ ⟩ may be easily created. Features of the flap, Its manner of articulation is flap. Its place of articulation is retroflex, which means it is articulated subapical. That is, besides the prototypical sub-apical articulation, the contact can be apical or laminal. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, most dialects of West Pahari, and Kumauni, as well as Hariyanvi and the Saharanpur subdialect of Northwestern Kauravi investigated by Gumperz. It was once present in Sinhalese, but in the language has merged with /l/. There is no symbol for the retroflex lateral flap. However, SIL International has added this symbol to the Private Use Areas of their Gentium Plus, Charis, the similar letter ⟨ⱹ⟩ may be used as an ad-hoc substitute
23.
Dental consonant
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A dental consonant is a consonant articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth, such as /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ in some languages. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the diacritic for dental consonant is U+032A ◌̪ COMBINING BRIDGE BELOW, sanskrit, Hindi and all other Indic languages have an entire set of dental stops that occur phonemically as voiced and voiceless, and with or without aspiration. The nasal /n/ also exists in languages, but is quite alveolar. To the Indian speaker, the alveolar /t/ and /d/ of English sound more like the corresponding retroflex consonants of his own language than like the dentals. Spanish /t/ and /d/ are laminal denti-alveolar, whereas /l/ and /n/ are prototypically alveolar, likewise, Italian /t/, /d/, /t͡s/, /d͡z/ are denti-alveolar and /l/ and /n/ become denti-alveolar before a following dental consonant. In the case of French, the rear-most contact is alveolar or sometimes slightly pre-alveolar, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
24.
Labial consonant
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Labial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. The two common labial articulations are bilabials, articulated using both lips, and labiodentals, articulated with the lip against the upper teeth, both of which are present in English. A third labial articulation is dentolabials, articulated with the lip against the lower teeth. Generally precluded are linguolabials, in which the tip of the contacts the posterior side of the upper lip, making them coronals, though sometimes. The most common distribution between bilabials and labiodentals is the English one, in which the stops, and, are bilabial and the fricatives, bilabial fricatives and the bilabial approximant do not exist in English, but they occur in many languages. For example, the Spanish consonant written b or v is pronounced, lip rounding, or labialization, is a common approximant-like co-articulatory feature. English /w/ is a labialized velar approximant, which is far more common than the purely labial approximant. In the languages of the Caucasus, labialized dorsals like /kʷ/ and /qʷ/ are very common, very few languages, however, make a distinction purely between bilabials and labiodentals, making labial usually a sufficient specification of a languages phonemes. One exception is Ewe, which has both kinds of fricatives, but the labiodentals are produced with greater articulatory force, while most languages make use of purely labial phonemes, a few generally lack them. Examples are Tlingit, Eyak, Wichita, and the Iroquoian languages except Cherokee, all of these languages have seen labials introduced under the influence of English. Many of these languages are transcribed with /w/ and with labialized consonants, however, it is not always clear to what extent the lips are involved in such sounds. In the Iroquoian languages, for example, /w/ involved little apparent rounding of the lips, see the Tillamook language for an example of a language with rounded consonants and vowels that do not have any actual labialization. Labialization List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages. McDorman, Richard E. Labial Instability in Sound Change, Explanations for the Loss of /p/
25.
Alveolar consonant
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Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth. Alveolar consonants may be articulated with the tip of the tongue, as in English, or with the flat of the tongue just above the tip, as in French and Spanish. The laminal alveolar articulation is often called dental, because the tip of the tongue can be seen near to or touching the teeth. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have symbols for the alveolar consonants. Rather, the symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized like English palato-alveolar sh. To disambiguate, the bridge may be used for a dental consonant, note that differs from dental in that the former is a sibilant and the latter is not. Differs from postalveolar in being unpalatalized, the bare letters, etc. cannot be assumed to specifically represent alveolars. If it is necessary to specify a consonant as alveolar, a diacritic from the Extended IPA may be used, the letters ⟨s, t, n, l⟩ are frequently called alveolar, and the language examples below are all alveolar sounds. Alveolar consonants are transcribed in the IPA as follows, The alveolar or dental consonants and are, along with, nonetheless, there are a few languages that lack them. A few languages on Bougainville Island and around Puget Sound, such as Makah, lack nasals and therefore, colloquial Samoan, however, lacks both and, but it has a lateral alveolar approximant /l/. In Standard Hawaiian, is an allophone of /k/, but /l/, in labioalveolars, the lower lip contacts the alveolar ridge. Such sounds are typically the result of a severe overbite, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
26.
Voiceless labiodental fricative
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The voiceless labiodental fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in a number of spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨f⟩ and its place of articulation is labiodental, which means it is articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
27.
Konkani alphabets
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Konkani alphabets refers to the five different scripts currently used to write the Konkani language. As of 1987, the Goan Antruz dialect in the Devanagari script has been declared Standard Konkani, as Konkani in the Roman script is not mandated as an official script by law. However, a passed by the government of Goa allows the use of Roman script for official communication. This ordinance has been put into effect by various ministries in varying degrees, for example, the Goa Panchayat Rules,1996 stipulate that the various forms used in the election process must be in both the Roman and Devanagari script. The earliest inscription in Konkani in Goykanadi script is of the Gupta period in the 2nd century CE found at Aravalem, Goa. It reads The famous inscription at the foot of the colossal Jain monolith Gomaṭēśvara Konkani, E. g. कॣप्त अ, ओ and ऒ are rendered in the Roman script by O. Under Portuguese rule, the Konkani language was modified to fit the Roman syllabary system, as a result, Portuguese orthography has eliminated or deformed original Konkani sounds. E. g. अ - करता kartā is written as korta or even corta ओ - दोन dōn is written as don, ऒ - पॊरनॆं pornẽ is written as pornem Both आ and ऍ are rendered by A in the Roman script. आ - हांव hā̃v is written as hanv or Anv ऍ - कॅनरा kænarā is written as Kanara or Canara. In the Roman script, a consonant is got by simply doubling the corresponding dental consonant, e. g. त - ta. Both are written as Sha or Xa and pronounced as श, Roman Konkani does not distinguish between फ and फ़. Both are normally written as F and pronounced accordingly, E. g. tomorrow फाल्लॆक - fallek ن nūn in the Nawayati Konkani script not only is a separate consonant, but also performs the role of the anusvāra. It indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant, e. g. رنگ raṅg and it also undergoes nasalisation, e. g. ہازؤ hāṃv. ع, ayin غ ghayin and ح he in the Nawayati Konkani script are used for incorporated Perso-Arabic words. In Konkani, the anusvāra ं ṃ is traditionally defined as representing a nasal stop homorganic to a following plosive, the precise phonetic value of the phoneme is dependent on the phonological environment. Word-finally, it is realized as nasalization of the preceding vowel and it results in vowel nasalization also medially between a short vowel and a non-obstruent (tũvẽ you. Words from the first set are morphologically derived from words with a nasalized vowel (mā̃s. In such cases the vowel is sometimes denasalized (, the second set is composed of a few words like Konkani is one of the few modern Indo-Aryan languages to apply the avagraha beyond mere sustenance of an exclamation, cry or shout in speech. It is used by verbs in continuous tense, the avagraha is not used in Standard Konkani in the continuous tense
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
29.
Tiatr
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The dramas are performed mainly in the Roman Konkani dialects and include music, dancing and singing. The word tiatr comes from the Portuguese word for theatre, teatro, earlier variations were Theatro, Thiatro and Tiatro. Tiatr today revolves around social, religious and political themes and it is considered to be a mirror of Goan culture. The drama consists of 6 or 7 acts called pordhe, the acts are interspersed by songs which need not be directly linked to the content or the issues of the main drama. There are 2 or 3 songs between each of the acts, tiatrist have always demonstrated a very high degree of social awareness. Most of the themes of tiatr are concerned with social problems confronting the people, the Tiatr is an instance where mass support plays a crucial role. The lone Muslim so far has been mimicry artist Sheikh Amir, songs integral to the plays are known as Kants. Other songs, called kantaram are generally either comedic or based on topical, political and controversial issues that are interspersed through the performance and these musical interludes are independent of the main theme of the play. The songs are satirical and unsparing of the politics and politicians of Goa. The music is provided by a band including keyboard, trumpet, saxophone, bass guitar. Besides the regular shows, tiatrs are held as part of the celebrations of nearly every church. The Goa Kala Academy organises a state level Tiatr competition every year while the Tiatr Academy organises a Popular Tiatr competition for dramas which have exceeded 25 performances, Tiatr songs and performances are recorded and sold on CD and DVD in Goan and Middle Eastern markets. Although efforts have made to preserve the art form as a tradition of Goa. There is another version of the Tiatr called the Khell Tiatr, whose performance is restricted to the festivals of Carnival, Intruz and Easter. It differs from the Konkani Tiatr in another respect, that is that its songs are integrated with the main drama, prior to the emergence of tiatr, entertainment in Konkani was mainly through zagors and khells. Both of them had their distinct style, while the zagor was more lyrical, the khell had dialogues and while the former was more popular in Bardez, the latter was firmly entrenched in Salcete. Costancio Lucasinho Caridade Ribeiro, more known as Lucasinho Ribeiro. Passionate about the arts, he was highly impressed with the stylised Italian operas performed there
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Music of Goa
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Music of Goa refers to music from the state of Goa, on the west coast of India. A wide variety of genres are used in Goa ranging from Western art music to Indian classical music. Konkani music is popular across this tiny state. Being a former territory of Portugal, Goa has a dominant western musical scene with the use of instrument such as the violin, drums, guitar, trumpet and it has also produced a number of prominent musicians and singers for the world of Indian music. Portuguese Fado also has significance in Goa, lorna Cordeiro is a popular singer and is referred to as the nightingale of Goa. She sings in both English and Konkani, some of her popular oldies are Pisso, Bebdo, Red Rose, Tuzo mog and Noxibak Rodta. Goa has produced many performers of Indian classical music, such as the vocalist Kesarbai Kerkar, Lata Mangeshkar, Goan local bands are also known for their use of western music styles and are popular at both, public and private celebrations. Goa has become home to a style of Electronic music, the Trance music and it is popular at the Electronic music festivals hosted yearly in Goa that attract people from over 50 countries. However, owing to the peak around the Christmas-New year period. The traditional Goan musical instruments include dhol, mridanga, tabla, ghumat, dholak, kasale, madlem, shehnai, surt, tasso, nagado, and tambura. The ghumat is an earthen-ware pot-like vessel made by Goan potters with openings on the two sides, one large and the other small in diameter, with the middle portion much bulging outwards. On the larger opening with the edge conveniently moulded for the fitting, the ghumat is essential for Hindu festivals, some temple rituals like Suvari vadan, bhivari and mando performances. A madlem is an earthen vessel covered at both ends with the skin of a lizard and is mostly played by the Kunbis. Being part of Portugal for over 450 years led to the introduction of the piano, other instruments such as the drums, guitar and trumpet were also widely used. Schools in this period taught pupils at least one such instrument and it is said that Goans have music in their blood, a statement further strengthened by the role music and dance plays in Goan culture. Popular folk dances such as the Portuguese Corridinho are still part of Catholic weddings, as many as 35 types of Konkani Song have been classified. These include banvarh, deknni, dhalo, dulpod, duvalo, fell song, fughri, kunnbi song, launimm, mando, ovi, palnnam, talghari, tiatr song, zagor song and zoti. The Christian hymns and Hindu religious songs are also characterized separately with the related to contemporary western styles
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Karnataka Konkani
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Kukna is a minority language spoken by the Saraswat Konkani people of Karnataka and in some parts of Kerala. The Karnataka Saraswat dialects are referred to as Canara Konkani, the Kerala dialects are referred to as Travancore Konkani or Kerala Konkani. The word Canara is a Portuguese corruption of the word Kannada, the early Portuguese conquistadors referred to Konkani as lingoa Canarim as a reference to Canara. Kukna is distinguished from the dialect spoken by the Catholics of Mangalore which has a separate language glotto code, Kukna is mainly spoken as a minority language in the Indian States of Karnataka, and in some parts of Kerala and Maharashtra. The speakers are concentrated in the districts of Uttara Kannada district, Udupi, francis Xavier which was established in 1560 and abolished in 1812. According to the 1991 census of India,40. 1% Konkani speakers hail from the state of Karnataka, in Karnataka over 80% of them are from the coastal districts of North and South Canara, including Udupi. 3. 6% of the Konkani speakers are from Kerala, based on local language influence, Konkani speaking people are classified into three main regions, This is the region north of the Gangolli river, starts from the Kali river of Karwar. North Canarites are called baḍgikār or simply baḍgi in Konkani, North Canara Konkani has more of Goan Konkani influence than Kannada influence compared to South Canara Konkani. The major Konkani speaking communities include, Karwar Konkani is different from Mangalorean or south Kanara konkani and it is similar to Goan Konkani but mixed with Kannada accented words. Although people of Karwar have their tongue as Konkani. Konkani speakers in North Canara are bilingual, they are conversant in Kannada as well as Konkani. A few are conversant in Marathi too and this is the region south of the Gangolli river. South Canarites are called ṭenkikār tenkabagli or simply ṭenki in Konkani, the Rajapur Saraswat, Kudalkar, Daivajna, Kumbhar, Gaud Saraswats and Chitrapur Saraswats are some of the Konkani speaking communities of this region. 15% of Dakshina Kannada speaks Konkani, South Canara Saraswats, both Gaud Saraswat and Chitrapur Saraswat affectionately refer to their dialect as āmcigelẽ This region has recently been bifurcated into Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts. Konkani speakers in South Canara are trilingual, they are conversant in Konkani, Kannada, some of the towns in South Canara have separate Konkani names. Udupi is called ūḍup and Mangalore is called kodiyāl in Konkani, Konkani speakers are found predominantly in the Cochin and Ernakulam Alappuzha, Kollam districts of Kerala, the earstwhile kingdom of Travancore. Kudumbis, Gaud Saraswats, Vaishya Vani of Cochin, and Daivajna are the major communities, the Konkani dialect of the Gaud Saraswats is affectionately referred to as koccimā̃y by members of that community. Konkani speakers in this region are bilingual, they are conversant in Konkani as well as Malayalam, Konkani in Karnataka has been in contact with Kannada and Tulu, thus showing Dravidian influence on its syntax
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Maharashtrian Konkani
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Maharashtrian Konkani more commonly spelt as Maharashtrian Kokani is a group of dialects spoken in the Konkan region. It is often extended to cover Goan Konkani, which is part of a distinct language. George Abraham Grierson refers to this dialect as the Konkan Standard of Marathi in order to differentiate it from the Konkani language. The dialects which make up Maharashtrian Konkani are Parabhi, Koli, Kiristanv, Kunbi, Agri, Dhangari, Thakri, Karadhi, Sangameshwari, Bankoti and Maoli. These varieties form a continuum between standard Marathi and Goan Konkani, but are considered by some linguists to be a dialect of Marathi
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Goan Konkani
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Konkani is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages and is spoken along the South western coast of India. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages mentioned in the 8th schedule of the Indian Constitution, the first Konkani inscription is dated 1187 A. D. It is a minority language in Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Konkani is a member of the southern Indo-Aryan language group. It retains elements of Old Indo-Aryan structures and shows similarities with both western and eastern Indo-Aryan languages and it is quite possible that Old Konkani was just referred to as Prakrit by its speakers. Among the inscriptions at the foot of the statue of Bahubali at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka are two lines reading thus, Sri Chamundaraje Karaviyale and Sri Ganga raje sutthale karaviyale. The first line was inscribed circa 981 AD and the line in 116-17 AD. The language of these lines is Konkani according to Dr. S. B, considering these arguments, these inscriptions at Sravanabelegola may be considered the earliest Konkani inscriptions in Devanagari script. Reference to the name Konkani is not found in prior to 13th century. The first reference of the name Konkani is in Abhanga 263 of the 13th century Marathi saint poet, Konkani has been known by a variety of names, Canarim, Concanim, Gomantaki, Bramana, and Goani. It is called Amchi Bhas by native speakers, and Govi or Goenchi Bhas by others, learned Marathi speakers tend to call it Gomantaki. Konkani was commonly referred to as Lingua Canarim by the Portuguese, the Portuguese later started referring to Konkani as Lingua Concanim. The name Canarim or Lingua Canarim, which is how the 16th century European Jesuit and it is possible that the term is derived from the Persian word for coast, kinara, if so, it would mean the language of the coast. The problem is that this term overlaps with Kanarese or Kannada, All the European authors, however, recognised two forms of the language in Goa, the plebeian, called Canarim, and the more regular, called Lingua Canarim Brámana or simply Brámana de Goa. The latter was the choice of the Europeans, and also of other castes, for writing, sermons. There are different views as to the origin of the word Konkan, the word Konkan comes from the Kukkana tribe, who were the original inhabitants of the land Konkani originated from. According to some Hindu legends, Parashurama shot his arrow into the sea, the new piece of land thus recovered came to be known as Konkan meaning piece of earth or corner of earth, kōṇa + kaṇa. This legend is mentioned in Sahyadrikhanda of the Skanda Purana, Konkan is synonymous with Konkani, but it is today divided into three states, Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. Olivinho Gomes in his essay Medieval Konkani Literature also mentions the Mundari substratum, Goan Indologist Ramakrishna Shenvi Dhume identified many Austroloid Munda words in Konkani, like mund, mundkar, dhumak, goem-bab
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Devanagari
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Devanagari, also called Nagari, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines. The Nagari script has roots in the ancient Brāhmī script family, the Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts, the Devanagari script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts. The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in ancient manuscripts of South India. Devanagari script has forty-seven primary characters, of which fourteen are vowels, the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. The script has no distinction similar to the capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, generally the orthography of the script reflects the pronunciation of the language. Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet and it is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts, the 7th-century Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gambo ordered that all foreign books be transcribed into the Tibetan language. Other closely related scripts such as Siddham Matrka was in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Nāgarī is the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara relating or belonging to a town or city and it is a phrasing with lipi as nāgarī lipi script relating to a city, or spoken in city. The use of the name devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term nāgarī is still common, the rapid spread of the term devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish Sanskrit texts in print since the 1870s. As a Brahmic abugida, the principle of Devanagari is that each letter represents a consonant. This is usually written in Latin as a, though it is represented as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay, the halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. Consonant clusters are written with ligatures, for example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya and this system was originally created for use with the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which have a very limited number of clusters. When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a deal of complexity to the script
