1.
Stanley Kubrick
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Stanley Kubrick was an American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer, editor, and photographer. He is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in cinematic history, Kubrick was born and raised in the Bronx, New York City, and attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945. This was followed by two collaborations with Kirk Douglas, the war picture Paths of Glory and the historical epic Spartacus. His reputation as a filmmaker in Hollywood grew, and he was approached by Marlon Brando to film what would become One-Eyed Jacks, though Brando eventually decided to direct it himself. His home at Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire, which he shared with his wife Christiane, became his workplace, where he did his writing, research, editing, and management of production details. This allowed him to have almost complete control over his films. His first British productions were two films with Peter Sellers, Lolita and Dr. Strangelove and he often asked for several dozen retakes of the same scene in a movie, which resulted in many conflicts with his casts. Despite the resulting notoriety among actors, many of Kubricks films broke new ground in cinematography, Steven Spielberg has referred to the film as his generations big bang, and it is regarded as one of the greatest films ever made. For the 18th-century period film Barry Lyndon, Kubrick obtained lenses developed by Zeiss for NASA, with The Shining, he became one of the first directors to make use of a Steadicam for stabilized and fluid tracking shots. His last film, Eyes Wide Shut, was completed shortly before his death in 1999, Stanley Kubrick was born on July 26,1928, in the Lying-In Hospital at 307 Second Avenue in Manhattan, New York City. He was the first of two children of Jacob Leonard Kubrick, known as Jack or Jacques, and his wife Sadie Gertrude Kubrick, known as Gert and his sister, Barbara Mary Kubrick, was born in May 1934. At Stanleys birth, the Kubricks lived in an apartment at 2160 Clinton Avenue in the Bronx, although his parents had been married in a Jewish ceremony, Kubrick did not have a religious upbringing, and would later profess an atheistic view of the universe. By the district standards of the West Bronx, the family was fairly wealthy, soon after his sisters birth, Kubrick began schooling in Public School 3 in the Bronx, and moved to Public School 90 in June 1938. Although his IQ was discovered to be average, his attendance was poor. He displayed an interest in literature from an age, and began reading Greek and Roman myths. When Kubrick was 12, his father Jack taught him chess, the game remained a lifelong interest of Kubricks, appearing in many scenes of his films. Kubrick himself, who became a member of the United States Chess Federation, explained that chess helped him develop patience. At the age of 13, Kubricks father bought him a Graflex camera and he became friends with a neighbor, Marvin Traub, who shared his passion for photography
2.
Charon (moon)
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Charon, also known as Pluto I, is the largest of the five known natural satellites of the dwarf planet Pluto. It was discovered in 1978 at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, with half the diameter and one eighth the mass of Pluto, it is a very large moon in comparison to its parent body. Its gravitational influence is such that the barycenter of the Pluto–Charon system lies outside Pluto, the New Horizons spacecraft is the only probe that has visited the Pluto system. It approached Charon to within 27,000 km, Charon was discovered by United States Naval Observatory astronomer James Christy, using the 1. 55-meter Flagstaff telescope two months prior. Christy noticed that a slight elongation appeared periodically, later, the bulge was confirmed on plates dating back to April 29,1965. Subsequent observations of Pluto determined that the bulge was due to an accompanying body. The periodicity of the bulge corresponded to Plutos rotation period, which was known from Plutos light curve. This indicated a synchronous orbit, which suggested that the bulge effect was real. Doubts about Charons existence were erased when it and Pluto entered a period of mutual eclipses. This occurs when the Pluto–Charon orbital plane is edge-on as seen from Earth and it was fortuitous that one of these intervals happened to occur soon after Charons discovery. Charon was originally known by the temporary designation S/1978 P1, on June 24,1978, Christy first suggested the name Charon as a scientific-sounding version of his wife Charlenes nickname, Char. The IAU officially adopted the name in late 1985 and it was announced on January 3,1986, there is minor debate over the preferred pronunciation of the name. These indicate only one pronunciation of Charon when referring specifically to Plutos moon, speakers of many languages other than English, and many English-speaking astronomers as well, follow this pronunciation. However, Christy himself pronounced the ch as sh, after his wife Charlene, simulation work published in 2005 by Robin Canup suggested that Charon could have been formed by a collision around 4.5 billion years ago, much like Earth and the Moon. In this model, a large Kuiper belt object struck Pluto at high velocity, destroying itself and blasting off much of Plutos outer mantle, however, such an impact should result in an icier Charon and rockier Pluto than scientists have found. It is now thought that Pluto and Charon might have been two bodies that collided before going into orbit about each other, the collision would have been violent enough to boil off volatile ices like methane but not violent enough to have destroyed either body. The very similar density of Pluto and Charon implies that the parent bodies were not fully differentiated when the impact occurred, Charon and Pluto orbit each other every 6.387 days. The two objects are locked to one another, so each keeps the same face towards the other
3.
Moat
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A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that is dug and surrounds a castle, fortification, building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places evolved into more extensive water defences, including natural or artificial lakes, dams. In older fortifications, such as hillforts, they are referred to simply as ditches. In later periods, moats or water defences may be largely ornamental and they could also act as sewerage. Some of the earliest evidence of moats has been uncovered around ancient Egyptian castles, one example is at Buhen, a castle excavated in Nubia. Other evidence of ancient moats is found in the ruins of Babylon, and in reliefs from ancient Egypt, Assyria, and other cultures in the region. Evidence of early moats around settlements has been discovered in archaeological sites throughout Southeast Asia, including Noen U-Loke, Ban Non Khrua Chut, Ban Makham Thae. The use of the moats could have been either for defensive or agriculture purposes, moats were excavated around castles and other fortifications as part of the defensive system as an obstacle immediately outside the walls. In suitable locations they might be filled with water, a moat made access to the walls difficult for siege weapons, such as siege towers and battering rams, which needed to be brought up against a wall to be effective. A water-filled moat made the practice of mining, digging tunnels under the castles in order to effect a collapse of the defences, segmented moats have one dry section and one section filled with water. Dry moats cut across the part of a spur or peninsula are called neck ditches. Moats separating different elements of a castle, such as the inner and outer wards are cross ditches, the shared derivation implies that the two features were closely related and possibly constructed at the same time. The term moat is also applied to natural formations reminiscent of the artificial structure, the walls were further protected from infantry attack by wet or dry moats, sometimes in elaborate systems. When this style of fortification was superseded by lines of forts in the mid-19th century. The Walls of Benin were a combination of ramparts and moats, called Iya and it was considered the largest man-made structure lengthwise, second only to the Great Wall of China and the largest earthwork in the world. With more recent work by Patrick Darling, it has established as the largest man-made structure in the world. It enclosed 6,500 km² of community lands and its length was over 16,000 km of earth boundaries. It was estimated that earliest construction began in 800 and continued into the mid-15th century, the walls are built of a ditch and dike structure, the ditch dug to form an inner moat with the excavated earth used to form the exterior rampart
4.
Pluto
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Pluto is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond Neptune. It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered, Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 and was originally considered to be the ninth planet from the Sun. After 1992, its planethood was questioned following the discovery of objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt. In 2005, Eris, which is 27% more massive than Pluto, was discovered and this led the International Astronomical Union to define the term planet formally in 2006, during their 26th General Assembly. That definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it as a dwarf planet, Pluto is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris, like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small—about one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. It has an eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU from the Sun. This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune, light from the Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance. Pluto has five moons, Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body. The IAU has not formalized a definition for binary dwarf planets, on July 14,2015, the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto. During its brief flyby, New Horizons made detailed measurements and observations of Pluto, on October 25,2016, at 05,48 pm ET, the last bit of data was received from New Horizons from its close encounter with Pluto on July 14,2015. In the 1840s, Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then-undiscovered planet Neptune after analysing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that Uranuss orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune, by 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet. Lowell and his observatory conducted his search until his death in 1916, unknown to Lowell, his surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on March 19 and April 7,1915, but they were not recognized for what they were. There are fourteen other known prediscovery observations, with the oldest made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20,1909. Percivals widow, Constance Lowell, entered into a legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her late husbands legacy. Tombaughs task was to image the night sky in pairs of photographs, then examine each pair
5.
Geography of Pluto
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The geography of Pluto entails the delineation and characterization of regions on Pluto. Plutonian geography is focused on what is called physical geography on Earth, that is. On 14 July 2015, the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto, during its brief flyby, New Horizons made detailed geographical measurements and observations of Pluto and its moons. Pluto may be defined as having retrograde rotation and a tilt of 60 degrees, or prograde rotation. Following the latter convention, the currently in daylight is the northern one. This is the used by the International Astronomical Union and the New Horizons team. However, older sources may define Plutos rotation as retrograde and therefore the sunlit side as the southern hemisphere, east and west are also swapped between the two conventions. The following names are names and nicknames, proposed by the New Horizons discovery team. They were taken from various deities or demons, some from ancient mythology and others from modern popular culture. Cthulhu Regio, nicknamed The Whale after its shape, is an elongated and it is 2,990 km long and is the largest dark feature on Pluto. Tombaugh Regio, nicknamed The Heart, is a large, light-colored region in the shape of a named after the discoverer of Pluto. Two lobes of the heart are distinct geological features sharing a bright appearance, the heart is about 1,590 km across. The region contains 3,400 m mountains made of ice, Hillary Montes and Norgay Montes. The lack of craters suggests that its there is less than 100 million years old. Subsequent data indicated that features near the edges of the region show evidence of ice flow such as glaciers, a series of semi-regularly spaced dark spots with irregular boundaries are nicknamed the Brass Knuckles. They average about 480 km in diameter and are located along the equator between the Heart and the tail of the Whale, the brass knuckles are separated from one another by tall uplands. There are also many canyons running through them and through the mountains that are hundreds of miles long. It does not appear as a ring in higher-resolution images, the prime meridian of Pluto is defined as the longitude facing Charon
6.
Tombaugh Regio
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Tombaugh Regio /ˈtɒmbaʊ ˈrɛdʒi. oʊ/, nicknamed The Heart after its shape, is the largest bright surface feature of the dwarf planet Pluto. It is just north of the equator, to the northeast of Cthulhu Regio and to the northwest of Krun Macula and its western lobe, a 1000 km-wide plain of nitrogen and other ices, is named Sputnik Planitia. The eastern lobe is thought to consist of high-albedo uplands coated by nitrogen transported through the atmosphere from Sputnik Planitia, some of this nitrogen ice then returns to Sputnik Planitia via glacial flow. It is named after Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto, Tombaugh Regio is a large, light-colored region about 1,590 km across. The two lobes of the feature are geologically distinct, the western lobe, Sputnik Planitia, is smoother than the eastern, and they are of slightly different colors. Early speculation was that the western lobe may be an impact crater filled with nitrogen snow. Bright spots within the region were initially speculated to be mountain peaks, photos, released on 15 July 2015, revealed 3,400 m mountains made of water ice in the feature, they also showed no craters in this same region. The surface of Sputnik Planitia is divided into polygonal convection cells and is less than 10 million years old, indicating that Pluto is geologically active. The feature had been identified as a spot for six decades prior to the New Horizons flyby. Over these six decades the spot had been observed to be dimming, Tombaugh Regio was first identified in the initial image of Pluto returned after the New Horizons probe recovered from an anomaly that temporarily sent it into safe mode. NASA initially referred to it as a heart in reference to its overall shape, on 15 July 2015, the region was named Tombaugh Regio by the New Horizons team in honor of astronomer Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto, regio being Latin for region. Some people find the feature also resembles the Disney character Pluto, the Walt Disney Company acknowledged this perceived likeness in a short animation. Geography of Pluto List of geological features on Pluto Media related to Tombaugh Regio at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Hillary Montes
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The Hillary Montes /ˈhɪləri ˈmɒntiːz/ are mountains that reach 1.6 km above the surface of the dwarf planet Pluto. They are located northwest of Norgay Montes in the southwest border area of Sputnik Planitia in the south of Tombaugh Regio, the Hillary Montes were first viewed by the New Horizons spacecraft on 14 July 2015, and announced by NASA on 24 July 2015. The Hillary Montes rise to 1.6 km high, about half as high as the Norgay Montes, the Hillary Montes are similar in height to that of the peak of Mount Sněžka, the highest mountain in the Czech Republic, above sea level. Other mountains of height are Mount Katahdin in Maine, USA. Geography of Pluto Geology of Pluto List of geological features on Pluto List of tallest mountains in the Solar System NASA Pluto factsheet NASA Official homepage New Horizons homepage
8.
Sputnik Planitia
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Sputnik Planitia /ˈspʌtnɪk pləˈnɪʃiə/, originally Sputnik Planum, is a high-albedo ice-covered basin on Pluto, about 1,050 by 800 km in size. It lies mostly in the hemisphere, but extends across the equator. Much of it has a surface of irregular polygons separated by troughs, the polygons are on average about 33 km across. In some cases troughs are populated by blocky mountains or hills, Sputnik Planitia constitutes the western lobe of the heart-shaped Tombaugh Regio. There appear to be wind streaks on the surface evidence of sublimation. The dark streaks are a few kilometers long and all aligned in the same direction, the basin also contains pits that have possibly formed by sublimation. Sputnik Planitia is named after Earths first artificial satellite, the planitia has no craters that were detectable by New Horizons, leading to the conclusion that its surface must be less than 10 million years old. The ice composing the basin is thought to consist primarily of ice, with smaller fractions of carbon monoxide and methane ice. At Plutos ambient temperature of 38 K, nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices are denser and much less rigid water ice, making glacial-like flows possible. Sputnik Planitia may have originated as a basin that subsequently collected volatile ices. Alternatively, it has suggested that the accumulation of ices in this location depressed the surface there. The accumulation of several kilometers of ice in the basin was in part a consequence of its higher surface pressure. The positive temperature gradient of Plutos atmosphere contributes to making a topographic depression a cold trap, a high seasonal thermal inertia of Plutos surface is an important driver of deposition of nitrogen ice at low latitudes. These latitudes receive less insolation than Plutos polar regions due to its high obliquity. However, other effects of an event could have also contributed to such an anomaly. A positive gravity anomaly could have caused polar wander, reorienting the spin axis of Pluto to put the planitia near the Pluto-Charon tidal axis, Sputnik Planitia is presently close to the anti-Charon point on Pluto, a result that has less than a 5% probability of arising by chance. Gradual freezing of such an ocean, in combination with polar wander, convection cells have about 100 m of vertical relief, with the highest points being at their centers. Modeling of nitrogen ice convection cells suggests a depth of one tenth their width, or 3–4 km for most of the planitia
9.
Atmosphere of Pluto
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The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto. It consists mainly of nitrogen, with amounts of methane and carbon monoxide. It contains layered haze, probably consisting of compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation. The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto. Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto, measured by New Horizons in 2015, is about 1 Pa, temperature on the surface is 40 to 60 K, but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect. Near the altitude 30 km it reaches 110 K, and then slowly decreases, Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere. Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton, although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars, the atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy. In 2015, it was studied from a distance by the spacecraft New Horizons. The main component of the atmosphere of Pluto is nitrogen, content of methane, according to measurements by New Horizons, is 0. 25%. For carbon monoxide, the Earth-based estimates are 0. 025–0. 15% and 0. 05–0. 075%, under influence of high-energy cosmic radiation, these gases react to form more complex compounds, including ethane, ethylene, acetylene, heavier hydrocarbons and nitriles and hydrogen cyanide. These compounds slowly precipitate on the surface, probably, they also include tholins, which are responsible for the brown color of Pluto. The most volatile compound of the atmosphere of Pluto is nitrogen, the second is carbon monoxide, the indicator of volatility is saturated vapor pressure. At temperature 40 K it is about 10 Pa for nitrogen,1 Pa for carbon monoxide and 0.001 Pa for methane and it quickly increases with temperature, and at 60 K approaches to 10000 Pa,3000 Pa and 10 Pa respectively. For heavier-than-methane hydrocarbons, water, ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen cyanide, this pressure remains negligibly low, but actually concentration of, at least, methane, does not depends noticeably of height, longitude and time. But temperature dependence of volatility of methane and nitrogen suggest that concentration of methane will decrease during moving of Pluto further from the Sun, reasons of this discrepancy are unknown. It can be due to existence of separate patches of relatively clean methane ice, seasonal and orbital changes of insolation results in migration of surface ices, they sublimate in some places and condensate in another. According to some estimates, it gives meter-sized changes of their thickness and this results in appreciable changes of brightness and color of Pluto. Methane and carbon monoxide, despite their low abundance, are significant for thermal structure of the atmosphere, methane is a strong heating agent and carbon monoxide is a cooling one
10.
Moons of Pluto
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The dwarf planet Pluto has five moons down to a detection limit of about 1 km in diameter. In order of distance from Pluto, they are Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, Charon, the largest of the five moons, is mutually tidally locked with Pluto, and is massive enough that Pluto–Charon is sometimes considered a double dwarf planet. The innermost and largest moon, Charon, was discovered by James Christy on 22 June 1978 and this led to a substantial revision in estimates of Plutos size, which had previously assumed that the observed mass and reflected light of the system were all attributable to Pluto alone. The International Astronomical Union officially named these moons Nix and Hydra, Styx, announced on 7 July 2012, was discovered while looking for potential hazards for New Horizons. Charon is about half the diameter of Pluto and is so massive that the barycenter lies between them, approximately 960 km above Plutos surface. Charon and Pluto are also locked, so that they always present the same face toward each other. The IAU General Assembly in August 2006 considered a proposal that Pluto and Charon be reclassified as a double planet, but the proposal was abandoned. Plutos four small moons orbit Pluto at two to four times the distance of Charon, ranging from Styx at 42,700 kilometres to Hydra at 64,800 kilometres from the barycenter of the system and they have nearly circular prograde orbits in the same orbital plane as Charon. All are much smaller than Charon, Nix and Hydra, the two larger, are roughly 42 and 55 kilometers on their longest axis respectively, and Styx and Kerberos are 7 and 12 kilometers respectively. The Pluto system is compact and largely empty. Moons could potentially orbit Pluto at up to 53% of the Hill radius, for example, Psamathe orbits Neptune at 40% of the Hill radius. An intense search conducted by New Horizons confirmed that no larger than 4.5 km in diameter exist at the distances up to 180,000 km from Pluto. Further information is expected as more data from the New Horizons flyby is sent back to Earth. The orbits of the moons are confirmed to be circular and coplanar, with inclinations differing less than 0. 4°, as seen from Earth, these circular orbits appear foreshortened into ellipses depending on Plutos position. The discovery of Nix and Hydra suggested that Pluto could have a ring system, small-body impacts can create debris that can form into a ring system. However, data from a survey by the Advanced Camera for Surveys on the Hubble Space Telescope, by occultation studies. Styx, Nix, and Hydra are thought to be in a 3-body orbital resonance with orbital periods in a ratio of 18,22,33, the ratios should be exact when orbital precession is taken into account. This means that in a recurring cycle there are 11 orbits of Styx for every 9 of Nix and 6 of Hydra, putting Nix and Hydra into a simple 2,3 resonance
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