1.
Cardinal number
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In mathematics, cardinal numbers, or cardinals for short, are a generalization of the natural numbers used to measure the cardinality of sets. The cardinality of a set is a natural number, the number of elements in the set. The transfinite cardinal numbers describe the sizes of infinite sets, cardinality is defined in terms of bijective functions. Two sets have the same cardinality if, and only if, in the case of finite sets, this agrees with the intuitive notion of size. In the case of sets, the behavior is more complex. It is also possible for a subset of an infinite set to have the same cardinality as the original set. There is a sequence of cardinal numbers,0,1,2,3, …, n, …, ℵ0, ℵ1, ℵ2, …, ℵ α, …. This sequence starts with the natural numbers including zero, which are followed by the aleph numbers, the aleph numbers are indexed by ordinal numbers. Under the assumption of the axiom of choice, this transfinite sequence includes every cardinal number, If one rejects that axiom, the situation is more complicated, with additional infinite cardinals that are not alephs. Cardinality is studied for its own sake as part of set theory and it is also a tool used in branches of mathematics including model theory, combinatorics, abstract algebra, and mathematical analysis. In category theory, the numbers form a skeleton of the category of sets. The notion of cardinality, as now understood, was formulated by Georg Cantor, cardinality can be used to compare an aspect of finite sets, e. g. the sets and are not equal, but have the same cardinality, namely three. Cantor applied his concept of bijection to infinite sets, e. g. the set of natural numbers N =, thus, all sets having a bijection with N he called denumerable sets and they all have the same cardinal number. This cardinal number is called ℵ0, aleph-null and he called the cardinal numbers of these infinite sets transfinite cardinal numbers. Cantor proved that any unbounded subset of N has the same cardinality as N and he later proved that the set of all real algebraic numbers is also denumerable. His proof used an argument with nested intervals, but in an 1891 paper he proved the result using his ingenious. The new cardinal number of the set of numbers is called the cardinality of the continuum. His continuum hypothesis is the proposition that c is the same as ℵ1 and this hypothesis has been found to be independent of the standard axioms of mathematical set theory, it can neither be proved nor disproved from the standard assumptions
2.
First-order logic
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First-order logic – also known as first-order predicate calculus and predicate logic – is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. This distinguishes it from propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers, Sometimes theory is understood in a more formal sense, which is just a set of sentences in first-order logic. In first-order theories, predicates are associated with sets. In interpreted higher-order theories, predicates may be interpreted as sets of sets, There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound and complete. Although the logical relation is only semidecidable, much progress has been made in automated theorem proving in first-order logic. First-order logic also satisfies several metalogical theorems that make it amenable to analysis in proof theory, such as the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, first-order logic is the standard for the formalization of mathematics into axioms and is studied in the foundations of mathematics. Peano arithmetic and Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory are axiomatizations of number theory and set theory, respectively, no first-order theory, however, has the strength to uniquely describe a structure with an infinite domain, such as the natural numbers or the real line. Axioms systems that do fully describe these two structures can be obtained in stronger logics such as second-order logic, for a history of first-order logic and how it came to dominate formal logic, see José Ferreirós. While propositional logic deals with simple declarative propositions, first-order logic additionally covers predicates, a predicate takes an entity or entities in the domain of discourse as input and outputs either True or False. Consider the two sentences Socrates is a philosopher and Plato is a philosopher, in propositional logic, these sentences are viewed as being unrelated and might be denoted, for example, by variables such as p and q. The predicate is a philosopher occurs in both sentences, which have a structure of a is a philosopher. The variable a is instantiated as Socrates in the first sentence and is instantiated as Plato in the second sentence, while first-order logic allows for the use of predicates, such as is a philosopher in this example, propositional logic does not. Relationships between predicates can be stated using logical connectives, consider, for example, the first-order formula if a is a philosopher, then a is a scholar. This formula is a statement with a is a philosopher as its hypothesis. The truth of this depends on which object is denoted by a. Quantifiers can be applied to variables in a formula, the variable a in the previous formula can be universally quantified, for instance, with the first-order sentence For every a, if a is a philosopher, then a is a scholar. The universal quantifier for every in this sentence expresses the idea that the if a is a philosopher. The negation of the sentence For every a, if a is a philosopher, then a is a scholar is logically equivalent to the sentence There exists a such that a is a philosopher and a is not a scholar
3.
Axiom schema of replacement
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In set theory, the axiom schema of replacement is a schema of axioms in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory that asserts that the image of any set under any definable mapping is also a set. It is necessary for the construction of certain infinite sets in ZF, the axiom schema is motivated by the idea that whether a class is a set depends only on the cardinality of the class, not on the rank of its elements. Thus, if one class is small enough to be a set, and there is a surjection from that class to a second class, the axiom states that the second class is also a set. However, because ZFC only speaks of sets, not proper classes, the schema is stated only for definable surjections, suppose P is a definable binary relation such that for every set x there is a unique set y such that P holds. There is a definable function F P, where F P = Y if. Consider the class B defined such for every set y, y ∈ B if, B is called the image of A under F P, and denoted F P or. The axiom schema of replacement states that if F is a class function, as above. This can be seen as a principle of smallness, the states that if A is small enough to be a set. It is implied by the axiom of limitation of size. In the formal language of set theory, the schema is, ∀ w 1, …, w n ∀ A The axiom schema of collection is closely related to. While replacement says that the image itself is a set, collection merely says that some superclass of the image is a set, in other words, the resulting set, B, is not required to be minimal. This version of collection also lacks the requirement on ϕ. Suppose that the variables of ϕ are among w 1, …, w n, x, y. Then the axiom schema is, ∀ w 1, …, w n That is, the relation defined by ϕ is not required to be a function--some x ∈ A may correspond to many y s B. In this case, the image set B whose existence is asserted must contain at least one such y for x in the original set. However, the schema as stated requires that, if an element x of A is associated with at least one set y. The resulting axiom schema is also called the axiom schema of boundedness, the axiom schema of collection is equivalent to the axiom schema of replacement over the remainder of the ZF axioms. However, this is not so in the absence of the Power Set Axiom or constructive counterpart of ZF, the ordinal number ω·2 = ω + ω is the first ordinal that cannot be constructed without replacement
4.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
