1.
Place of articulation
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Along with the manner of articulation and the phonation, it gives the consonant its distinctive sound. The terminology in this article has developed for precisely describing all the consonants in all the worlds spoken languages. No known language distinguishes all of the described here so less precision is needed to distinguish the sounds of a particular language. The human voice produces sounds in the manner, Air pressure from the lungs creates a steady flow of air through the trachea. The vocal folds in the larynx vibrate, creating fluctuations in air pressure, mouth and nose openings radiate the sound waves into the environment. The larynx or voice box is a framework of cartilage that serves to anchor the vocal folds. When the muscles of the vocal folds contract, the airflow from the lungs is impeded until the vocal folds are forced apart again by the air pressure from the lungs. The process continues in a cycle that is felt as a vibration. In singing, the frequency of the vocal folds determines the pitch of the sound produced. Voiced phonemes such as the vowels are, by definition. The lips of the mouth can be used in a way to create a similar sound. A rubber balloon, inflated but not tied off and stretched tightly across the neck produces a squeak or buzz, depending on the tension across the neck, similar actions with similar results occur when the vocal cords are contracted or relaxed across the larynx. k. a. The pharynx The epiglottis at the entrance to the windpipe, above the voice box The regions are not strictly separated. Likewise, the alveolar and post-alveolar regions merge into other, as do the hard and soft palate, the soft palate and the uvula. Terms like pre-velar, post-velar, and upper vs. lower pharyngeal may be used to more precisely where an articulation takes place. The articulatory gesture of the place of articulation involves the more mobile part of the vocal tract. That is unlike coronal gestures involving the front of the tongue, the epiglottis may be active, contacting the pharynx, or passive, being contacted by the aryepiglottal folds. Distinctions made in these areas are very difficult to observe and are the subject of ongoing investigation
2.
Bilabial consonant
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In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. The bilabial consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are, Owere Igbo has a six-way contrast among bilabial stops, approximately 0. 7% of the worlds languages lack bilabial consonants altogether, including Tlingit, Chipewyan, Oneida, and Wichita. The extensions to the IPA also define a bilabial percussive for striking the lips together, a lip-smack in the non-percussive sense of the lips noisily parting would be. The IPA chart shades out bilabial lateral consonants, which is read as indicating that such sounds are not possible. The fricatives and are often lateral, but no language makes a distinction for centrality so the allophony is not noticeable, place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages, mcDorman, Richard E. Labial Instability in Sound Change, Explanations for the Loss of /p/
3.
Labiodental consonant
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In phonetics, labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. The labiodental consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are, The IPA chart shades out labiodental lateral consonants and this is sometimes read as indicating that such sounds are not possible. In fact, the fricatives and often have lateral airflow, but no language makes a distinction for centrality, the labiodental click is an allophonic variant of the labial click. The only common labiodental sounds to occur phonemically are the fricatives, the labiodental flap occurs phonemically in over a dozen languages, but it is restricted geographically to central and southeastern Africa. It has been reported to occur phonemically in a dialect of Teke, the XiNkuna dialect of Tsonga features a pair of affricates as phonemes. In some other languages, such as Xhosa, affricates may occur as allophones of the fricatives and these differ from the German bilabial-labiodental affricate <pf>, which commences with a bilabial p. All these affricates are rare sounds, the stops are not confirmed to exist as separate phonemes in any language. They are sometimes written as ȹ ȸ and they may also be found in childrens speech or as speech impediments. Dentolabial consonants are the articulatory opposite of labiodentals, They are pronounced by contacting lower teeth against the upper lip, place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages, olson, Kenneth S. & John Hajek. Crosslinguistic insights on the labial flap, the Southernmost People of Greenland-Dialects and Memories, Qavaat-Oqalunneri Eqqaamassaallu
4.
Coronal consonant
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Coronal consonants are consonants articulated with the flexible front part of the tongue. Only the coronal consonants can be divided into apical, laminal, domed, or subapical, as well as a few rarer orientations, coronals have another dimension, grooved, that is used to make sibilants in combination with the orientations above. Alveolo-palatal and linguolabial consonants sometimes behave as dorsal and labial consonants, respectively, in Arabic and Maltese philology, the sun letters represent coronal consonants. In Australian Aboriginal languages, coronals contrast with peripheral consonants, peripheral consonants, the set of non-coronal consonants Apical consonant Laminal consonant Subapical consonant Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages
5.
Linguolabial consonant
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Linguolabials or apicolabials are consonants articulated by placing the tongue tip or blade against the upper lip, which is drawn downward to meet the tongue. They represent one extreme of a coronal articulatory continuum which extends from linguolabial to subapical palatal places of articulation, cross-linguistically, linguolabial consonants are very rare, but they do not represent a particularly exotic combination of articulatory configurations, unlike click consonants or ejectives. They are found in a cluster of languages in Vanuatu, in the Kajoko dialect of Bijago in Guinea-Bissau, and in Umotína and they are also relatively common in disordered speech, and the diacritic is specifically provided for in the extensions to the IPA. Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages. In VICAL1, Oceanic Languages, Part II, Papers from the Fifth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Auckland, New Zealand, January 1988, ed. by R. Harlow & R. Hooper, Auckland, Linguistic Society of New Zealand. Olson, Kenneth S. D. William Reiman, Fernando Sabio & Filipe Alberto da Silva, the voiced linguolabial plosive in Kajoko
6.
Dental consonant
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A dental consonant is a consonant articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth, such as /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ in some languages. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the diacritic for dental consonant is U+032A ◌̪ COMBINING BRIDGE BELOW, sanskrit, Hindi and all other Indic languages have an entire set of dental stops that occur phonemically as voiced and voiceless, and with or without aspiration. The nasal /n/ also exists in languages, but is quite alveolar. To the Indian speaker, the alveolar /t/ and /d/ of English sound more like the corresponding retroflex consonants of his own language than like the dentals. Spanish /t/ and /d/ are laminal denti-alveolar, whereas /l/ and /n/ are prototypically alveolar, likewise, Italian /t/, /d/, /t͡s/, /d͡z/ are denti-alveolar and /l/ and /n/ become denti-alveolar before a following dental consonant. In the case of French, the rear-most contact is alveolar or sometimes slightly pre-alveolar, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
7.
Denti-alveolar consonant
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That is, a denti-alveolar consonant is one that is alveolar and laminal. In the case of French, the rear-most contact is alveolar or sometimes slightly pre-alveolar, spanish /t/ and /d/ are laminal denti-alveolar, whereas /l/ and /n/ are alveolar. Similarly, Italian /t/, /d/, /t͡s/, /d͡z/ are denti-alveolar, whereas /l/, the dental clicks are also laminal denti-alveolar
8.
Alveolar consonant
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Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth. Alveolar consonants may be articulated with the tip of the tongue, as in English, or with the flat of the tongue just above the tip, as in French and Spanish. The laminal alveolar articulation is often called dental, because the tip of the tongue can be seen near to or touching the teeth. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have symbols for the alveolar consonants. Rather, the symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized like English palato-alveolar sh. To disambiguate, the bridge may be used for a dental consonant, note that differs from dental in that the former is a sibilant and the latter is not. Differs from postalveolar in being unpalatalized, the bare letters, etc. cannot be assumed to specifically represent alveolars. If it is necessary to specify a consonant as alveolar, a diacritic from the Extended IPA may be used, the letters ⟨s, t, n, l⟩ are frequently called alveolar, and the language examples below are all alveolar sounds. Alveolar consonants are transcribed in the IPA as follows, The alveolar or dental consonants and are, along with, nonetheless, there are a few languages that lack them. A few languages on Bougainville Island and around Puget Sound, such as Makah, lack nasals and therefore, colloquial Samoan, however, lacks both and, but it has a lateral alveolar approximant /l/. In Standard Hawaiian, is an allophone of /k/, but /l/, in labioalveolars, the lower lip contacts the alveolar ridge. Such sounds are typically the result of a severe overbite, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
9.
Postalveolar consonant
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Examples of postalveolar consonants are the English palato-alveolar consonants, as in the words shill, chill, vision, and Jill, respectively. There are a number of types of postalveolar sounds, especially among the sibilants. The three primary types are palato-alveolar, alveolo-palatal, and retroflex, the palato-alveolar and alveolo-palatal subtypes are commonly counted as palatals in phonology since they rarely contrast with true palatal consonants. The sibilant postalveolars are sometimes called hush consonants because they include the sound of English Shhh, for example, the alveolar fricative and the three postalveolar fricatives differ noticeably both in pitch and sharpness, the order corresponds to progressively lower-pitched and duller sounds. As a result, it is necessary to specify many additional subtypes, the main distinction is the shape of the tongue, which corresponds to differing degrees of palatalization. From least to most palatalized, these are retroflex, palato-alveolar, the increasing palatalization corresponds to progressively higher-pitched and sharper-sounding consonants. The alveolo-palatal consonant sounds like a strongly palatalized version of, somewhat like nourish you, palato-alveolar sounds are normally described as having a convex tongue. The front, central part of the tongue is somewhat raised compared to the tip, back and sides, for retroflex sounds, the tongue shape is either concave, or flat. For alveolo-palatal sounds, the front half of the tongue is flat and raised so that it parallels the upper surface of the mouth. Behind that is a sudden convex bend, the following table shows the three types of postalveolar sibilant fricatives defined in the IPA, A second variable is whether the contact occurs with the very tip of the tongue. With the surface just above the tip, the blade of the tongue, also, the apical-laminal distinction among palato-alveolar sounds makes little perceptible difference, both articulations, in fact, occur among English-speakers. As a result, the points of tongue contact are significant largely for retroflex sounds. Retroflex sounds can occur outside of the postalveolar region, ranging from as far back as the hard palate to as far forward as the alveolar region behind the teeth. Subapical retroflex sounds are often palatal, such sounds occur particularly in the Dravidian languages, there is an additional distinction that can be made among tongue-down laminal sounds, depending on where exactly behind the lower teeth the tongue tip is placed. A bit behind the teeth is a hollow area in the lower surface of the mouth. When the tongue tip rests in this area, there is an empty space below the tongue. When the tip of the tongue rests against the teeth, there is no sublingual cavity. However, the sibilants in Northwest Caucasian languages such as Ubykh have the tongue tip resting directly against the lower teeth rather than in the hollowed area
10.
Palato-alveolar consonant
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In phonetics, palato-alveolar consonants are postalveolar consonants, nearly always sibilants, that are weakly palatalized with a domed tongue. They are common sounds cross-linguistically and occur in English words such as ship and chip, the fricatives are transcribed ⟨ʃ⟩ and ⟨ʒ⟩ in the International Phonetic Alphabet, while the corresponding affricates are ⟨tʃ⟩ and ⟨dʒ⟩. Examples of words with these sounds in English are shin, chin, gin, palato-alveolar consonants can be articulated either with the tip or blade of the tongue, and are correspondingly called apical or laminal. Speakers of English use both variants, and it not appear to significantly affect the sound of the consonants. These sounds are similar to the alveolo-palatal sibilants and to the retroflex sibilants, in palato-alveolars the front of the body of the tongue is domed, in that the front of the tongue moves partway towards the palate, giving the consonant a weakly palatalized sound. They differ from other postalveolars in the extent of palatalization, intermediate between the fully palatalized alveolo-palatals and the unpalatalized retroflexes and it is generally only within sibilants that a palato-alveolar articulation is distinguished. In certain languages nasals or laterals may be said to be palato-alveolar, even in the case of sibilants, palato-alveolars are often described simply as post-alveolars or even as palatals, since they do not contrast with these sounds in most languages
11.
Retroflex consonant
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A retroflex consonant is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants, especially in Indology, other terms occasionally encountered are domal and cacuminal. The Latin-derived word retroflex means bent back, some consonants are pronounced with the tongue fully curled back so that articulation involves the underside of the tongue tip. These sounds are described as true retroflex consonants. Retroflex consonants, like other consonants, come in several varieties. The tongue may be flat or concave, or even with the tip curled back. The point of contact on the tongue may be with the tip, with the blade, the point of contact on the roof of the mouth may be with the alveolar ridge, the area behind the alveolar ridge, or the hard palate. Finally, both sibilant and nonsibilant consonants can have a retroflex articulation, the greatest variety of combinations occurs with sibilants, because for these, small changes in tongue shape and position cause significant changes in the resulting sound. Retroflex sounds in general have a duller, lower-pitched sound than other alveolar or postalveolar consonants, and especially the grooved alveolar sibilants. The farther back the point of contact with the roof of the mouth, the concave is the shape of the tongue. The main combinations normally observed are, Laminal post-alveolar, with a flat tongue and these occur, for example, in Polish cz, sz, ż, dż and Mandarin zh, ch, sh, r. Apical post-alveolar, with a somewhat concave tongue and these occur, for example, in Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Subapical palatal, with a highly concave tongue and these occur particularly in the Dravidian languages. These are the dullest and lowest-pitched type, and when following a vowel often add strong r-coloring to the vowel and these are not a place of articulation, as the IPA chart implies, but a shape of the tongue analogous to laminal and apical. Apical alveolar, with a somewhat concave tongue and these occur, for example, in peninsular Spanish and Basque. These sounds dont quite fit on the front-to-back, laminal-to-subapical continuum, with a relatively dull, the subapical sounds are sometimes called true retroflex because of the curled-back shape of the tongue, while the other sounds sometimes go by other names. For example, Ladefoged and Maddieson prefer to call the laminal post-alveolar sounds flat post-alveolar, the retroflex approximant /ɻ/ is an allophone of the alveolar approximant /ɹ/ in many dialects of American English, particularly in the Midwestern United States. Polish and Russian possess retroflex sibilants, but no stops or liquids at this place of articulation, in African languages retroflex consonants are also very rare, reportedly occurring in a few Nilo-Saharan languages
12.
Dorsal consonant
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Dorsal consonants are articulated with the mid body of the tongue. They include the palatal, velar and, in cases, alveolo-palatal. They contrast with coronal consonants, articulated with the front of the tongue. The dorsum of the tongue can contact a broad region of the roof of the mouth, from the hard palate and these distinctions are not clear cut, and sometimes finer gradations such as pre-palatal, pre-velar, and post-velar will be noted. Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
13.
Alveolo-palatal consonant
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In the official IPA chart, alveolo-palatals would appear between the retroflex and palatal consonants but for lack of space. These descriptions are equivalent, since the contact includes both the blade and body of the tongue. They are front enough that the fricatives and affricates are sibilants, the alveolo-palatal sibilants are often used in varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin, Hakka, and Wu, as well as other East Asian languages such as Japanese and Korean. Alveolo-palatal sibilants are also a feature of many Slavic languages, such as Polish, Russian, and Serbo-Croatian, the alveolo-palatal consonants included in the International Phonetic Alphabet are, The letters ⟨ɕ⟩ and ⟨ʑ⟩ are essentially equivalent to ⟨ ʃʲ⟩ and ⟨ʒʲ⟩. They are the sibilant homologues of the fricatives and. Symbols for alveolo-palatal stops, nasals and liquids are used in sinological circles. In standard IPA, they can be transcribed ⟨t̠ʲ d̠ʲ n̠ʲ l̠ʲ⟩ or ⟨c̟ ɟ̟ ɲ̟ ʎ̟⟩, an alternative transcription for the voiced alveolo-palatal stop and nasal is ⟨ɟ˖ ɲ˖⟩, but it is used only when ⟨ɟ̟ ɲ̟⟩ cannot be displayed properly. For example, the Polish nasal represented with the letter ń is a palatalized laminal alveolar nasal, the palatal consonants of Indigenous Australian languages are also often closer to alveolo-palatal in their articulation. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages
14.
Palatal consonant
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Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate. Consonants with the tip of the tongue curled back against the palate are called retroflex, the most common type of palatal consonant is the extremely common approximant, which ranks as among the ten most common sounds in the worlds languages. The nasal is also common, occurring in around 35 percent of the languages, in most of which its equivalent obstruent is not the stop. Consonants with other primary articulations may be palatalized, that is, for example, English has such a palatal component, although its primary articulation involves the tip of the tongue and the upper gum. In phonology, alveolo-palatal, palatoalveolar and palatovelar consonants are commonly grouped as palatals, sometimes palatalized alveolars or dentals can be analyzed in this manner as well. Palatal consonants can be distinguished from palatalized consonants and consonant clusters of a consonant, palatal and palatalized consonants are both single phonemes, whereas a sequence of a consonant and is logically two phonemes. Irish distinguishes the palatal nasal /ɲ/ from the alveolar nasal /nʲ/. In fact, some conservative Irish dialects have two palatalized alveolar nasals, distinguished as fortis vs. lenis. Also, languages that have sequences of consonants and /j/, but no separate palatal or palatalized consonants and this is due to the principle of least effort and is an example of the general phenomenon of coarticulation. For a table of examples of palatal /ɲ ʎ/ in the Romance languages, palatal consonants are written this way in the International Phonetic Alphabet, Palatalization Palatalization Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages
15.
Velar consonant
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Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth. They often become automatically fronted, that is partly or completely palatal before a front vowel, and retracted. Palatalised velars are sometimes referred to as palatovelars, many languages also have labialized velars, such as, in which the articulation is accompanied by rounding of the lips. There are also labial-velar consonants, which are articulated at the velum and at the lips. This distinction disappears with the approximant since labialization involves adding of a labial approximant articulation to a sound, a velar trill or tap is not possible, see the shaded boxes on the table of pulmonic consonants. The velar consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are, The velar consonant is the most common consonant in human languages, the only languages recorded to lack velars may be Xavante, Tahitian, Wutung, Vanimo, Nori, and Waimiri-Atroarí. An areal feature of the Pacific Northwest coast is that historical *k became palatalized in many languages, likewise, historical *k’ has become and historical *x has become, there was no *g or *ŋ. In the Northwest Caucasian languages, historical * has also become palatalized, becoming /kʲ/ in Ubykh, in both regions the languages retain a labiovelar series as well as uvular consonants. In the languages of those families that retain plain velars, both the plain and labialized velars are pre-velar, perhaps to make them distinct from the uvulars which may be post-velar. Prevelar consonants are susceptible to palatalization, a similar system, contrasting *kʲ with *kʷ and leaving *k marginal at best, is reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European. Apart from the stop, no other velar consonant is particularly common, even the. Of course, there can be no phoneme /ɡ/ in a language that lacks voiced stops, like Mandarin Chinese, of the languages surveyed in the World Atlas of Language Structures, about 10% of languages that otherwise have /p b t d k/ are missing /ɡ/. Pirahã has both a and a phonetically, however, the does not behave as other consonants, and the argument has been made that it is phonemically /hi/, leaving Pirahã with only /ɡ/ as an underlyingly velar consonant. Hawaiian does not distinguish from, ⟨k⟩ tends toward at the beginning of utterances, before, since Hawaiian has no, and ⟨w⟩ varies between and, it is not clearly meaningful to say that Hawaiian has phonemic velar consonants. Several Khoisan languages have limited numbers or distributions of pulmonic velar consonants, khoekhoe, for example, does not allow velars in medial or final position, but in Juǀhoan velars are rare even in initial position. Normal velar consonants are dorso-velar, The dorsum of the rises to contact the velum of the roof of the mouth. In disordered speech there are also velo-dorsal stops, with the articulation, The velum lowers to contact the tongue. In the extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, these are transcribed by reversing the IPA letter for a velar consonant, velarization Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian
16.
Uvular consonant
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Uvulars are consonants articulated with the back of the tongue against or near the uvula, that is, further back in the mouth than velar consonants. Uvulars may be stops, fricatives, nasals, trills, or approximants, though the IPA does not provide a separate symbol for the approximant, and the symbol for the voiced fricative is used instead. Uvular affricates can certainly be made but are rare, they occur in some southern High-German dialects, as well as in a few African, uvular consonants are typically incompatible with advanced tongue root, and they often cause retraction of neighboring vowels. Uvular consonants are found in many African and Middle-Eastern languages, most notably Arabic. In parts of the Caucasus mountains and northwestern North America, nearly every language has uvular stops, two uvular Rs are found in north-western Europe. It was once thought that they spread from northern French, the voiceless uvular stop is transcribed as in both the IPA and SAMPA. It is pronounced somewhat like the velar stop, but with the middle of the tongue further back on the velum. The voiced equivalent of, is much rarer and it is like the voiced velar stop, but articulated in the same uvular position as. Few languages use this sound, but it is found in Persian and in several Northeast Caucasian languages and it may also occur as an allophone of another uvular consonant - in Kazakh, the voiced uvular stop is an allophone of the voiced uvular fricative after the velar nasal. The voiceless uvular fricative is similar to the velar fricative. It is found instead of in some dialects of German, Spanish, uvular flaps have been reported for Kube and for the variety of Khmer spoken in Battambang. The Tlingit language of the Alaskan Panhandle has ten uvular consonants, in featural phonology, uvular consonants are most often considered to contrast with velar consonants in terms of being and. Prototypical uvulars also appear to be, since palatalized consonants are, the appearance of palatalized uvulars in a few languages such as Ubykh is difficult to account for. According to Vaux, they hold the features, the last being the distinguishing feature from a palatalized velar consonant. The uvular trill is used in dialects of French, German, Dutch, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian, as well as sometimes in Modern Hebrew. As with most trills, uvular trills are often reduced to a single contact, unlike other uvular consonants, the uvular trill is articulated without a retraction of the tongue, and therefore doesnt lower neighboring high vowels the way uvular stops commonly do. Several other languages, including Inuktitut, Abkhaz, Uyghur and some varieties of Arabic, have a voiced uvular fricative, in Lakhota the uvular trill is an allophone of the voiced uvular fricative before /i/. Uvularization Place of articulation List of phonetics topics Guttural R Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
17.
Laryngeal consonant
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The term laryngeal is often taken to be synonymous with glottal, but the larynx consists of more than just the glottis, it also includes the epiglottis and aryepiglottic folds. In a broad sense, therefore, laryngeal articulations include the radical consonants, the diversity of sounds produced in the larynx is the subject of ongoing research, and the terminology is evolving. The term laryngeal consonant is used for laryngealized consonants articulated in the upper vocal tract, such as Arabic emphatics. Laryngeal theory Place of articulation Index of phonetics articles Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages. Miller, Amanda, Guttural vowels and guttural co-articulation in Ju|’hoansi,35, Issue 1, January 2007, pp 56–84
18.
Pharyngeal consonant
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A pharyngeal consonant is a consonant that is articulated primarily in the pharynx. Stops and trills can be produced only at the epiglottis. When they are treated as distinct places of articulation, the term radical consonant may be used as a cover term, in many languages, pharyngeal consonants trigger advancement of neighboring vowels. Pharyngeals thus differ from uvulars, which nearly always trigger retraction, in addition, consonants and vowels may be secondarily pharyngealized. Also, strident vowels are defined by an accompanying epiglottal trill, pharyngeal/epiglottal consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet, *A voiced epiglottal stop may not be possible. When an epiglottal stop becomes voiced intervocalically in Dahalo, for example, phonetically, however, voiceless vs voiced affricates or off-glides are attested. ** Although traditionally placed in the row of the IPA chart, is usually an approximant. Frication is difficult to produce or to distinguish because the voicing in the glottis, the IPA symbol is ambiguous, but no language distinguishes fricative and approximant at this place of articulation. For clarity, the diacritic may used to specify that the manner is approximant. The Hydaburg dialect of Haida has a trilled epiglottal and a trilled epiglottal affricate ~, because and occur at the same Pharyngeal/Epiglottal place of articulation, the logical phonetic distinction to make between them is in manner of articulation, trill versus fricative. Edmondson et al. distinguish several subtypes of pharyngeal consonant, pharyngeal or epiglottal stops and trills are usually produced by contracting the aryepiglottic folds of the larynx against the epiglottis. That articulation has been distinguished as aryepiglottal, in pharyngeal fricatives, the root of the tongue is retracted against the back wall of the pharynx. The IPA does not have diacritics to distinguish this articulation from standard aryepiglottals, Edmonson et al. use the ad hoc, somewhat misleading, transcriptions ⟨ʕ͡ʡ⟩, there are, however, several diacritics for subtypes of pharyngeal sound among the Voice Quality Symbols. Although upper-pharyngeal stops are not found in the languages, as far as is known. In Finnish, a weak pharyngeal fricative is the realization of /h/ after the vowels /ɑ/ or /æ/ in syllable-coda position, such as star, the approximant is more common, as it is the realization of /r/ in such European languages as Danish and Swabian German. According to the theory, Proto-Indo-European might have had pharyngeal consonants. The fricatives and trills are frequently conflated with pharyngeal fricatives in literature and that was the case for Dahalo and Northern Haida, for example, and it is likely to be true for many other languages. The distinction between these sounds was recognized by IPA only in 1989, and it was little investigated until the 1990s, pharyngealization Strident vowel Ayin Heth Guttural Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian
19.
Glottal consonant
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Glottal consonants are consonants using the glottis as their primary articulation. However, glottal consonants behave as consonants in many languages. For example, in Literary Arabic, most words are formed from a root C-C-C consisting of three consonants, which are inserted into templates such as /CaːCiC/ or /maCCuːC/. The glottal consonants /h/ and /ʔ/ can occupy any of the three root consonant slots, just like normal consonants such as /k/ or /n/, glottal consonants in the International Phonetic Alphabet, In many languages, the fricatives are not true fricatives. This is a usage of the word. They instead represent transitional states of the glottis without a place of articulation. Is a breathy-voiced transition, and could be transcribed as, the glottal stop occurs in many languages. Often all vocalic onsets are preceded by a stop, for example in German. The Hawaiian language writes the glottal stop as the ‘okina ‘, because the glottis is necessarily closed for the glottal stop, it cannot be voiced. So-called voiced glottal stops are not full stops, but rather creaky voiced glottal approximants that may be transcribed and they occur as the intervocalic allophone of glottal stop in many languages. Gimi contrasts /ʔ/ and /ʔ̞/, corresponding to /k/ and /ɡ/ in related languages, glottalic consonant Glottalization Place of articulation Index of phonetics articles Guttural Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages
20.
Tongue shape
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In linguistics, tongue shape describes the shape that the tongue assumes when making a sound. Tongue shape is important for the sibilant sounds. Because these sounds have such a high prominence, small changes in tongue shape are easily audible. Usually, only one of these articulations can co-occur with a given sound. In addition, the quality of velarization and pharyngealization is very similar, as a result. The following varieties of tongue shapes are defined for sibilants, from sharpest and highest-pitched to dullest and lowest-pitched, Grooved and this groove channels a high-velocity jet of air into the teeth, which results in a high-pitched, piercing hissing sound. Because of the prominence of these sounds, they are the most common and they occur in English, where they are denoted with a letter s or z, as in soon or zone. Grooved palatalized, Combination of grooved shape with palatalization, alveolo-palatal, i. e. flat palatalized, with a convex, V-shaped tongue, and highly palatalized. Palato-alveolar, i. e. domed, with a domed tongue and these sounds occur in English, where they are denoted with letter combinations such as sh, ch, g, j or si, as in shin, chin, gin and vision. Retroflex, with a flat or concave tongue, and no palatalization and these sounds occur in a large number of varieties, some of which also go by other names. The subapical palatal or true retroflex sounds are the very dullest and lowest-pitched of all the sibilants, the latter three types of sounds are often known as hushing sounds because of their quality, as opposed to the hissing grooved sounds. Note that palatalization is an inherent part of the definition of the above varieties, and cannot normally be varied independently
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Domed consonant
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In linguistics, tongue shape describes the shape that the tongue assumes when making a sound. Tongue shape is important for the sibilant sounds. Because these sounds have such a high prominence, small changes in tongue shape are easily audible. Usually, only one of these articulations can co-occur with a given sound. In addition, the quality of velarization and pharyngealization is very similar, as a result. The following varieties of tongue shapes are defined for sibilants, from sharpest and highest-pitched to dullest and lowest-pitched, Grooved and this groove channels a high-velocity jet of air into the teeth, which results in a high-pitched, piercing hissing sound. Because of the prominence of these sounds, they are the most common and they occur in English, where they are denoted with a letter s or z, as in soon or zone. Grooved palatalized, Combination of grooved shape with palatalization, alveolo-palatal, i. e. flat palatalized, with a convex, V-shaped tongue, and highly palatalized. Palato-alveolar, i. e. domed, with a domed tongue and these sounds occur in English, where they are denoted with letter combinations such as sh, ch, g, j or si, as in shin, chin, gin and vision. Retroflex, with a flat or concave tongue, and no palatalization and these sounds occur in a large number of varieties, some of which also go by other names. The subapical palatal or true retroflex sounds are the very dullest and lowest-pitched of all the sibilants, the latter three types of sounds are often known as hushing sounds because of their quality, as opposed to the hissing grooved sounds. Note that palatalization is an inherent part of the definition of the above varieties, and cannot normally be varied independently
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Lateral consonant
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A lateral is an l-like consonant in which the airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but it is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth. Most commonly, the tip of the tongue makes contact with the teeth or the upper gum just behind the teeth. The most common laterals are approximants and belong to the class of liquids, plosives are never lateral, but they may have lateral release. The distinction is meaningless for nasals and for consonants articulated in the throat, consonants are not necessarily lateral or central. Some, such as Japanese r, are not defined by centrality, English has one lateral phoneme, the lateral approximant /l/, which in many accents has two allophones. One, found before vowels as in lady or fly, is called clear l, in some languages, like Albanian, those two sounds are different phonemes. East Slavic languages contrast and but do not have, in many British accents, dark may undergo vocalization through the reduction and loss of contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, becoming a rounded back vowel or glide. This process turns tell into something like, as must have happened with talk or walk at some stage, in central and Venice dialects of Venetian, intervocalic /l/ has turned into a semivocalic, so that the written word ła bała is pronounced. The orthography uses the letter ł to represent this phoneme, many aboriginal Australian languages have a series of three or four lateral approximants, as do various dialects of Irish. In Adyghe and some Athabaskan languages like Hän, both voiceless and voiced alveolar lateral fricatives occur, but there is no approximant, many of these languages also have lateral affricates. Some languages have palatal or velar voiceless lateral fricatives or affricates, such as Dahalo and Zulu, however, appropriate symbols are easy to make by adding a lateral-fricative belt to the symbol for the corresponding lateral approximant. Also, a diacritic may be added to the approximant. Nearly all languages with such lateral obstruents also have the approximant, however, there are a number of exceptions, many of them located in the Pacific Northwest area of the United States. For example, Tlingit has /tɬ, tɬʰ, tɬʼ, ɬ, ɬʼ/, other examples from the same area include Nuu-chah-nulth and Kutenai, and elsewhere, Chukchi and Kabardian. Standard Tibetan has a lateral approximant, usually romanized as lh. A uvular lateral approximant has been reported to occur in some speakers of American English, pashto has a retroflex lateral flap. There are a number of lateral click consonants,17 occur in. Xóõ. Lateral trills are also possible, but they do not occur in any known language and they may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow
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Roundedness
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In phonetics, vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the lips during the articulation of a vowel. It is labialization of a vowel, when a rounded vowel is pronounced, the lips form a circular opening, and unrounded vowels are pronounced with the lips relaxed. In most languages, front vowels tend to be unrounded, in the International Phonetic Alphabet vowel chart, rounded vowels are the ones that appear on the right in each pair of vowels. There are also diacritics, U+0339 ̹ COMBINING RIGHT HALF RING BELOW and U+031C ̜ COMBINING LEFT HALF RING BELOW, to greater and lesser degrees of rounding. The more and less rounded diacritics are also used with consonants to indicate degrees of labialization. There are two types of rounding, protrusion and compression. In protruded rounding, the corners of the mouth are drawn together, in compressed rounding, the corners of the mouth are drawn together, but the lips are also drawn together horizontally and do not protrude, with only their outer surface visible. That is, in protruded vowels the inner surfaces of the form the opening. Catford observes that back and central rounded vowels, such as German /o/ and /u/, are typically protruded, whereas front rounded vowels such as German /ø/ and /y/ are typically compressed. Back or central compressed vowels and front protruded vowels are uncommon, there are no dedicated IPA diacritics to represent the distinction, but the superscript IPA letter ⟨◌ᵝ⟩ can be used for compression and ⟨◌ʷ⟩, ⟨◌ᶣ⟩ or ⟨◌̫⟩ for protrusion. Compressed vowels may be pronounced either with the corners of the mouth drawn in, by some definitions rounded, or with the spread and, by the same definitions. The distinction may be transcribed ⟨ɨᵝ ɯᵝ⟩ and ⟨ʉᵝ uᵝ⟩, the distinction between protruded and compressed holds for the semivowels and as well as labialization. In Akan, for example, the is compressed, as are labio-palatalized consonants as in Twi Twi and adwuma work, whereas, in Japanese, the /w/ is compressed rather than protruded, paralleling the Japanese /u/. The distinction applies marginally to other consonants, some vowels transcribed with rounded IPA letters may not be rounded at all. An example is /ɒ/, which in English has very little if any rounding of the lips, the throaty sound of English /ɒ/ is instead accomplished with sulcalization, a furrowing of the back of the tongue also found in non-rhotic /ɜː/. It is possible to mimic the effect of rounded vowels by narrowing the cheeks, so-called cheek rounding. The technique is used by ventriloquists to mask the visible rounding of back vowels like and it is not clear if it is used by languages with rounded vowels that do not use visible rounding. Protruded rounding is the equivalent of consonantal labialization
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Articulatory phonetics
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The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation, phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures, generally, articulatory phonetics is concerned with the transformation of aerodynamic energy into acoustic energy. Aerodynamic energy refers to the airflow through the vocal tract and its potential form is air pressure, its kinetic form is the actual dynamic airflow. Acoustic energy is variation in the air pressure that can be represented as sound waves, the main air cavities present in the articulatory system are the supraglottal cavity and the subglottal cavity. They are so-named because the glottis, the space between the vocal folds internal to the larynx, separates the two cavities. The supraglottal cavity or the orinasal cavity is divided into an oral subcavity, the subglottal cavity consists of the trachea and the lungs. The atmosphere external to the stem may also be considered an air cavity whose potential connecting points with respect to the body are the nostrils. The term initiator refers to the fact that they are used to initiate a change in the volumes of air cavities, and, by Boyles Law, the term initiation refers to the change. Since changes in air pressures between connected cavities lead to airflow between the cavities, initiation is referred to as an airstream mechanism. The three pistons present in the system are the larynx, the tongue body, and the physiological structures used to manipulate lung volume. The lung pistons are used to initiate a pulmonic airstream, the larynx is used to initiate the glottalic airstream mechanism by changing the volume of the supraglottal and subglottal cavities via vertical movement of the larynx. Ejectives and implosives are made with this airstream mechanism, the tongue body creates a velaric airsteam by changing the pressure within the oral cavity, the tongue body changes the mouth subcavity. Click consonants use the velaric airstream mechanism, pistons are controlled by various muscles. Airflow occurs when an air valve is open and there is a difference between the connecting cavities. When an air valve is closed, there is no airflow, like the pistons, the air valves are also controlled by various muscles. To produce any kind of sound, there must be movement of air. To produce sounds that people today can interpret as words, the movement of air must pass through the chords, up through the throat and. Different sounds are formed by different positions of the mouth—or, as linguists call it, sounds of all languages fall under two categories, Consonants and Vowels
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Co-articulated consonant
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Co-articulated consonants or complex consonants are consonants produced with two simultaneous places of articulation. An example of a doubly articulated consonant is the voiceless labial-velar stop, on the other hand, the voiceless labialized velar stop has only a single stop articulation, velar, with a simultaneous approximant-like rounding of the lips. In practically all languages of the world that have doubly articulated consonants, however, there is a large number of common secondary articulations. The most frequently encountered are labialization, palatalization, velarization, in some English dialects, for example, /w/ is a labialized velar that could be transcribed as, but the Japanese /w/ is closer to a true labial-velar. It is common usage to restrict the letter ⟨w⟩ to the former, the glottis controls phonation, and works simultaneously with many consonants. It is not normally considered an articulator, and a such as, with simultaneous closure of the velum
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Manner of articulation
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In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is stricture, that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another, others include those involved in the r-like sounds, and the sibilancy of fricatives. For consonants, the place of articulation and the degree of phonation of voicing are considered separately from manner, homorganic consonants, which have the same place of articulation, may have different manners of articulation. Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but some phoneticians, such as Peter Ladefoged, from greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants, fricative consonants, approximants, and vowels. Affricates often behave as if they were intermediate stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences of a stop and fricative. Over time, sounds in a language may move along this cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition, sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth. Fricatives at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non-sibilant, taps and flaps are similar to very brief stops. However, their articulation and behavior are enough to be considered a separate manner, rather than just length. Trills involve the vibration of one of the speech organs, since trilling is a separate parameter from stricture, the two may be combined. Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative, nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly found in nasal occlusives and nasal vowels, but nasalized fricatives, taps, when a sound is not nasal, it is called oral. Laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue and this can be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral approximants, lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and affricates. Stop, an oral occlusive, where there is occlusion of the vocal tract. Examples include English /p t k/ and /b d ɡ/, if the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion, if it is voiceless, a stop is completely silent. What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the onset of the occlusion has on the vowel, as well as the release burst. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different stops their characteristic sounds, nasal, a nasal occlusive, where there is occlusion of the oral tract, but air passes through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasals their characteristic sounds, nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island. Fricative, sometimes called spirant, where there is continuous frication at the place of articulation, examples include English /f, s/, /v, z/, etc
