1.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
2.
X-SAMPA
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The Extended Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet is a variant of SAMPA developed in 1995 by John C. Wells, professor of phonetics at the University of London and it is designed to unify the individual language SAMPA alphabets, and extend SAMPA to cover the entire range of characters in the International Phonetic Alphabet. The result is a SAMPA-inspired remapping of the IPA into 7-bit ASCII, SAMPA was devised as a hack to work around the inability of text encodings to represent IPA symbols. Later, as Unicode support for IPA symbols became more widespread, however, X-SAMPA is still useful as the basis for an input method for true IPA. The IPA symbols that are ordinary lower-case letters have the value in X-SAMPA as they do in the IPA. X-SAMPA uses backslashes as modifying suffixes to create new symbols, for example, O is a distinct sound from O\, to which it bears no relation. Such use of the character can be a problem, since many programs interpret it as an escape character for the character following it. For example, you use such X-SAMPA symbols in EMU. X-SAMPA diacritics follow the symbols they modify, except for ~ for nasalization, = for syllabicity, and for retroflexion and rhotacization, diacritics are joined to the character with the underscore character _. The underscore character is used to encode the IPA tiebar. The numbers _1 to _6 are reserved diacritics as shorthand for language-specific tone numbers, asterisks mark sounds that do not have X-SAMPA symbols. Daggers mark IPA symbols that have recently added to Unicode. Since April 2008, the latter is the case of the labiodental flap, a dedicated symbol for the labiodental flap does not yet exist in X-SAMPA. International Phonetic Alphabet International Phonetic Alphabet for English Kirshenbaum and WorldBet, list of phonetics topics SAMPA, a language-specific predecessor of X-SAMPA. SAMPA chart for English Computer-coding the IPA, A proposed extension of SAMPA Translate English texts into IPA phonetics with PhoTransEdit and this free software tool allows to export transcriptions to X-SAMPA. Online converter between IPA and X-Sampa Web-based translator for X-SAMPA documents, produces Unicode text, XML text, PostScript, PDF, or LaTeX TIPA. Z-SAMPA, an extension of X-SAMPA sometimes used for conlangs Web-based X-SAMPA to IPA Converter
3.
Kirshenbaum
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Kirshenbaum, sometimes called ASCII-IPA or erkIPA, is a system used to represent the International Phonetic Alphabet in ASCII. This way it allows typewriting IPA-symbols by regular keyboard and it was developed for Usenet, notably the newsgroups sci. lang and alt. usage. english. It is named after Evan Kirshenbaum, who led the collaboration that created it, the system uses almost all lower-case letters to represent the directly corresponding IPA character, but unlike X-SAMPA, has the notable exception of the letter r. Examples where the two systems have a different mapping between characters and sounds are, This chart is based on information provided in the Kirshenbaum specification and it may also be helpful to compare it to the SAMPA chart or X-SAMPA chart. Stress is indicated by for primary stress, and, for secondary stress, the Kirshenbaum started developing in August 1992 through a usenet group, after being fed up with describing the sound of words by using other words. It should be usable for both phonemic and narrow phonetic transcription and it should be possible to represent all symbols and diacritics in the IPA. It should be possible to translate from the representation to a character set which includes IPA. The reverse would also be nice, the developers decided to use the existing IPA alphabet, mapping each segment to a single keyboard character, and adding extra ASCII characters optionally for IPA diacritics. An early, different set in ASCII was derived from the guide in Merriam-Websters New Collegiate Dictionary. Kirshenbaum specification Tutorial and guide with sound samples History
4.
IPA Braille
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IPA Braille is the modern standard Braille encoding of the International Phonetic Alphabet, as recognized by the International Council on English Braille. A braille version of the IPA was first created by Merrick and Potthoff in 1934 and it was used in France, Germany, and anglophone countries. However, it was not updated as the IPA evolved, in 1990 it was officially reissued by BAUK, but in a corrupted form that made it largely unworkable. In 1997 BANA created a new system for the United States. However, it was incompatible with braille IPA elsewhere in the world and in addition proved to be cumbersome, in 2008 Robert Englebretson revised the Merrick and Potthoff notation and by 2011 this had been accepted by BANA. It is largely true to the original in consonants and vowels, though the diacritics were completely reworked, the diacritics were also made more systematic, and follow rather than precede the base letters. However, it has no procedure for marking tone. IPA Braille does not use the conventions of English Braille and it is set off by slash or square brackets, which indicate that the intervening material is IPA rather than national orthography. Thus brackets are required in braille even when not used in print, the choice for ⟨ɹ⟩ may reflect the shape of that letter in print. Many of the vowels are used for modified vowels in national alphabets, a few other letters such as ⠹ occur, but only as parts of digraphs. Other IPA letters are indicated with digraphs or even trigraphs usinɡ 5th-decade letters, the component letter ⠲. for example, is equivalent to the tail of the retroflex consonants. This presumably derives from the old IPA practice of using a dot for retroflex consonants. It also marks vowels which in print are formed by rotating the letter, is treated as a rotated ⟨o⟩, and ⟨ɯ⟩ as a rotated ⟨u⟩ rather than ⟨m⟩, perhaps facilitated by braille ⟨u⟩ and ⟨m⟩ themselves being a rotated pair. The basic braille letters ⠹ and ⠯, which do not occur on their own in IPA usage, ⠨ is also used with letters of the fifth decade for transcriber-defined symbols, which need to be specified for each text, as they have no set meaning. These are ⠨⠂, ⠨⠆, ⠨⠒, ⠨⠲, ⠨⠢, ⠨⠖, ⠨⠶, ⠨⠦, ⠨⠔, ⠨⠴. ⠴ is used for barred vowels. ⠖ is used for other hooks, as in flaps, ⠯ is used for click letters. These are far more legible in braille than in print, ligatures, regardless of whether these are written with a tie bar or as actual ligatures in print, are indicated by dot 5, so ⟨t͜ʃ⟩ and ⟨ʧ⟩ are both ⠞⠐⠱. This includes the historic ligatures ⟨ɮ⟩ ⠇⠐⠮ and ⟨ɚ⟩ ⠢⠐⠗, ejectives are written as ligatures with an apostrophe, ⠄, so ⟨tʼ⟩ is ⠞⠐⠄. IPA Braille diacritics are written in two cells, the first indicates the position, whether superscript, mid-line, or subscript
5.
Consonant
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In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. For example, the sound spelled th in this is a different consonant than the th sound in thin, the word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem cōnsonant-, from cōnsonāns sounding-together, a calque of Greek σύμφωνον sýmphōnon. Dionysius Thrax calls consonants sýmphōna pronounced with because they can only be pronounced with a vowel, the word consonant is also used to refer to a letter of an alphabet that denotes a consonant sound. The 21 consonant letters in the English alphabet are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Z, and usually W and Y. The letter Y stands for the consonant /j/ in yoke, the vowel /ɪ/ in myth, the vowel /i/ in funny, and the diphthong /aɪ/ in my. W always represents a consonant except in combination with a letter, as in growth, raw, and how. In some other languages, such as Finnish, y represents a vowel sound. Such syllables may be abbreviated CV, V, and CVC and this can be argued to be the only pattern found in most of the worlds languages, and perhaps the primary pattern in all of them. However, the distinction between consonant and vowel is not always clear cut, there are consonants and non-syllabic vowels in many of the worlds languages. One blurry area is in segments variously called semivowels, semiconsonants, on one side, there are vowel-like segments that are not in themselves syllabic, but form diphthongs as part of the syllable nucleus, as the i in English boil. On the other, there are approximants that behave like consonants in forming onsets, some phonologists model these as both being the underlying vowel /i/, so that the English word bit would phonemically be /bit/, beet would be /bii̯t/, and yield would be phonemically /i̯ii̯ld/. Likewise, foot would be /fut/, food would be /fuu̯d/, wood would be /u̯ud/, the other problematic area is that of syllabic consonants, segments articulated as consonants but occupying the nucleus of a syllable. Other languages use fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech and several languages in Democratic Republic of the Congo, in Mandarin, they are historically allophones of /i/, and spelled that way in Pinyin. Ladefoged and Maddieson call these fricative vowels and say that they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels and that is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels. Many Slavic languages allow the trill and the lateral as syllabic nuclei, in languages like Nuxalk, it is difficult to know what the nucleus of a syllable is, or if all syllables even have nuclei. If the concept of syllable applies in Nuxalk, there are consonants in words like /sx̩s/ seal fat. Miyako in Japan is similar, with /f̩ks̩/ to build and /ps̩ks̩/ to pull, each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features, The manner of articulation is how air escapes from the vocal tract when the consonant or approximant sound is made. Manners include stops, fricatives, and nasals, the place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved
6.
Dental consonant
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A dental consonant is a consonant articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth, such as /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ in some languages. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the diacritic for dental consonant is U+032A ◌̪ COMBINING BRIDGE BELOW, sanskrit, Hindi and all other Indic languages have an entire set of dental stops that occur phonemically as voiced and voiceless, and with or without aspiration. The nasal /n/ also exists in languages, but is quite alveolar. To the Indian speaker, the alveolar /t/ and /d/ of English sound more like the corresponding retroflex consonants of his own language than like the dentals. Spanish /t/ and /d/ are laminal denti-alveolar, whereas /l/ and /n/ are prototypically alveolar, likewise, Italian /t/, /d/, /t͡s/, /d͡z/ are denti-alveolar and /l/ and /n/ become denti-alveolar before a following dental consonant. In the case of French, the rear-most contact is alveolar or sometimes slightly pre-alveolar, the Sounds of the Worlds Languages
7.
Diacritic
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A diacritic – also diacritical mark, diacritical point, or diacritical sign – is a glyph added to a letter, or basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek διακριτικός, from διακρίνω, diacritic is primarily an adjective, though sometimes used as a noun, whereas diacritical is only ever an adjective. Some diacritical marks, such as the acute and grave, are often called accents, diacritical marks may appear above or below a letter, or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters. The main use of marks in the Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added. In other Latin alphabets, they may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French là versus la that are both pronounced /la/, in Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question. In other alphabetic systems, diacritical marks may perform other functions, vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat and the Hebrew niqqud systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama and the Arabic sukūn mark the absence of a vowel, in the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Chinese, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur. In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new and this varies from language to language, and may vary from case to case within a language. ◌ː – triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels, not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, the tittle on the letter i of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish i from the minims of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ii, then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u, the j, originally a variant of i, inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling todays acute accent to a flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today, tanwīn symbols, Serve a grammatical role in Arabic. The sign ـً is most commonly written in combination with alif, waṣla, Comes most commonly at the beginning of a word. Indicates a type of hamza that is pronounced only when the letter is read at the beginning of the talk, ḥarakāt, fatḥa kasra ḍamma sukūn The ḥarakāt or vowel points serve two purposes, They serve as a phonetic guide. They indicate the presence of short vowels or their absence, at the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood. For nouns, The ḍamma is for the nominative, fatḥa for the accusative, for verbs, the ḍamma is for the imperfective, fatḥa for the perfective, and the sukūn is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods
8.
Bilabial nasal
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The bilabial nasal is a type of consonantal sound used in almost all spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨m⟩, the bilabial nasal occurs in English, and it is the sound represented by m in map and rum. It occurs nearly universally, and few languages are known to lack this sound, features of the bilabial nasal, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Because the consonant is nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose. Its place of articulation is bilabial, which means it is articulated with both lips and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
9.
Labiodental consonant
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In phonetics, labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth. The labiodental consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are, The IPA chart shades out labiodental lateral consonants and this is sometimes read as indicating that such sounds are not possible. In fact, the fricatives and often have lateral airflow, but no language makes a distinction for centrality, the labiodental click is an allophonic variant of the labial click. The only common labiodental sounds to occur phonemically are the fricatives, the labiodental flap occurs phonemically in over a dozen languages, but it is restricted geographically to central and southeastern Africa. It has been reported to occur phonemically in a dialect of Teke, the XiNkuna dialect of Tsonga features a pair of affricates as phonemes. In some other languages, such as Xhosa, affricates may occur as allophones of the fricatives and these differ from the German bilabial-labiodental affricate <pf>, which commences with a bilabial p. All these affricates are rare sounds, the stops are not confirmed to exist as separate phonemes in any language. They are sometimes written as ȹ ȸ and they may also be found in childrens speech or as speech impediments. Dentolabial consonants are the articulatory opposite of labiodentals, They are pronounced by contacting lower teeth against the upper lip, place of articulation List of phonetics topics Ladefoged, Peter, Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the Worlds Languages, olson, Kenneth S. & John Hajek. Crosslinguistic insights on the labial flap, the Southernmost People of Greenland-Dialects and Memories, Qavaat-Oqalunneri Eqqaamassaallu
10.
Human tooth sharpening
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Human tooth sharpening is the practice of manually sharpening the teeth, usually the front incisors. Filed teeth are customary in various cultures, many remojadas figurines found in part of Mexico have filed teeth and it is believed to have been common practice in their culture. The Zappo Zap people of the Democratic Republic of Congo are believed to have filed their teeth, historically it was done for spiritual purposes, with some exceptions, but in modern times it is usually aesthetic in nature as an extreme form of body modification. Many cultures have practiced this form of body modification, in Bali, teeth were filed down because it was thought that the teeth represented anger, jealousy, and other similar negative emotions. The teeth were also sharpened as a rite of passage for adolescents, teeth filing was also used by Aborigines for spiritual reasons, as well as assorted Vietnamese and Sudanese tribes. In Mayan culture, the teeth were sharpened, and sometimes had designs carved into them, in Ancient China, a group called Ta-ya Kih-lau had every woman about to wed knock out two of her anterior teeth to prevent damage to the husbands family. Some cultures have distinctions between which sex does what to their teeth, in the central Congo region, the Upoto tribe has men file only teeth in the maxillary arch, whereas women file both maxillary and mandibular arches. The Mentawai people have traditionally engaged in this practice. David Livingstone mentions a number of African tribes who practice teeth-filing, including the Bemba, Yao, Makonde, Matambwe, Mboghwa, ota Benga was a Congolese pygmy imported to a zoo in the United States whose front teeth were sharpened when he was a young boy. Horace Ridler, the Zebra man, included tooth sharpening as one of many bodily modifications he underwent in order to serve as a circus performer, university of Pennsylvania exhibit on body modification
11.
Allophone
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In phonology, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, and are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language, the specific allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context, but sometimes allophones occur in free variation. Replacing a sound by another allophone of the same phoneme will usually not change the meaning of a word, the term allophone was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf in the 1940s. In doing so, he placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory, the term was popularized by G. L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition. Every time a users speech is vocalized for a phoneme, it will be slightly different from other utterances. This has led to debate over how real, and how universal. Only some of the variation is significant to speakers, when a specific allophone must be selected in a given context, the allophones are said to be complementary. In the case of complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context, in other cases, the speaker is able to select freely from free variant allophones, based on personal habit or preference. Another example of an allophone is assimilation, wherein a phoneme is to more like the other phoneme. A tonic allophone is sometimes called an allotone, for example in the tone of Mandarin. Aspiration – strong explosion of breath, in English a voiceless plosive is aspirated whenever it stands as the consonant at the beginning of the stressed syllable or of the first, stressed or unstressed, syllable in a word. For example, as in pin and as in spin are allophones for the phoneme /p/ because they cannot distinguish words, English speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are different, the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated. Many languages treat these two phones differently, see Aspirated consonant, section Usage patterns, nasal plosion – In English a plosive has nasal plosion when it is followed by a nasal, inside a word or across word boundary. Partial devoicing of sonorants – In English sonorants are partially devoiced when they follow a voiceless sound within the same syllable, complete devoicing of sonorants – In English a sonorant is completely devoiced when it follows an aspirated plosive. Partial devoicing of obstruents – In English, an obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound. Retraction – in English /t, d, n, l/ are retracted before /r/, because the choice of allophone is seldom under conscious control, people may not realize they exist. The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin speaker, to whom /t/ and /tʰ/ are separate phonemes, Allophones of English /l/ may be noticed if the light of leaf is contrasted with the dark of feel
12.
Manner of articulation
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In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is stricture, that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another, others include those involved in the r-like sounds, and the sibilancy of fricatives. For consonants, the place of articulation and the degree of phonation of voicing are considered separately from manner, homorganic consonants, which have the same place of articulation, may have different manners of articulation. Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but some phoneticians, such as Peter Ladefoged, from greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants, fricative consonants, approximants, and vowels. Affricates often behave as if they were intermediate stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences of a stop and fricative. Over time, sounds in a language may move along this cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition, sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth. Fricatives at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non-sibilant, taps and flaps are similar to very brief stops. However, their articulation and behavior are enough to be considered a separate manner, rather than just length. Trills involve the vibration of one of the speech organs, since trilling is a separate parameter from stricture, the two may be combined. Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative, nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly found in nasal occlusives and nasal vowels, but nasalized fricatives, taps, when a sound is not nasal, it is called oral. Laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue and this can be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral approximants, lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and affricates. Stop, an oral occlusive, where there is occlusion of the vocal tract. Examples include English /p t k/ and /b d ɡ/, if the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion, if it is voiceless, a stop is completely silent. What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the onset of the occlusion has on the vowel, as well as the release burst. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different stops their characteristic sounds, nasal, a nasal occlusive, where there is occlusion of the oral tract, but air passes through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasals their characteristic sounds, nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island. Fricative, sometimes called spirant, where there is continuous frication at the place of articulation, examples include English /f, s/, /v, z/, etc
13.
Place of articulation
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Along with the manner of articulation and the phonation, it gives the consonant its distinctive sound. The terminology in this article has developed for precisely describing all the consonants in all the worlds spoken languages. No known language distinguishes all of the described here so less precision is needed to distinguish the sounds of a particular language. The human voice produces sounds in the manner, Air pressure from the lungs creates a steady flow of air through the trachea. The vocal folds in the larynx vibrate, creating fluctuations in air pressure, mouth and nose openings radiate the sound waves into the environment. The larynx or voice box is a framework of cartilage that serves to anchor the vocal folds. When the muscles of the vocal folds contract, the airflow from the lungs is impeded until the vocal folds are forced apart again by the air pressure from the lungs. The process continues in a cycle that is felt as a vibration. In singing, the frequency of the vocal folds determines the pitch of the sound produced. Voiced phonemes such as the vowels are, by definition. The lips of the mouth can be used in a way to create a similar sound. A rubber balloon, inflated but not tied off and stretched tightly across the neck produces a squeak or buzz, depending on the tension across the neck, similar actions with similar results occur when the vocal cords are contracted or relaxed across the larynx. k. a. The pharynx The epiglottis at the entrance to the windpipe, above the voice box The regions are not strictly separated. Likewise, the alveolar and post-alveolar regions merge into other, as do the hard and soft palate, the soft palate and the uvula. Terms like pre-velar, post-velar, and upper vs. lower pharyngeal may be used to more precisely where an articulation takes place. The articulatory gesture of the place of articulation involves the more mobile part of the vocal tract. That is unlike coronal gestures involving the front of the tongue, the epiglottis may be active, contacting the pharynx, or passive, being contacted by the aryepiglottal folds. Distinctions made in these areas are very difficult to observe and are the subject of ongoing investigation
14.
Lip
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Lips are a visible body part at the mouth of humans and many animals. Lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of sound, human lips are a tactile sensory organ, and can be an erogenous zone when used in kissing and other acts of intimacy. The upper and lower lips are referred to as the Labium superius oris and Labium inferius oris, the juncture where the lips meet the surrounding skin of the mouth area is the vermilion border, and the typically reddish area within the borders is called the vermilion zone. The vermilion border of the lip is known as the cupids bow. The fleshy protuberance located in the center of the lip is a tubercle known by various terms including the procheilon, the tuberculum labii superioris. The vertical groove extending from the procheilon to the septum is called the philtrum. The skin of the lip, with three to five layers, is very thin compared to typical face skin, which has up to 16 layers. With light skin color, the lip skin contains fewer melanocytes, because of this, the blood vessels appear through the skin of the lips, which leads to their notable red coloring. With darker skin color this effect is less prominent, as in case the skin of the lips contains more melanin. The skin of the lip forms the border between the skin of the face, and the interior mucous membrane of the inside of the mouth. The lip skin is not hairy and does not have sweat glands, therefore, it does not have the usual protection layer of sweat and body oils which keep the skin smooth, inhibit pathogens, and regulate warmth. For these reasons, the lips dry out faster and become chapped more easily, the lower lip is formed from the mandibular prominence, a branch of the first pharyngeal arch. The lower lip covers the body of the mandible. It is lowered by the depressor labii inferioris muscle and the orbicularis oris borders it inferiorly, the upper lip covers the anterior surface of the body of the maxilla. It is raised by the levator labii superioris and is connected to the lip by the thin lining of the lip itself. The skin of the lips is stratified squamous epithelium, the mucous membrane is represented by a large area in the sensory cortex, and is therefore highly sensitive. The Frenulum Labii Inferioris is the frenulum of the lower lip, the Frenulum Labii Superioris is the frenulum of the upper lip. Trigeminal nerve The infraorbital nerve is a branch of the maxillary branch and it supplies not only the upper lip, but much of the skin of the face between the upper lip and the lower eyelid, except for the bridge of the nose
15.
Tooth
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A tooth is a hard, calcified structure found in the jaws of many vertebrates and used to break down food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or for defensive purposes, the roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density. The cellular tissues that ultimately become teeth originate from the germ layer. The general structure of teeth is similar across the vertebrates, although there is variation in their form. The teeth of mammals have deep roots, and this pattern is found in some fish. In most teleost fish, however, the teeth are attached to the surface of the bone. In cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, the teeth are attached by tough ligaments to the hoops of cartilage that form the jaw, some animals develop only one set of teeth while others develop many sets. Sharks, for example, grow a new set of every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, which helps maintain relatively constant length, the industry of the beaver is due in part to this qualification. Many rodents such as voles and guinea pigs, but not mice, Teeth are not always attached to the jaw, as they are in mammals. In many reptiles and fish, teeth are attached to the palate or to the floor of the mouth, some teleosts even have teeth in the pharynx. While not true teeth in the sense, the dermal denticles of sharks are almost identical in structure and are likely to have the same evolutionary origin. Though modern teeth-like structures with dentine and enamel have been found in late conodonts, living amphibians typically have small teeth, or none at all, since they commonly feed only on soft foods. In reptiles, teeth are simple and conical in shape. The pattern of incisors, canines, premolars and molars is found only in mammals, the numbers of these types of teeth vary greatly between species, zoologists use a standardised dental formula to describe the precise pattern in any given group. The genes governing tooth development in mammals are homologous to these involved in the development of fish scales, Teeth are among the most distinctive features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify species and determine their relationships
16.
Phonation
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The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, phonation is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration and this is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Voiceless and supra-glottal phonations are included under this definition, the phonatory process, or voicing, occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the glottis, creating a pressure drop across the larynx. When this drop becomes sufficiently large, the vocal folds start to oscillate, the minimum pressure drop required to achieve phonation is called the phonation threshold pressure, and for humans with normal vocal folds, it is approximately 2–3 cm H2O. The motion of the vocal folds during oscillation is mostly lateral, however, there is almost no motion along the length of the vocal folds. The oscillation of the vocal folds serves to modulate the pressure and flow of the air through the larynx, the sound that the larynx produces is a harmonic series. In other words, it consists of a fundamental tone accompanied by harmonic overtones, in linguistics, a phone is called voiceless if there is no phonation during its occurrence. In speech, voiceless phones are associated with folds that are elongated, highly tensed. Fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch, large scale changes are accomplished by increasing the tension in the vocal folds through contraction of the cricothyroid muscle. Variation in fundamental frequency is used linguistically to produce intonation and tone, There are currently two main theories as to how vibration of the vocal folds is initiated, the myoelastic theory and the aerodynamic theory. These two theories are not in contention with one another and it is possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the theory, was in considerable vogue in the 1950s. Pressure builds up again until the cords are pushed apart. The rate at which the open and close—the number of cycles per second—determines the pitch of the phonation. The aerodynamic theory is based on the Bernoulli energy law in fluids, the push occurs during glottal opening, when the glottis is convergent, whereas the pull occurs during glottal closing, when the glottis is divergent. Such an effect causes a transfer of energy from the airflow to the fold tissues which overcomes losses by dissipation. The amount of pressure needed to begin phonation is defined by Titze as the oscillation threshold pressure. During glottal closure, the air flow is cut off until breath pressure pushes the folds apart and this theory states that the frequency of the vocal fold vibration is determined by the chronaxie of the recurrent nerve, and not by breath pressure or muscular tension
17.
Lateral consonant
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A lateral is an l-like consonant in which the airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but it is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth. Most commonly, the tip of the tongue makes contact with the teeth or the upper gum just behind the teeth. The most common laterals are approximants and belong to the class of liquids, plosives are never lateral, but they may have lateral release. The distinction is meaningless for nasals and for consonants articulated in the throat, consonants are not necessarily lateral or central. Some, such as Japanese r, are not defined by centrality, English has one lateral phoneme, the lateral approximant /l/, which in many accents has two allophones. One, found before vowels as in lady or fly, is called clear l, in some languages, like Albanian, those two sounds are different phonemes. East Slavic languages contrast and but do not have, in many British accents, dark may undergo vocalization through the reduction and loss of contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, becoming a rounded back vowel or glide. This process turns tell into something like, as must have happened with talk or walk at some stage, in central and Venice dialects of Venetian, intervocalic /l/ has turned into a semivocalic, so that the written word ła bała is pronounced. The orthography uses the letter ł to represent this phoneme, many aboriginal Australian languages have a series of three or four lateral approximants, as do various dialects of Irish. In Adyghe and some Athabaskan languages like Hän, both voiceless and voiced alveolar lateral fricatives occur, but there is no approximant, many of these languages also have lateral affricates. Some languages have palatal or velar voiceless lateral fricatives or affricates, such as Dahalo and Zulu, however, appropriate symbols are easy to make by adding a lateral-fricative belt to the symbol for the corresponding lateral approximant. Also, a diacritic may be added to the approximant. Nearly all languages with such lateral obstruents also have the approximant, however, there are a number of exceptions, many of them located in the Pacific Northwest area of the United States. For example, Tlingit has /tɬ, tɬʰ, tɬʼ, ɬ, ɬʼ/, other examples from the same area include Nuu-chah-nulth and Kutenai, and elsewhere, Chukchi and Kabardian. Standard Tibetan has a lateral approximant, usually romanized as lh. A uvular lateral approximant has been reported to occur in some speakers of American English, pashto has a retroflex lateral flap. There are a number of lateral click consonants,17 occur in. Xóõ. Lateral trills are also possible, but they do not occur in any known language and they may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow
18.
Catalan language
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Catalan is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin and named after the medieval Principality of Catalonia, in northeastern modern Spain and adjoining parts of France. It is the national and only language of Andorra, and a co-official language of the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands. It also has status in the commune of Alghero, situated on the northwestern coast of the island of Sardinia. All these territories are often called Catalan Countries. 4% with Catalan and 47. 5% only Spanish, in order to integrate newcomers, the Generalitat de Catalunya spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories. Catalan evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees, during the Low Middle Ages it saw a golden age as the literary and dominant language of the Crown of Aragon, and was widely used all over the Mediterranean. The union of Aragon with the territories of Spain in 1479 marked the start of the decline of the language. In 1659 Spain ceded Northern Catalonia to France, and Catalan was banned in both states in the early 18th century, 19th-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, which culminated in the 1913 orthographic standardization, and the official status of the language during the Second Spanish Republic. However, the Francoist dictatorship banned the use of Catalan in schools and in the public administration, there is no parallel in Europe for such a large, bilingual, non-state speech community. Catalan dialects are relatively uniform, and are mutually intelligible and they are divided into two blocks, Eastern and Western, differing mostly in pronunciation. The terms Catalan and Valencian are two varieties of the same language, there are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community. Catalan shares many traits with its neighboring Romance languages, thus, the similarities are naturally most notable with eastern Occitan. Nouns have two genders, and two numbers, pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, in terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages. The word Catalan derives from the territory of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology, in English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain. It is attested a language name since at least 1652, Catalan can be pronounced as /ˈkætəlæn/, /kætəˈlæn/ or /ˈkætələn/. The endonym is pronounced /kə. təˈɫa/ in the Eastern Catalan dialects, in the Valencian Community, the term valencià is frequently used instead. The names Catalan and Valencian are two names for the same language, see also status of Valencian below. By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south
19.
Catalan phonology
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The phonology of Catalan, a Romance language, has a certain degree of dialectal variation. Several dialects have a dark l, and all dialects have palatal l and n, phonetic notes, ^1 /t/, /d/ are laminal denti-alveolar. After /s z/, they are laminal alveolar, ^2 /k/, /ɡ/ are velar but fronted to pre-velar position before front vowels. In some Majorcan dialects, the situation is reversed, the realization is palatal. ^3 /n/, /l/, /ɾ/ are apical front alveolar, in addition, /n/ is postalveolar or alveolo-palatal before /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /t͡ʃ/, /d͡ʒ/, velar before /k/, /ɡ/ and labiodental before /f/, where it merges with /m/. It also merges with /m/ before /p/, /b/. ^4 /s/, /z/, /r/ are apical back alveolar, ^5 /t͡s/, /d͡z/ are apical alveolar. They may be somewhat fronted, so that the component is laminal denti-alveolar. ^6 /ʎ/, /ɲ/ are laminal front alveolo-palatal, otherwise, sources, like Carbonell & Llisterri generally describe them as postalveolar. Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing so that fred is pronounced with, voiced stops become lenited to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants, /b/ →, /d/ →, /ɡ/ →. Exceptions include /d/ after lateral consonants and /b/ after /f/, e. g. ull de bou, additionally, /b/ fails to lenite in non-betacist dialects. In the coda position, these sounds are realized as stops except in many Valencian dialects. In some Valencian dialects final /p, t, k/ can be lenited before a vowel, in some dialects initial /ɡ/ can be lenited, gata. In many Catalan dialects, /b/ and /ɡ/ may be geminated in certain environments. In Majorcan varieties, /k/ and /ɡ/ become and word-finally and before front vowels, in some of these dialects, alveolar affricates, and, occur the least of all affricates. Instances of arise mostly from compounding, the few lexical instances arise from historical compounding, for instance, potser comes from pot + ser. As such, does not occur word-initially, other than some rare words of foreign origin, Standard Eastern Catalan also only allows in intervocalic position. Phonemic analyses show word-final occurrences of /dʒ/, but final devoicing eliminates this from the surface, in various other dialects, occurs word-initially and after another consonant to the exclusion of. These instances of word-initial seem to correspond to in other dialects, including the standard, xinxa, similarly, in most of Valencian and southern Catalonia, most occurrences of correspond to the voiced fricative in Standard Eastern Catalan, gel
20.
Czech language
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Czech, historically also Bohemian, is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group. It is spoken by over 10 million people and is the language of the Czech Republic. Czech is closely related to Slovak, to the point of being intelligible to a very high degree. In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the written standard was codified in the context of the Czech National Revival. The main vernacular, known as Common Czech, is based on the vernacular of Prague, the Moravian dialects spoken in the eastern part of the country are mostly also counted as Czech, although some of their eastern variants are closer to Slovak. The Czech phoneme inventory is moderate in size, comprising five vowels, words may contain uncommon consonant clusters, including one consonant represented by the grapheme ř, or lack vowels altogether. Czech orthography is simple, and has used as a model by phonologists. Czech is classified as a member of the West Slavic sub-branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family and this branch includes Polish, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak. Slovak is by far the closest genetic neighbor of Czech, the West Slavic languages are spoken in an area classified as part of Central Europe. Around the 7th century, the Slavic expansion reached Central Europe, the West Slavic polity of Great Moravia formed by the 9th century. The Christianization of Bohemia took place during the 9th and 10th centuries, the Bohemian language is first recorded in writing in glosses and short notes during the 12th to 13th centuries. Literary works written in Czech appear in the early 14th century, the first complete Bible translation also dates to this period. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were produced outside the university as well, literary activity becomes widespread in the early 15th century in the context of the Bohemian Reformation. There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century, the publication of the Kralice Bible between 1579 and 1593 became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries. In 1615, the Bohemian diet tried to declare Czech to be the official language of the kingdom. After the Bohemian Revolt which was defeated by the Habsburgs in 1620 and this emigration together with other consequences of the Thirty Years War had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language. In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, the modern standard Czech language originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century. Changes include the shift of í to ej and é to í and the merging of í
21.
Czech phonology
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This article discusses the phonological system of the Czech language. The following chart shows a complete list of the consonant phonemes of Czech,1 The phoneme /r̝/, written ⟨ř⟩, is a raised alveolar non-sonorant trill. Its rarity makes it difficult to produce for foreign learners of Czech, who may pronounce it as, however, it contrasts with /rʒ/ in words like ržát, which is pronounced differently from řád. The basic realization of this phoneme is voiced, but it is voiceless when preceded or followed by a consonant or at the end of a word. /t/ and /d/ can be pronounced as dental stops, the voiceless realization of the phoneme /ɦ/ is velar. The glottal stop is not a separate phoneme and its use is optional and it may appear as the onset of an otherwise vowel-initial syllable. The pronunciation with or without the glottal stop does not affect the meaning and is not distinctive and this usage of the glottal stop is usual in Bohemia. Pronunciation without it is typical of Moravian regions, e. g, both variants are regarded as correct. Certain words can be emphasized by the use of the glottal stop, in the standard pronunciation, the glottal stop is never inserted between two vowels in words of foreign origin, e. g. in the word koala. The phoneme /ɡ/, and the affricates /d͡z/ and /d͡ʒ/ occur in words of foreign origin or dialects only, phonetically, the affricates can occur at morpheme boundaries. Other consonants are represented by the characters as in the IPA. Realizations of consonant phonemes are influenced by their surroundings, the position of phonemes in words can modify their acoustic realizations without a change of the meaning. Labiodental is a realization of /m/ before labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/, velar is a realization of /n/ before velar stops /k/ and /ɡ/, e. g. in the word banka. Realization as is possible, especially in more prestigious registers, assimilation of voice is an important feature of Czech pronunciation. Voiced obstruents are, in circumstances, realized voiceless and vice versa. It is not represented orthographically where more etymological principles are applied, assimilation of voice applies in these circumstances, In consonant groups – all obstruents in the group are realized either voiced or voiceless. It is mostly governed by the last consonant in the group, voiced obstruents are realized voiceless in the pre-pausal position in words. Compare led – ledu vs. let – letu – the nominative forms of the words are pronounced the same due to final devoicing
22.
Danish language
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There are also minor Danish-speaking communities in Norway, Sweden, Spain, the United States, Canada, Brazil and Argentina. Due to immigration and language shift in urban areas, around 15–20% of the population of Greenland speak Danish as their home language. Along with the other North Germanic languages, Danish is a descendant of Old Norse, until the 16th century, Danish was a continuum of dialects spoken from Schleswig to Scania with no standard variety or spelling conventions. With the Protestant Reformation and the introduction of printing, a language was developed which was based on the educated Copenhagen dialect. It spread through use in the system and administration though German. Today, traditional Danish dialects have all but disappeared, though there are variants of the standard language. The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative, Danish has a very large vowel inventory comprising 27 phonemically distinctive vowels, and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon stød, a kind of laryngeal phonation type. The grammar is moderately inflective with strong and weak conjugations and inflections, nouns and demonstrative pronouns distinguish common and neutral gender. As in English, Danish only has remnants of a case system, particularly in the pronouns. Its syntax is V2, with the verb always occupying the second slot in the sentence. Danish is a Germanic language of the North Germanic branch, other names for this group are the Nordic or Scandinavian languages. Along with Swedish, Danish descends from the Eastern dialects of the Old Norse language, Scandinavian languages are often considered a dialect continuum, where there are no sharp dividing lines between the different vernacular languages. Like Norwegian and Swedish, Danish was significantly influenced by Low German in the Middle Ages, Danish itself can be divided into three main dialect areas, West Danish, Insular Danish, and East Danish. Danish is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Swedish, both Swedes and Danes also understand Norwegian better than they understand each others languages. By the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language was called the Danish tongue, or Norse language. Norse was written in the alphabet, first with the elder futhark. From the 7th century the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway
23.
Danish orthography
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Danish orthography is the system used to write the Danish language. The oldest preserved examples of written Danish are in the Runic alphabet, Danish currently uses a 29-letter variant of Latin alphabet, identical to the Norwegian alphabet. The Danish alphabet is based upon the Latin alphabet and has consisted of the following 29 letters since 1980 when W was separated from V, in monomorphematic words vowels are usually short before two or more consonants + e. Vowels are usually long before a single consonant + e, in two consecutive vowels the stressed vowel is always long and the unstressed is always short. The letters c, q, w, x and z are not used in the spelling of foreign words, therefore, the phonemic interpretation of letters in loanwords depends on the donating language. However, Danish tends to preserve the original spelling of loan words, in particular, a c that represents /s/ is almost never normalized to s in Danish, as would most often happen in Norwegian. Many words originally derived from Latin roots retain c in their Danish spelling, the foreign letters also sometimes appear in the spelling of otherwise-indigenous family names. For example, many of the Danish families that use the surname Skov spell it Schou, standard Danish orthography has no compulsory diacritics, but allows the use of an acute accent for disambiguation. Most often, an accent on e marks a stressed syllable in one of a pair of homographs that have different stresses and it can also be part of the official spelling such as in allé or idé. Less often, any vowel except å may be accented to indicate stress on a word, either to clarify the meaning of the sentence, for example, jeg stód op, versus jeg stod óp, hunden gør, versus hunden gǿr. Most often, however, such distinctions are made using typographical emphasis or simply left to the reader to infer from the context, and the use of accents in such cases may appear dated. A common context in which the acute accent is preferred is to disambiguate en/et and én/ét in central places in official written materials such as advertising. Danish formerly used both ø and ö, though it was suggested to use ø for IPA ø and ö for IPA œ, earlier instead of aa the letter å or a ligature of two a was also used. In 1948 the letter å was re-introduced or officially introduced in Danish, the letter then came from the Swedish alphabet, where it has been in official use since the 18th century. The initial proposal was to place Å first in the Danish alphabet and its place as the last letter of the alphabet, as in Norwegian, was decided in 1955. The former digraph Aa still occurs in names, and in Danish geographical names. Aa remains in use as a transliteration, if the letter is not available for technical reasons, Aa is treated like Å in alphabetical sorting, not like two adjacent letters A, meaning that while a is the first letter of the alphabet, aa is the last. The difference between the Dano-Norwegian and the Swedish alphabet is that Swedish uses the variant Ä instead of Æ, also, the collating order for these three letters is different, Å, Ä, Ö
24.
Danish phonology
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For example Danish has a suprasegmental feature known as stød which is a kind of laryngeal phonation that is used phonemically. It also exhibits extensive lenition of plosives, which is more common than in the neighboring languages. Because of that and a few things, spoken Danish is rather hard to understand for Norwegians and Swedes. In distinct pronunciation it is possible to distinguish at least 20 consonants in most variants of Danish, /m, p, b/ are bilabial, /f, v/ are labiodental, whereas is labialized velar. /n, t, d, l/ have been described as apical alveolar. /p, t, k/ are aspirated voiceless lenis in syllable onset, aspiration is lost in syllable coda. For simplicity, the aspirated and affricated allophone of /t/ is often transcribed as /, i. e. as if it were just affricated. In some varieties of standard Danish, /t/ is just aspirated, /b, d, ɡ/ are unaspirated voiceless lenis in syllable onset. In syllable coda /d, ɡ/ and sometimes /b/ are opened, /ɡ/ becomes after front vowels and after back vowels. Final /b, d, ɡ/ may be realized as, in particular in distinct speech. In case of the plosive, in this position it may be either aspirated and affricated or just aspirated. According to Krech et al. all consonants are realized as lenis, the exact place of articulation of /k, ɡ/ varies, it is more front before front vowels, and more back before back vowels. Bornholmsk dialect features even stronger fronting of /k, ɡ/ before front vowels, voiceless continuants /f, s, h/ and are fricatives. /s/ is an apical alveolar non-retracted sibilant, but some speakers realize it as dental. Between vowels, it is often voiced, occurs only after /s/ or /t/. Since doesnt occur after these phonemes, can be analyzed as /j/ and this makes it unnecessary to postulate a /ɕ/-phoneme in Danish. is a voiced velarized laminal alveolar approximant. It is weak, acoustically similar to the vowels and. Very rarely, can be realised as a voiced laminal alveolar non-sibilant fricative. British phonetician John C, wells commented on his blog about the quality of Danish that to him, it sounds awfully like a lateral. A similar comment was made by Haberland, who said that Danish is frequently mistaken for an to second-language learners, an acoustically similar sound has been reported to occur as an intervocalic allophone of /d̠/ in the Dahalo language spoken in Kenya. /j/ is an approximant, but when it occurs word-finally after /l/, it is articulated more strongly than usual, an additional voiced continuant, namely the voiced velar fricative occurred in older Standard Danish. Some older speakers still use it in high register, but most often as an approximant and it corresponds to three sounds in contemporary Standard Danish, after back vowels and /r/, after front vowels, after /l/
25.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
26.
Dutch orthography
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Dutch orthography uses the Latin alphabet and has evolved to suit the needs of the Dutch language. The spelling system is issued by government decree and is compulsory for all government documentation, the modern Dutch alphabet consists of the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet and is used for the Dutch language. Five letters are vowels and 21 letters are consonants, the letter E is the most frequently used letter in the Dutch alphabet, usually representing a schwa sound. The least frequently used letters are Q and X. Dutch uses the following letters, note that for simplicity, dialectal variation and subphonemic distinctions are not always indicated. See Dutch phonology for more information, the Latin letters c, qu, x and y are sometimes adapted to k, kw, ks and i. Greek letters φ and ῥ become f and r, not ph or rh, combinations -eon-, -ion-, -yon- in loanwords from French are written with a single n except when a schwa follows. Vowel length is indicated but in different ways by using an intricate system of single and double letters. Old Dutch possessed phonemic consonant length in addition to phonemic vowel length, with no correspondence between them, thus, long vowels could appear in closed syllables, and short vowels could occur in open syllables. In the transition to early Middle Dutch, short vowels were lengthened when they stood in open syllables, short vowels could now occur only in closed syllables. Consonants could still be long in pronunciation and acted to close the preceding syllable, therefore, any short vowel that was followed by a long consonant remained short. The spelling system used by early Middle Dutch scribes accounted for that by indicating the length only when it was necessary. As the length was implicit in open syllables, it was not indicated there, later in Middle Dutch, the distinction between short and long consonants started to disappear. That made it possible for short vowels to appear in syllables once again. That eventually led to the modern Dutch spelling system, modern Dutch spelling still retains much of the details of the late Middle Dutch system. The distinction between checked and free vowels is important in Dutch spelling, a checked vowel is one that is followed by a consonant in the same syllable while a free vowel ends the syllable. This distinction can apply to pronunciation or spelling independently, but a syllable that is checked in pronunciation will always be checked in spelling as well. Checked in neither, la-ten /ˈlaː. tə/ Checked in spelling only, a vowel that is checked in both is always short/lax. As tense /y/ is rare except before /r/, free ⟨u⟩ is likewise rare except before ⟨r⟩, the same rule applies to word-final vowels, which are always long because they are not followed by any consonant
27.
Dutch phonology
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Dutch phonology is similar to that of other West Germanic languages. Standard Dutch has two main de facto standards, Northern and Belgian. Northern Standard Dutch is the most prestigious accent in the Netherlands and it is associated with high status, education and wealth. Even though its speakers seem to be concentrated in the provinces of North Holland, South Holland and Utrecht and it is often impossible to tell where its speakers were born or brought up. The following table shows the consonant phonemes of Dutch, The glottal stop is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after /aː/ and /ə/, apart from /r/, all alveolar consonants are laminal and can be realized as denti-alveolar in Belgium. /b/ and /d/ are fully voiced, /ɡ/ is not a native phoneme of Dutch and occurs only in borrowed words, like goal. In native words, occurs as an allophone of /k/ when it undergoes voicing assimilation, in the south, the distinction between /x/ and /ɣ/ is generally preserved as velar or post-palatal. Some southern speakers may alternate between the velar and post-palatal articulation, depending on the backness of the preceding or succeeding vowel, velar, post-velar and uvular variants are called harde g hard g, while the post-palatal variants are called zachte g soft g. In the Netherlands, /v/ can devoice and merge with /f/, according to Collins & Mees, there are hardly any speakers of Northern Standard Dutch who consistently contrast /v/ with /f/. In low-prestige varieties of Netherlandic Dutch also /z/ can devoice and merge with /s/, speakers who devoice /v/ and /z/ may also hypercorrectively voice /f/ and /s/, concert concert may thus be compared to the more usual. Some speakers pronounce /ɦ/ as a voiceless, some dialects, particularly those from the southwest, exhibit h-dropping. In the Netherlands, /s/ and /z/ may have only mid-to-low pitched friction, in Belgium, they are more similar to English /s, z/. The sequences /sj/ and /zj/ are often assimilated to palatalised, alveolo-palatal, before /j/, /k/ is realized as a voiceless post-palatal affricate. The sequences /tj/ and /dj/ are assimilated to intervocalically and after /n/ unless theyre at the beginning of a syllable, barring loanwords. /ʃ, ʒ/ are not native phonemes of Dutch and usually only in borrowed words, like show. Depending on the speaker and the position in the word, they may or may not be distinct from the assimilated realisations of the clusters /sj, if they are not distinct, they will have the same range of realisations noted above. /m/ and /n/ assimilate their articulation to a following obstruent in many cases, Both become before /p, b/, /n/ merges into /ŋ/ before velars. The realisation of /ŋ/, in turn, depends on how a following velar fricative is realised, for example, it will be uvular for speakers who realise /x, ɣ/ as uvulars
28.
Finnish orthography
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Finnish orthography is based on the Latin script, and uses an alphabet derived from the Swedish alphabet, officially comprising 29 letters. The following table describes how each letter in the Finnish alphabet is spelled and pronounced separately, if the name of a consonant begins with a vowel, it can be pronounced and spelled either as a monosyllabic or bisyllabic word. In practice, the names of the letters are rarely spelled, the pronunciation instructions enclosed in slashes are broad transcriptions based on the IPA system. In notes, more narrow transcriptions are enclosed in square brackets, in addition, w is sometimes listed separately and after v, although officially it is merely a variant of the latter and can be alphabetized as v. The Finnish keyboard layout doesnt include š or ž, thus, in practice, only highly formal sources such as official texts, the main peculiarities in the Finnish alphabet are the two extra vowel letters ä and ö. Another informal term is skandit or skandimerkit, which is short for skandinaaviset merkit Scandinavian characters. The glyphs for ä and ö are derived from the similar looking German umlauted letters, the Germanic umlaut or convention of considering digraph ae equivalent to ä, and oe equivalent to ö is inapplicable in Finnish. Moreover, in Finnish, both ae and oe are vowel sequences, not single letters, and they have independent meanings. In handwritten text, the form of the extra marking may vary from a pair of dots to a pair of short vertical bars, to a single horizontal bar. In practice, almost any diacritic situated above the base glyph would probably be interpreted as a carelessly written pair of dots, however, in computerized character sets, these alternatives are incorrect. The front-vowel counterpart of u using the glyph y rather than ü is carried over from Swedish, and additionally avoids confusion in cursive script with ii, which is common in Finnish. In the Finnish writing system, some basic Latin letters are considered redundant, the pronunciation of these letters varies quite a lot. The redundant letters are replaced with more common alternatives in Finnish. They include c, q, and x, in addition, the Swedish å is redundant from the Finnish point of view, as its pronunciation is more or less equivalent to the Finnish way of pronouncing o. It is officially included in the Finnish alphabet so that keyboards etc. g, the letters include b, f, and g. From a historical point of view, even d could be said to belong to this group, the letters w and z could be classified into both of the aforementioned groups. The sound is not regarded as a phoneme in Finnish, but historically w was used to mark, likewise, the z is not native to Finnish, but z was formerly used to denote. It is still pronounced, but its pronunciation varies greatly, some speakers may pronounce it
29.
Finnish phonology
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Unless otherwise noted, statements in this article refer to Standard Finnish, which is based on the dialect spoken in the former Häme Province in central south Finland. Standard Finnish is used by speakers, such as reporters. The close vowels /i, u/ are similar to the cardinal vowels. The front rounded vowels /y, ø/ are phonetically near-front, i. e. intermediate in backness between the default IPA values of the front and central vowels. The mid vowels are phonetically mid, i. e. intermediate in height between the default IPA values of the close-mid and open-mid vowels. The open front unrounded vowel /æ/ is phonetically near-open, i. e. intermediate in height between the default IPA values of the open-mid and fully open vowel. Open central, i. e. intermediate in backness between the default IPA values of the front and open back vowels. Finnish makes phonemic contrasts between long and short vowels, even in unstressed syllables, though long mid vowels are common in unstressed syllables. Each short monophthong has a counterpart with no real difference in acoustic quality. Long vowels are phonemically perceived as two vowels in succession and vowel length is not a phonemic quality akin to vowel height. The table below lists the conventionally recognized diphthongs in Finnish and that is to say, the two portions of the diphthong are not broken by a pause or stress pattern. In Finnish, diphthongs are considered phonemic units, contrasting with both long vowels and with short vowels and it is usually taught that diphthongization occurs only with the combinations listed. However, there are recognized situations in which other vowel pairs diphthongize, for example, in rapid speech the word yläosa can be pronounced. Older *eɥ and *iɥ in initial syllables have been shifted to /øɥ/, opening diphthongs are in standard Finnish only found in root-initial syllables like in words tietää to know, takapyörä rear wheel or luo towards. This might make them easier to pronounce as true opening diphthongs and not as centering diphthongs, the opening diphthongs come from earlier long mid vowels, *oː >, *eː >, *øː >. Since that time new long mid vowels have come to the language from various sources, among the phonological processes operating in Finnish dialects are diphthongization and diphthong reduction. For example, Savo Finnish has the phonemic contrast of /ɑ/ vs. /uɑ̯/ vs. /ɑː/ instead of standard language contrast of /ɑ/ vs. /ɑː/ vs. /ɑw/. Finnish, like many other Uralic languages, has the called vowel harmony
30.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
31.
German orthography
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German orthography is the orthography used in writing the German language, which is largely phonemic. However, it shows instances of spellings that are historic or analogous to other spellings rather than phonemic. The pronunciation of almost every word can be derived from its spelling once the rules are known. Today, German orthography is regulated by the Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung, the modern German alphabet consists of the twenty-six letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet, ^ In the spelling alphabet, for ⟨ch⟩, Charlotte is used. For the trigraph ⟨sch⟩, Schule is used, German uses letter-diacritic combinations using the umlaut and one ligature, but they do not constitute distinct letters in the alphabet. Capital ẞ exists, but has limited use. In most cases, SS is used instead, in the past, long s was used as well, as in English and many other European languages. Although the diacritic letters represent distinct sounds in German phonology, they are almost universally not considered to be part of the alphabet, almost all German speakers consider the alphabet to have the 26 cardinal letters above and will name only those when asked to say the alphabet. The diacritic letters ä, ö and ü are used to indicate the presence of umlauts, in German Kurrent writing, the superscripted e was simplified to two vertical dashes, which have further been reduced to dots in both handwriting and German typesetting. Although the two dots of umlaut look like those in the diaeresis, the two have different functions, however, such transcription should be avoided if possible, especially with names. Names often exist in different variants, such as Müller and Mueller, automatic back-transcribing is not only wrong for names. Consider, for example, das neue Buch and this should never be changed to das neü Buch, as the second e is completely separate from the u and does not even belong in the same syllable, neue is neu followed by an e, an inflection. The word neü does not exist in German, similar cases are Coesfeld and Bernkastel-Kues. To separate the au diphthong, as well as others, which are graphically composed of potentially umlaut-holding letters. Swiss typewriters and computer keyboards do not allow easy input of uppercase letters with umlauts because their positions are taken by the most frequent French diacritics, uppercase umlauts were dropped because they are less common than lowercase ones. Geographical names in particular are supposed to be written with A, O, U plus e except Österreich, the omission can cause some inconvenience since the first letter of every noun is capitalized in German. Unlike in Hungarian, the shape of the umlaut diacritics – especially when handwritten – is not important. They will be whether they look like dots, acute accents, vertical bars, a horizontal bar, a breve, a tiny N or e, a tilde
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[ˈsɪɱfəni]
