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Languages of the Isle of Man

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Languages of Isle of Man
Main languages	English (Manx English)
Main immigrant languages	Irish
Main foreign languages	French, German
Revived national language(s)	Manx

The main language of the Isle of Man is English, predominantly the Manx English dialect. Manx, the historical language of the island, is still maintained by a very small speaker population.

Both English and Manx are official languages in Tynwald.

1 Manx
2 English language
3 Other minority languages
4 Extinct languages of the Isle of Man
5 References

Manx[edit]

A bilingual English/Manx welcome sign in Douglas.

The Manx language is a Celtic language of the Goidelic subdivision, and descendant of Old Irish, it is sometimes called Manx Gaelic to distinguish it from the local variety of English.

The language was historically the dominant one on the island, but fell out of use during the twentieth century, and is considered to have become extinct in 1974 after the death of Ned Maddrell,^[1] at the present time, less than one hundred children receive their education exclusively in Manx. There are an additional 1,689 second-language speakers, comprising 2.2% of the population of the Isle of Man. The language has been offered in public schools since 1992, and has been mandatory since 2001.

English language[edit]

The English language has replaced Manx as the dominant language on the island, the native dialect is known as Anglo-Manx or Manx English, and has been employed by a number of the island's more notable writers such as T.E. Brown and "Cushag". which distinguishes itself by considerable influence and a large number of loanwords and phrases from Manx Gaelic. However, this dialect is being supplanted by other dialects of English, especially from north west England.

For formal purposes British English is the usual form of English used in the Isle of Man, for many years, the BBC has been the main broadcaster to the island, and many English people have settled in the IOM.

Forms of Irish English can also be heard on the island, from both Dublin and Belfast, the island has traditionally had many Irish tourists, and settlers.

Other minority languages[edit]

There are a few people in the island who speak other languages habitually, these include Irish speakers. French, German and Spanish are also taught in the island's schools.

Extinct languages of the Isle of Man[edit]

The Coat of arms of the Isle of Man, which uses the motto "Quocunque Jeceris Stabit" (Wherever you throw it, it will stand), a reference to the triskelion on the shield

Historical forms of "Irish"[edit]

Old Irish and Middle Irish are the ancestors of today's Manx language. Neither of these became extinct, so much as evolved, and Manx diverged from Scottish and Irish forms.

During the Middle Ages, the three Gaelic languages maintained a single standard for higher registers and poetry, this is sometimes misleadingly referred to as "Classical Irish" - despite the fact it was much in use in Scotland and presumably the Isle of Man. It is also known as Classical Gaelic.

Old Norse[edit]

Many of the island's placenames are Norse in origin, e.g. Laxey, Ramsey, and so are some of the island's institutions e.g. Tynwald (Þingvóllr). A few Norse inscriptions remain.

Brythonic[edit]

There seems to be evidence that the island once spoke a form of P-Celtic before it became Gaelicised. There is little evidence of this in placenames however.

Latin and French[edit]

Latin and French have been used in ceremonial purposes, e.g. legal use, and mottos, as in the UK.

References[edit]

^ "Manx". Ethnologue. 1999-02-19. Retrieved 2014-08-23.

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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Languages_of_the_Isle_of_Man&oldid=759760332"

Categories:

Main language – A national language is a that has some connection—de facto or de jure—with people and the territory they occupy. There is little consistency in the use of this term, one or more languages spoken as first languages in the territory of a country may be referred to informally or designated in legislation as national languages of the country. National and/or official languages are mentioned in over 150 world constitutions, the last is usually given the title of official language. Standard languages, such as Standard German, Standard French, and Standard Spanish, may serve as national, regional, National language and official language are best understood as two concepts or legal categories with ranges of meaning that may coincide, or may be intentionally separate. Stateless nations are not in the position to legislate an official language, some languages may be recognized popularly as national languages, while others may enjoy official recognition in use and/or promotion. Albanian is the la

1. The logo of the Swiss Federal administration, in the four national languages of Switzerland.

English language – English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press t

1. The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."

2. Countries of the world where English is a majority native language

3. Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales c.1400

Manx English – Manx English, or Anglo-Manx, is the historic dialect of English spoken on the Isle of Man, though today in decline. Early Anglo-Manx contained words of Gaelic and Norse origin, but also came to be influenced by the speech of Liverpool and Lancashire in North West England. The Manx historian and linguist A. W. Moore noted that the dialect varied slightly from parish to parish but that the turns of phrase. Moores A Vocabulary of the Anglo-Manx Dialect and W. W, gills Manx Dialect Words and Phrases document the high-water mark of this dialect. Brown was one of the first authors to use the Manx dialect in his work, in the early 20th century, poems and plays in the dialect were written by Cushag, J. J. Kneen, Christopher R. Shimmin and Juan Noa. In the mid-20th century, Kathleen Faragher wrote poetry in the dialect, immigration and cultural influences from elsewhere, particularly the United Kingdom, have caused the disappearance of the dialect, with the exception of a few words and phrases.

1. Location of the Isle of Man within the British Isles.

Immigrant language – Immigrant languages are languages spoken by immigrant communities. Immigrant languages have arrived to the country or region relatively recently, unlike historical minority languages, historical minority languages also tend to have a certain official status. Immigrant languages should not be confused with foreign or second languages which are different concepts, Immigrant languages in Brazil Immigrant languages in Sweden Immigrant languages in Switzerland Immigrant languages in the United Kingdom Immigrant languages in the United States

1. Sign in English and in the immigrant language Punjabi at Southall railway station, Southall, Middlesex, the UK

Irish language – Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the en

1. "Caution Children"

2. Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Ireland census 2011 or the Northern Ireland census 2011.

3. A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and Ulster Scots.

4. The Pale - According to Statute of 1488

Foreign language – A foreign language is a language indigenous to another country. It is also a language not spoken in the country of the person referred to. These two characterisations do not exhaust the possible definitions, however, and the label is applied in ways that are variously misleading or factually inaccurate. Some children learn more than one language from birth or from a young age. For example, a child learning English from his English father and this is common in countries such as India, South Africa, or Canada due to these countries having multiple official languages. In general, it is believed that children have advantage to learning a language over adults. However, there are studies which have shown adult students are better at foreign language learning than child students and it is because adults have pre-existing knowledge of how grammar works, and a superior ability of memorizing vocabulary. See main article, Language education Most schools around the world teach at least one languag

1. A German student learning French. English (1.5 billion learners), French (82 million learners) and Chinese (30 million learners) are the three most commonly studied foreign languages.

French language – French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother to

1. The "arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.

2. Regions where French is the main language

3. Town sign in Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of Rechmaya in Lebanon.

4. An obsolete 100 Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".

German language – German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like Engl

1. Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)

2. The widespread popularity of the Bible translated into German by Martin Luther helped establish modern German

3. Examples of German language in Namibian everyday life

4. German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922

Manx language – Manx, also known as Manx Gaelic, and also historically spelled Manks, is a Goidelic Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, historically spoken by the Manx people. Although the last surviving speaker of the language, Ned Maddrell, died in 1974. Manx has been the subject of language revival efforts, and in recent years Manx has become visible on the island, with increased signage, radio broadcasts. The revival of Manx has been made easier because the language was recorded, for example, the Bible has been translated into Manx. In Manx, the language is called Gaelg or Gailck, a word which shares the same etymology as the word Gaelic, the sister languages of Irish and Scottish Gaelic use Gaeilge and Gàidhlig, respectively, for their languages. As with Irish and Scottish, the form with the article is frequently used in Manx. To distinguish it from the two forms of Gaelic, the phrases Gaelg/Gailck Vannin and Gaelg/Gailck Vanninnagh also are used. In addition, the nickname Çheng

1. An ogham inscription on a stone in the Manx Museum written in Primitive Irish and which reads DOVAIDONA MAQI DROATA, "Of Dovaido, son of Droata".

2. Manx

3. William Christian, better known as Illiam Dhone (Brown-haired William)

4. Lag ny Keeilley (Hollow of the Church) on Cronk ny Arrey Laa (Hill of the Day Watch); the Manx language has had a substantial influence on the island's toponymy and nomenclature.

Isle of Man – The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government, the island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century and the Manx language, in 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, magnus III, King of Norway, was also known as King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103. In 1266, the became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the short form often used in English, Mann, is derived from the Manx Mannin, though sometimes the name is written as Man. The earliest recor

1. The Braaid in central Isle of Man, with remnants of a Celtic-Norse roundhouse and two longhouses, c. 650–950 AD

2. Flag

3. The Calf of Man seen from Cregneash

4. A composite satellite image of the Isle of Man

Tynwald – Tynwald, or more formally, the High Court of Tynwald or Tynwald Court is the legislature of the Isle of Man. It is claimed to be the oldest continuous parliamentary body in the world, the Houses sit jointly, on Tynwald Day at St Johns for largely ceremonial purposes, and usually once a month in the Legislative Buildings in Douglas. Otherwise, the two Houses sit separately, with the House of Keys originating most legislation, and the Legislative Council acting as a revising chamber. The name Tynwald, like the Icelandic Þingvellir and Norwegian Tingvoll, is derived from the Old Norse word Þingvǫllr meaning the place of the assembly. Tynwald meets annually on what is called Tynwald Day at a ceremony at Tynwald Hill at St Johns. The Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man presides, unless HM The Queen as Lord of Mann, here, all laws are promulgated and special petitions are received. If an Act of Tynwald is not promulgated at St Johns within 18 months of passage, it becomes null, while Tynw

1. Tynwald Tinvaal

Goidelic languages – The Goidelic /ɡɔɪˈdɛlɪk/ or Gaelic languages form one of the two groups of Insular Celtic languages, the other being the Brittonic languages. Goidelic languages historically formed a dialect continuum stretching from Ireland through the Isle of Man to Scotland, there are three modern Goidelic languages, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx, the last of which died out in the 20th century but has since been revived to some degree. The word Gaelic by itself is used to refer to Scottish Gaelic and is thus ambiguous. The names used in the languages themselves are derived from Old Irish Goídelc, the medieval mythology of the Lebor Gabála Érenn places its origin in an eponymous ancestor of the Gaels, and inventor of the language, Goídel Glas. Medieval Gaelic literature tells us that the kingdom of Dál Riata emerged in western Scotland during the 6th century, the traditional view was that Dál Riata was founded by Irish migrants, but this is no longer universally accepted. Dál Riata grew in size and

1. Water feature commemorating the first supply of water by gravitation to Portmahomack in 1887. It carries an inscription in Gaelic "Uisce Tobar Na Baistaid"

2. Mainly Goidelic areas.

T.E. Brown – Thomas Edward Brown, commonly referred to as T. E. Brown, was a late-Victorian scholar, teacher, poet, and theologian from the Isle of Man. Retiring in 1892 to focus on writing, Brown died in 1897, Brown was born on May 5,1830 at Douglas, Isle of Man. His older brother was the Baptist preacher, pastor and reformer Hugh Stowell Brown, as Arthur Thomas Quiller-Couch notes, T. E. Browns father, the Rev. Robert Brown, had decided to collaborate, with the schoolmaster in tutoring the clever boy until, at the age of fifteen. Here his abilities soon declared themselves, and hence he proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, where his position cost him much humiliation and he had been ordained deacon, but did not proceed to priests orders for many years. In 1857, he married his cousin, Miss Stowell, daughter of Dr Stowell of Ramsey…, Brown left the Isle soon afterward, ca. 1857, to accept the position of headmaster of the The Crypt School, in Gloucester, years later, after becoming a successful publ

1. Bronze statue of the Manx poet T. E. Brown at the top of Prospect Hill in Douglas, Isle of Man.

Josephine Kermode (Cushag) – Josephine Kermode was a Manx poet and playwright better known by the pen name Cushag. Margaret Letitia Josephine Kermode was born on 18 September 1852, at 73 Parliament Street and she was one of seven children who lived beyond childhood to Rev William Kermode, and his second wife, Jane née Bishop, of Shelton Hall, Staffordshire. As well as being Chaplain of St and he inspired devotion in his children and a love of learning, a love of country and a love of service. Cushag, as she came to be known, and her sisters were educated at home by a governess, while her brothers went to public school. She and the family moved around the north of the island as her father changed jobs, moving from St. Pauls in Ramsey to become, first, Vicar at Kirk Maughold and then Rector of Ballaugh. After her fathers death in 1890, the family moved back to Ramsey, here Cushag took up a voluntary role as a District Nurse, until her health was adversely affected and she was obliged to stop. Eventually the family m

1. "Cushag" at the age of around 22

2. The Cushag, the national flower of the Isle of Man

BBC – The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. The total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, the BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the st

1. BBC Television Centre at White City, West London, which opened in 1960 and closed in 2013

2. BBC Pacific Quay in Glasgow, which was opened in 2007

3. BBC New Broadcasting House, London which came into use during 2012–13.

4. The headquarters of the BBC at Broadcasting House in Portland Place, London, England. This section of the building is called 'Old Broadcasting House'.

English people – The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England, who speak the English language. The English identity is of medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD, England is one of the countries of the United Kingdom. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become England along with the later Danes, Normans, in the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England was succeeded by the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over the years, English customs and identity have become closely aligned with British customs. The English people are the source of the English language, the Westminster system and these and other English cultural characteristics have spread worldwide, in part as a result of the former British Empire. The concept of an English nation is far older than that of the British nation, many recent immigrants to E

2. "The Arrival of the First Ancestors of Englishmen out of Germany into Britain": a fanciful image of the Anglo-Saxon migration, an event central to the English national myth. From A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence by Richard Verstegan (1605)

3. A reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon burial chamber at Sutton Hoo, East Anglia.

4. King Harold II of England (right) at the Norman court, from the Bayeux Tapestry

Irish English – Hiberno‐English or Irish English is the set of English dialects natively written and spoken within the island of Ireland. English was brought to Ireland as a result of the Norman invasion of Ireland of the late 12th century, initially, it was mainly spoken in an area known as the Pale around Dublin, with mostly Irish spoken throughout the rest of the country. However, the English conquest and colonisation of Ireland in the 16th century marked a revival in the use of English, by the mid-19th century, English was the majority language spoken in the country. It has retained this status to the present day, with even those whose first language is Irish being fluent in English as well. Phonologists today often divide Hiberno-English into four or five major dialects or accents, Ulster English, West and South-West Hiberno-English, Dublin English, and supraregional Hiberno-English. Its main subdivisions are mid Ulster English as well as Ulster Scots English, all Ulster English has more obvious

Dublin – Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical

1. Clockwise from top: Samuel Beckett Bridge, Trinity College, Custom House, Dublin Castle, O'Connell Bridge, and Convention Centre Dublin.

2. Father Mathew Bridge, formerly Dublin Bridge, is understood to be near the ancient "Ford of the Hurdles" (Baile Átha Cliath), the original crossing point on the River Liffey.

3. Dublin Castle was the fortified seat of British rule in Ireland until 1922.

4. Henrietta Street, developed in the 1720s, is the earliest Georgian Street in Dublin.

Belfast – Belfast is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, the second largest on the island of Ireland, and the heart of the tenth largest Primary Urban Area in the United Kingdom. On the River Lagan, it had a population of 286,000 at the 2011 census and 333,871 after the 2015 council reform, Belfast was granted city status in 1888. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was an industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s, industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Irelands biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square. Belfast is served by two airports, George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belf

1. Top: Skyline of Belfast Middle top left to right, Queen's University Belfast, Albert Memorial Clock, Belfast, The Boat, Titanic Belfast Bottom left to right: Belfast City Hall, view of Belfast with Samson and Goliath.

2. Belfast Castle

3. Donegall Square in the early 1900s

4. Aftermath of the Blitz in May 1941

Irish people – The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columb

1. Carrowmore tomb, circa 3000 BC

2. Robert Boyle, Anglo-Irish scientist and father of chemistry, whose family obtained land in the plantations

3. Finnian of Clonard imparting his blessing to the " Twelve Apostles of Ireland "

4. Irish Gaels in a painting from the 16th century

Spanish language – Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its

1. A page of Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish epic poem, in medieval Spanish.

2. Spanish is sole official language at the national level

3. Antonio de Nebrija, author of Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.

4. Miguel de Cervantes author of Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.

Coat of arms of the Isle of Man – The Coat of Arms of the Isle of Man dates from 12 July 1996. As the Isle of Man is a Crown dependency, the arms are more accurately described as the Arms of Her Majesty in right of the Isle of Man. The coat of arms—featuring a triskeles—is based upon the coat of arms associated with island which first appears on record in the late thirteenth century. The origin of the triskeles is obscure but appears to stemmed from the Scottish takeover of the island at this point in history, the heraldic supporters are birds associated with the island, whilst the motto first appears on record in the seventeenth century. The coat of arms was granted by Elizabeth II, Lord of Mann, the escutcheon is blazoned, gules a triskele argent garnished and spurred or. The crest is blazoned, an imperial crown proper, the supporters are blazoned, dexter a peregrine falcon and sinister a raven both proper. The motto is, Quocunque Jeceris Stabit, the heraldic device of the triskele or triskeles has been associated wi

1. Arms of the King of Mann, in the Wijbergen Roll.

2. The Arms of Her Majesty in Right of the Isle of Man

Triskelion – A triskelion or triskele is a motif consisting of a triple spiral exhibiting rotational symmetry. The spiral design can be based on interlocking Archimedean spirals, or represent three bent human legs, both terms are from Greek τρισκέλιον or τρισκελής, three-legged, from prefix τρι-, three times + σκέλος, leg. A triskelion is a symbol of Sicily, where it is called trinacria. It appears as an emblem on warriors shields depicted on Greek pottery. The triskelion is an ancient symbol of Sicily, with the head of the Gorgon, whose hair are snakes, the symbol dates back to when Sicily was part of Magna Graecia, the colonial extension of Greece beyond the Aegean. The Celtic symbol of three conjoined spirals may have had triple significance similar to the imagery that lies behind the triskelion, the triple spiral motif is a Neolithic symbol in Western Europe. Though popularly considered a Celtic symbol it is in fact a pre-Celtic symbol and it is carved into the rock of a stone lozenge near the

1. Gold cup from Mycenae decorated with triskelions, in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

2. Ancient Greek beaked jug decorated with triple spirals

3. Rhine Celts, electrum 'regenboogschoteltje' or rainbow cup with triskele

4. Triskèle Saint-Marcellin

Classical Irish – After the conversion to Christianity in the 5th century, Old Irish begins to appear as glosses and other marginalia in Latin manuscripts, beginning in the 6th century. It evolved in the 10th century to Middle Irish, early Modern Irish, otherwise known as Classical Irish, was a literary language that represented a transition between Middle and Modern Irish. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Irish has continued to survive in Gaeltacht regions and it has once again come to be considered an important part of the islands culture and heritage, with efforts being made to preserve and promote it. The history of the Irish language begins with the arrival of an ancestral Celtic language in Ireland and it is highly unlikely that the Mesolithic language of the first settlers or the Neolithic language of the first farmers was related to Irish. There is also evidence for Celtic tribal names in Ireland in this period, from these domains the language spread, just as English was to do later. The date of

1. fol. 170r of the Book of Ballymote (1390), the Auraicept na n-Éces explaining the Ogham script.

2. Multilingual phrase book compiled for Elizabeth I of England.

3. The distribution of the Irish language in 1871.

Scotland – Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separa

1. Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.

2. Flag

3. The class I Pictish stone at Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.

4. The Wallace Monument commemorates William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero.

Classical Gaelic

1. fol. 170r of the Book of Ballymote (1390), the Auraicept na n-Éces explaining the Ogham script.

2. Multilingual phrase book compiled for Elizabeth I of England.

3. The distribution of the Irish language in 1871.

Old Norse – Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used

1. The Rök Runestone in Östergötland, Sweden, is the longest surviving source of early Old East Norse. It is inscribed on both sides.

2. Old West Norse dialect

Laxey – Laxey is a village on the east coast of the Isle of Man. Its name derives from the Old Norse Laxa meaning Salmon River and its key distinguishing features are its 3 working vintage railways, having the largest working waterwheel in the world, and being set in a partly wooded valley. The village lies on the A2, the main Douglas to Ramsey road, and on the vintage Manx Electric Railway, Laxey Glen is one of the Manx National Glens, with Dhoon Glen being located close by. The Raad ny Foillan long distance footpath, opened in 1986. In the 19th century, mining for lead and zinc began, the Great Laxey Mines were the deepest in the world in the 19th century. Mining in Laxey came to an end 75 years later in 1929, the village also had a fishing industry. In the late 1800s the Manx Electric Railway line was built through the village, various other attractions were built at that time, such as Snaefell Mountain Railway and the Laxey Glen Pleasure Gardens. Laxey village is now a residential and a to

1. View of the harbour and old part of Laxey

2. Beach and promenade at Laxey

3. The Laxey Wheel

4. Laxey station with a car of the Snaefell Mountain Railway

Ramsey, Isle of Man – Ramsey is a coastal town in the north of the Isle of Man. It is the second largest town on the island after Douglas and its population is 7,309 according to the 2006 census. It has one of the biggest harbours on the island, and has a prominent derelict pier and it was formerly one of the main points of communication with Scotland. Ramsey has also been a route for several invasions by Vikings, Ramsey is also known as Royal Ramsey due to royal visits from Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in 1847 and by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra in 1902. The name of the town derives from the Old Norse hrams-á, meaning wild garlic river, More specifically, it refers to the plant known as buckrams or wild garlic, in Latin Allium ursinum. The Isle of Man has been an important strategic location in conflicts between the Norse rulers of Man and the Isles, and the Scots and English, smugglers and pirates were also common at many times in Manx history. Ramsey was the place of the Viking warrior Godred

1. Looking south across Mooragh Park to Ramsey

2. Ramsey Bay appears as a curve at the upper right

3. View South over Ramsey from Mooragh Park

4. View North over Ramsey towards Scotland

Latin language – Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until we

1. Latin inscription, in the Colosseum

2. Julius Caesar 's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman republic.

3. A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the University Library of Graz

4. Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at Duke University in 2014.

Languages of Europe

1. Latin script: Fraktur variant

2. Distribution of the Baltic languages in the Baltic (simplified).

Languages of Albania

1. Wall writing in Dhërmi. The text reads "Welcome to Drymades" in Greek.

2. Depiction of regions which also include a traditional presence of ethnic or linguistic groups alongside Albanians.

Languages of Armenia

1. As seen here, most Soviet-era street signs in Yerevan are in Armenian, Russian and (not always) English, while most independence era signs are in Armenian and English

2. The American University of Armenia

3. The French University in Armenia

4. A multilingual (Armenian, Assyrian, Russian) sign at the entrance of Arzni.

Languages of Austria

1. High Alemannic German speaking areas marked in yellow, including part of the Austrian state of Vorarlberg (Switzerland).

LIST OF IMAGES

1. Main language – A national language is a that has some connection—de facto or de jure—with people and the territory they occupy. There is little consistency in the use of this term, one or more languages spoken as first languages in the territory of a country may be referred to informally or designated in legislation as national languages of the country. National and/or official languages are mentioned in over 150 world constitutions, the last is usually given the title of official language. Standard languages, such as Standard German, Standard French, and Standard Spanish, may serve as national, regional, National language and official language are best understood as two concepts or legal categories with ranges of meaning that may coincide, or may be intentionally separate. Stateless nations are not in the position to legislate an official language, some languages may be recognized popularly as national languages, while others may enjoy official recognition in use and/or promotion. Albanian is the language in Albania and Kosovo and a regional national language for parts of Macedonia. Arabic is the language in Algeria. Berber is also an official language, French has no official status but is widely used in education, business and the media. Andorras national language is Catalan, moreover Catalan is a language in several territories in Spain. Azerbaijan Azerbaijani language is the language in Azerbaijan. Australia has no language, but is largely monolingual with English being the de facto national language. A considerable proportion of first and second generation migrants are bilingual, according to Ethnologue, 81% of people spoke English at home, including L2 speakers. Other languages spoken at home included Chinese 2. 9%, Italian 1. 2%, Arabic 1. 1%, Greek 1%, Vietnamese 0. 9%, there were almost 400 languages spoken by Indigenous Australians prior to the arrival of Europeans. Only about 70 of these languages have survived and all but 30 of these are now endangered, bengali is the sole official language of Bangladesh. Bulgarian is the language in Bulgaria. Canadas official languages since the Official Languages Act of 1969 are English, Quebec nationalists consider Quebec French the national language of the Quebec nation. As well, two of Canadas northern territories legislate a variety of Indigenous languages, as these official languages are legislated at a territorial level, they can be construed as national languages. Notably the Cree language is spoken from Alberta to Labrador, Anishinaabemowin is spoken across central Canada, there are many languages spoken across China, with most people speaking one of several varieties of Chinese

Main language – The logo of the Swiss Federal administration, in the four national languages of Switzerland.

2. English language – English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩

English language – The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language – Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language – Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales c.1400

3. Manx English – Manx English, or Anglo-Manx, is the historic dialect of English spoken on the Isle of Man, though today in decline. Early Anglo-Manx contained words of Gaelic and Norse origin, but also came to be influenced by the speech of Liverpool and Lancashire in North West England. The Manx historian and linguist A. W. Moore noted that the dialect varied slightly from parish to parish but that the turns of phrase. Moores A Vocabulary of the Anglo-Manx Dialect and W. W, gills Manx Dialect Words and Phrases document the high-water mark of this dialect. Brown was one of the first authors to use the Manx dialect in his work, in the early 20th century, poems and plays in the dialect were written by Cushag, J. J. Kneen, Christopher R. Shimmin and Juan Noa. In the mid-20th century, Kathleen Faragher wrote poetry in the dialect, immigration and cultural influences from elsewhere, particularly the United Kingdom, have caused the disappearance of the dialect, with the exception of a few words and phrases. Some of the following terms surviving from the original Anglo-Manx dialect are still in use today. The task of identifying dialectal usage is complicated by the large cross-over between Manx Gaelic, idiomatic usage and technical/administrative terms such as advocate and deemster, across – The United Kingdom, referred to as across the water. Hes got a house at him Aye – Yes Boy – Common address from one male to another, originally an unmarried male. Hey. Bumbee – Bumblebees, which children were told were bad fairies, comeover – A non-native person living in the Isle of Man. Down North - In contrast to the English Up North, Moore records a usage in the other direction - He came up to Peel from the Norss Fairy Flower – Red Campion, Silene dioica. Feller/Fella – A man/mate, common to other dialects, but much more frequent in Anglo-Manx, for – towards, to, at the period of, wherefore, the reason why, in order to. Gilpin – Young fish of indeterminate species, especially Callig, herrin – Herring Himself – The master of the house, the husband. Jinny Nettle – the stinging nettle, Urtica dioica, lhergy – a hill-slope, or high wasteland. Goin down the lhergy means going downhill in life Little People – Fairies, Mann – the Isle of Man, e. g. Gaut made it, and all in Mann Manx and Manks – Pertaining to, or originating from the Isle of Man. Manxie – A Manx person or a Manx cat, mark – A fishing-ground distinguished by landmarks. Middlin – Tolerable, an equivalent of the Manx, castreycair, neck – impudence, e. g. Oh, the neck of him. Skeet – News, gossip, and also to take a look at something, direct usage of Manx word skeet or steet

Manx English – Location of the Isle of Man within the British Isles.

4. Immigrant language – Immigrant languages are languages spoken by immigrant communities. Immigrant languages have arrived to the country or region relatively recently, unlike historical minority languages, historical minority languages also tend to have a certain official status. Immigrant languages should not be confused with foreign or second languages which are different concepts, Immigrant languages in Brazil Immigrant languages in Sweden Immigrant languages in Switzerland Immigrant languages in the United Kingdom Immigrant languages in the United States

Immigrant language – Sign in English and in the immigrant language Punjabi at Southall railway station, Southall, Middlesex, the UK

5. Irish language – Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish

Irish language – "Caution Children"
Irish language – Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Ireland census 2011 or the Northern Ireland census 2011.
Irish language – A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and Ulster Scots.
Irish language – The Pale - According to Statute of 1488

6. Foreign language – A foreign language is a language indigenous to another country. It is also a language not spoken in the country of the person referred to. These two characterisations do not exhaust the possible definitions, however, and the label is applied in ways that are variously misleading or factually inaccurate. Some children learn more than one language from birth or from a young age. For example, a child learning English from his English father and this is common in countries such as India, South Africa, or Canada due to these countries having multiple official languages. In general, it is believed that children have advantage to learning a language over adults. However, there are studies which have shown adult students are better at foreign language learning than child students and it is because adults have pre-existing knowledge of how grammar works, and a superior ability of memorizing vocabulary. See main article, Language education Most schools around the world teach at least one language and most colleges. On average in Europe, at the start of foreign language teaching, compulsory lessons in a foreign language normally start at the end of primary school or the start of secondary school. In Luxembourg, Norway and Malta, however, the first foreign language is studied at age six, in Wales, all children are taught Welsh from the first year of primary school. The Welsh language is compulsory up to the age of 16. This method is highly used in Canada, wherein anglophone students spend all of most of their lessons learning the materials in French. In 1995, the European Commissions White Paper on Education and Training emphasised the importance of learning at least two foreign languages before upper secondary education. The Lisbon Summit of 2000 defined languages as one of the five key skills, despite the high rate of foreign language teaching in schools, the number of adults claiming to speak a foreign language is generally lower than might be expected. In 2001, a European Commission survey found that 65. 9% of people in the UK spoke only their native tongue, since the 1990s, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages has tried to standardise the learning of languages across Europe. An article from The Atlantic claims that only 1 percent of the adults within the American population consider themselves proficient in speaking a foreign language and this is in stark contrast to many other countries, where the percentage is much higher. Even though there are benefits that come with learning a foreign language. Further results showed that nine out of 10 British companies thought their businesses could benefit from better language skills, also due to the increase of international population, a multilingual person can easily communicate and translate to perspective viewers

Foreign language – A German student learning French. English (1.5 billion learners), French (82 million learners) and Chinese (30 million learners) are the three most commonly studied foreign languages.

7. French language – French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth

French language – The "arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language – Regions where French is the main language
French language – Town sign in Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of Rechmaya in Lebanon.
French language – An obsolete 100 Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".

8. German language – German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form

German language – Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language – The widespread popularity of the Bible translated into German by Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language – Examples of German language in Namibian everyday life
German language – German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922

9. Manx language – Manx, also known as Manx Gaelic, and also historically spelled Manks, is a Goidelic Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, historically spoken by the Manx people. Although the last surviving speaker of the language, Ned Maddrell, died in 1974. Manx has been the subject of language revival efforts, and in recent years Manx has become visible on the island, with increased signage, radio broadcasts. The revival of Manx has been made easier because the language was recorded, for example, the Bible has been translated into Manx. In Manx, the language is called Gaelg or Gailck, a word which shares the same etymology as the word Gaelic, the sister languages of Irish and Scottish Gaelic use Gaeilge and Gàidhlig, respectively, for their languages. As with Irish and Scottish, the form with the article is frequently used in Manx. To distinguish it from the two forms of Gaelic, the phrases Gaelg/Gailck Vannin and Gaelg/Gailck Vanninnagh also are used. In addition, the nickname Çhengey ny Mayrey is occasionally used, the language is usually referred to in English as Manx. The term Manx Gaelic is often used, for example when discussing the relationship between the three Goidelic languages or to confusion with Anglo-Manx, the form of English spoken on the island. Scottish Gaelic is often referred to in English as simply Gaelic, a feature of Anglo-Manx deriving from Gaelic is the use of the definite article, e. g. the Manx, the Gaelic, in ways not generally seen in standard English. The word Manx is frequently spelled Manks in historical sources, particularly those written by natives of the island, the word means Mannish, the name of the island, Man, is frequently spelled Mann. It is sometimes accompanied by a footnote explaining that it is a word, with the stress on the first syllable. It is after the island that the Irish god Manannán mac Lir derives his name, Manx is a Goidelic language, closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. On the whole it is not mutually intelligible with these, though the speakers of the three languages find it easy to gain passive competency in each others languages and even spoken competency and these writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish transitioned into Old Irish through the 5th century, Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin script and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts, but there are no extant examples from the Isle of Man. By the 10th century Old Irish had evolved into Middle Irish, like the coastal areas of Scotland and Ireland, the Isle of Man was colonised by the Norse, who left their legacy in certain loanwords, personal names, and place names such as Laxey and Ramsey. However, they made little impact on the language overall, due to the prevalence of Gaelic-Norse bilingualism among the settlers. During the later Middle Ages, the Isle of Man fell increasingly under the influence of England, beginning in 1405, Manx experienced even more English influence under the rule of Sir John Stanley

Manx language – An ogham inscription on a stone in the Manx Museum written in Primitive Irish and which reads DOVAIDONA MAQI DROATA, "Of Dovaido, son of Droata".
Manx language – Manx
Manx language – William Christian, better known as Illiam Dhone (Brown-haired William)
Manx language – Lag ny Keeilley (Hollow of the Church) on Cronk ny Arrey Laa (Hill of the Day Watch); the Manx language has had a substantial influence on the island's toponymy and nomenclature.

10. Isle of Man – The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government, the island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century and the Manx language, in 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, magnus III, King of Norway, was also known as King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103. In 1266, the became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the short form often used in English, Mann, is derived from the Manx Mannin, though sometimes the name is written as Man. The earliest recorded Manx form of the name is Manu or Mana, the Old Irish form of the name is Manau or Mano. Old Welsh records named it as Manaw, also reflected in Manaw Gododdin, the name for an ancient district in north Britain along the lower Firth of Forth. The oldest known reference to the calls it Mona, in Latin, in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder records it as Monapia or Monabia. Later Latin references have Mevania or Mænavia, and Eubonia or Eumonia by Irish writers and it is found in the Sagas of Icelanders as Mön. The name is cognate with the Welsh name of the island of Anglesey, Ynys Môn, usually derived from a Celtic word for mountain. The name was at least secondarily associated with that of Manannán mac Lir in Irish mythology, later, a Manannán is recorded as the first king of Mann in a Manx poem. The island was cut off from the islands around 8000 BC. The first residents were hunter gatherers and fishermen, examples of their tools are kept at the Manx Museum. There were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures, during the Bronze Age, burial mounds became smaller. Bodies were put in stone-lined graves with ornamental containers, the Bronze Age burial mounds created long-lasting markers around the countryside. The ancient Romans knew of the island and called it Insula Manavia although it is whether they conquered the island

Isle of Man – The Braaid in central Isle of Man, with remnants of a Celtic-Norse roundhouse and two longhouses, c. 650–950 AD
Isle of Man – Flag
Isle of Man – The Calf of Man seen from Cregneash
Isle of Man – A composite satellite image of the Isle of Man

11. Tynwald – Tynwald, or more formally, the High Court of Tynwald or Tynwald Court is the legislature of the Isle of Man. It is claimed to be the oldest continuous parliamentary body in the world, the Houses sit jointly, on Tynwald Day at St Johns for largely ceremonial purposes, and usually once a month in the Legislative Buildings in Douglas. Otherwise, the two Houses sit separately, with the House of Keys originating most legislation, and the Legislative Council acting as a revising chamber. The name Tynwald, like the Icelandic Þingvellir and Norwegian Tingvoll, is derived from the Old Norse word Þingvǫllr meaning the place of the assembly. Tynwald meets annually on what is called Tynwald Day at a ceremony at Tynwald Hill at St Johns. The Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man presides, unless HM The Queen as Lord of Mann, here, all laws are promulgated and special petitions are received. If an Act of Tynwald is not promulgated at St Johns within 18 months of passage, it becomes null, while Tynwald sits in Douglas, which occurs once a month from October to July, the President of Tynwald, who is chosen by the other members, presides. In some cases, however, Tynwald votes as one body, when Tynwald votes by branches, if a majority of each House approves, the motion is carried. If the Council vote ties, then the President of Tynwald casts the vote in line with the majority vote of the Keys. However, if the Keys approves a motion but the Council disapproves, in this case, the vote is determined by a majority of all the members of Tynwald. If this occurs, the Keys, with its size, is likely to prevail. Normally, both houses of Tynwald must pass a bill before it goes to the sovereign or her representative Lieutenant Governor, representing the Lord of Mann, Assent is granted following consultation with the Privy Council in London coordinated by the Ministry of Justice in the UK. Tynwald claims to be over 1,000 years old, in 1979, the Manx people celebrated the millennium of their parliament. The year was picked arbitrarily by officials there is no evidence indicating that such an assembly was held in 979. Tynwald originally comprised only the 24 Members of the House of Keys, four members were present in the Keys for each of the six sheadings of the island. The earliest surviving record of the Keys dates from 1422, the Keys were not originally an elected body, and membership was for life. When a vacancy arose the remaining members selected the replacement member, in general, membership of the Keys passed down through the leading families on the island. In the 16th century the Keys met irregularly and they were akin to a jury which was summoned from time to time by the Lord of Mann or by the deemsters when they required advice as to the law

Tynwald – Tynwald Tinvaal

12. Goidelic languages – The Goidelic /ɡɔɪˈdɛlɪk/ or Gaelic languages form one of the two groups of Insular Celtic languages, the other being the Brittonic languages. Goidelic languages historically formed a dialect continuum stretching from Ireland through the Isle of Man to Scotland, there are three modern Goidelic languages, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx, the last of which died out in the 20th century but has since been revived to some degree. The word Gaelic by itself is used to refer to Scottish Gaelic and is thus ambiguous. The names used in the languages themselves are derived from Old Irish Goídelc, the medieval mythology of the Lebor Gabála Érenn places its origin in an eponymous ancestor of the Gaels, and inventor of the language, Goídel Glas. Medieval Gaelic literature tells us that the kingdom of Dál Riata emerged in western Scotland during the 6th century, the traditional view was that Dál Riata was founded by Irish migrants, but this is no longer universally accepted. Dál Riata grew in size and influence, and Gaelic language, the oldest written Goidelic language is Primitive Irish, which is attested in Ogham inscriptions from about the 4th century. The forms of speech are very close, and often identical, to the forms of Gaulish recorded before. Classical Gaelic, otherwise known as Early Modern Irish, covers the period from the 13th to the 18th century and this is often called Classical Irish, while Ethnologue gives the name Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic to this standardised written language. As long as written language was the norm, Ireland was considered the Gaelic homeland to the Scottish literati. Later orthographic divergence has resulted in standardised pluricentristic orthographies, Manx orthography, which was introduced in the 16th and 17th centuries, was based on English and Welsh practice and so never formed part of this literary standard. Irish is one of the Republic of Irelands two official languages along with English, historically the predominant language of the island, it is now mostly spoken in parts of the south, west, and northwest of Ireland. At present, the Gaeltachtaí are primarily found in Counties Cork, Donegal, Mayo, Galway, Kerry, in the Republic of Ireland 1,774,437 regard themselves as able to speak Irish. Of these,77,185 speak Irish on a daily basis outside school, the 2001 census in Northern Ireland showed that 167,487 people had some knowledge of Irish. Combined, this means that one in three people on the island of Ireland can understand Irish to some extent, although a large percentage of these do not speak it fluently. The Irish language has been recognised as an official and working language of the European Union, Irelands national language was the twenty-third to be given such recognition by the EU and previously had the status of a treaty language. Some people in the north and west of mainland Scotland and most people in the Hebrides still speak Scottish Gaelic, but the language has been in decline. There are now believed to be approximately 60,000 native speakers of Scottish Gaelic in Scotland and its historical range was much larger. For example, it was the language of most of the rest of the Scottish Highlands until little more than a century ago

Goidelic languages – Water feature commemorating the first supply of water by gravitation to Portmahomack in 1887. It carries an inscription in Gaelic "Uisce Tobar Na Baistaid"
Goidelic languages – Mainly Goidelic areas.

13. T.E. Brown – Thomas Edward Brown, commonly referred to as T. E. Brown, was a late-Victorian scholar, teacher, poet, and theologian from the Isle of Man. Retiring in 1892 to focus on writing, Brown died in 1897, Brown was born on May 5,1830 at Douglas, Isle of Man. His older brother was the Baptist preacher, pastor and reformer Hugh Stowell Brown, as Arthur Thomas Quiller-Couch notes, T. E. Browns father, the Rev. Robert Brown, had decided to collaborate, with the schoolmaster in tutoring the clever boy until, at the age of fifteen. Here his abilities soon declared themselves, and hence he proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, where his position cost him much humiliation and he had been ordained deacon, but did not proceed to priests orders for many years. In 1857, he married his cousin, Miss Stowell, daughter of Dr Stowell of Ramsey…, Brown left the Isle soon afterward, ca. 1857, to accept the position of headmaster of the The Crypt School, in Gloucester, years later, after becoming a successful published poet, Henley would recall Headmaster Brown as a revelation and a man of genius. The first Id ever seen, and would eulogize his passing as one singularly kind… at a moment… I needed kindness even more than I needed encouragement. We very soon came to terms, and I left him there under promise to come to Clifton as my colleague at the beginning of the following term and his poem Betsy Lee appeared in Macmillans Magazine, and was published separately in the same year. It was included in Focsle Yarns, which reached a second edition in 1889 and this volume included at least three other notable poems—Tommy Big-eyes, Christmas Rose, and Captain Tom and Captain Hugh. It was followed by The Doctor and other Poems, The Manx Witch and other Poems, since his death all these and a few additional lyrics and fragments have been published in one volume by Messrs Macmillan under the title of The Collected Poems of T. E. Brown. His familiar letters bear witness to the zest he carried back to his native country, in October 1897 he returned to the school on a visit. He was the guest of one of the house-masters, and on a Friday evening, 29th October and he had spoken for some minutes with his usual vivacity, when his voice grew thick and he was seen to stagger. He died in less two hours. Browns more important poems are narrative, and written in the Manx dialect, with a use of pauses. A rugged tenderness is their most characteristic note, but the emotion, while almost equally explosive in mirth and in tears, remains an educated emotion and they breathe the fervour of an island patriotism and of a simple natural piety. In his lyrics he is happiest when yoking one or the other of these emotions to serve a philosophy of life, often audacious, Brown the appellation of Manx national poet. The Doctor, and Other Poems,1887, contains the poem, as well as Kitty of the Sherragh Vane

T.E. Brown – Bronze statue of the Manx poet T. E. Brown at the top of Prospect Hill in Douglas, Isle of Man.

14. Josephine Kermode (Cushag) – Josephine Kermode was a Manx poet and playwright better known by the pen name Cushag. Margaret Letitia Josephine Kermode was born on 18 September 1852, at 73 Parliament Street and she was one of seven children who lived beyond childhood to Rev William Kermode, and his second wife, Jane née Bishop, of Shelton Hall, Staffordshire. As well as being Chaplain of St and he inspired devotion in his children and a love of learning, a love of country and a love of service. Cushag, as she came to be known, and her sisters were educated at home by a governess, while her brothers went to public school. She and the family moved around the north of the island as her father changed jobs, moving from St. Pauls in Ramsey to become, first, Vicar at Kirk Maughold and then Rector of Ballaugh. After her fathers death in 1890, the family moved back to Ramsey, here Cushag took up a voluntary role as a District Nurse, until her health was adversely affected and she was obliged to stop. Eventually the family moved to the home of Cushags grandparents in Claughbane. Cushag never married, and she acted as housekeeper for her brother P. M. C, Kermode from 1908, the year after his seminal work on the Manx Crosses was published. P. M. C. as he was known, was an amateur archaeologist and historian at this time, Cushag was described as sharing with her brother the same gentle kindliness and old-fashioned courtesy, proud, yet modest, sensitive and yet lovable. She respected P. M. C with the reverence for a genius and they lived in a secluded house in Glen Auldyn, with the river running through its garden and a meadow next to it for the grazing of their horse, Brownie. Kermodes first published work was A Lonan Legend, in 1899 and her first collection of poems, Poems by Cushag, was published in August 1907. It was at time that she adopted the nom de plume, Cushag. The name comes from the Manx word for ragwort, the flower of the Isle of Man. The collection featured a poem about the flower, Now, the Cushag, we know, Must never grow, but along the rills, In the heart of the hills, The Cushag may shine like the sun. Where the golden flowers, Have fairy powers, To gladden our hearts with their grace, and in Vannin Veg Veen, In the valleys green, The Cushags have still a place. E. Brown and the novelist Hall Caine and they were produced in Peel by The Peel Players thanks to Sophia Morrison. The plays show Cushags deep interest in Manx folklore, as they are stage re-workings of various folk tales, written in the Anglo-Manx dialect and with a realist tone, the plays are a clear defence of the Manx folk heritage against the encroachment of modern scientific rationalism. This is shown most clearly in Eunys, where the foundling daughters returns to her family to escape the unjust

Josephine Kermode (Cushag) – "Cushag" at the age of around 22
Josephine Kermode (Cushag) – The Cushag, the national flower of the Isle of Man

15. BBC – The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. The total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, the BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own. Thus the BBC was granted sufficient leeway to pursue the Governments objectives largely in a manner of its own choosing, supporters of the strike nicknamed the BBC the BFC for British Falsehood Company. Reith personally announced the end of the strike which he marked by reciting from Blakes Jerusalem signifying that England had been saved, Reith argued that trust gained by authentic impartial news could then be used

BBC – BBC Television Centre at White City, West London, which opened in 1960 and closed in 2013
BBC – BBC Pacific Quay in Glasgow, which was opened in 2007
BBC – BBC New Broadcasting House, London which came into use during 2012–13.
BBC – The headquarters of the BBC at Broadcasting House in Portland Place, London, England. This section of the building is called 'Old Broadcasting House'.

16. English people – The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England, who speak the English language. The English identity is of medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD, England is one of the countries of the United Kingdom. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become England along with the later Danes, Normans, in the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England was succeeded by the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over the years, English customs and identity have become closely aligned with British customs. The English people are the source of the English language, the Westminster system and these and other English cultural characteristics have spread worldwide, in part as a result of the former British Empire. The concept of an English nation is far older than that of the British nation, many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities. Use of the word English to describe Britons from ethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their national identity. They found that while 58% of white people in England described their nationality as English and it is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. Following complaints about this, the 2011 census was changed to allow respondents to record their English, Welsh, Scottish, another complication in defining the English is a common tendency for the words English and British to be used interchangeably, especially overseas. In his study of English identity, Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say English, I mean British. He notes that this slip is made only by the English themselves and by foreigners. Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of Englands dominant position with the UK and it tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles. In 1965, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote, When the Oxford History of England was launched a generation ago and it meant indiscriminately England and Wales, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of a Great Power and indeed continue to do so, bonar Law, by origin a Scotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as Prime Minister of England Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of England except for a geographic area brings protests and this version of history is now regarded by many historians as incorrect, on the basis of more recent genetic and archaeological research. The 2016 study authored by Stephan Schiffels et al, the remaining portion of English DNA is primarily French, introduced in a migration after the end of the Ice Age

English people
English people – "The Arrival of the First Ancestors of Englishmen out of Germany into Britain": a fanciful image of the Anglo-Saxon migration, an event central to the English national myth. From A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence by Richard Verstegan (1605)
English people – A reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon burial chamber at Sutton Hoo, East Anglia.
English people – King Harold II of England (right) at the Norman court, from the Bayeux Tapestry

17. Irish English – Hiberno‐English or Irish English is the set of English dialects natively written and spoken within the island of Ireland. English was brought to Ireland as a result of the Norman invasion of Ireland of the late 12th century, initially, it was mainly spoken in an area known as the Pale around Dublin, with mostly Irish spoken throughout the rest of the country. However, the English conquest and colonisation of Ireland in the 16th century marked a revival in the use of English, by the mid-19th century, English was the majority language spoken in the country. It has retained this status to the present day, with even those whose first language is Irish being fluent in English as well. Phonologists today often divide Hiberno-English into four or five major dialects or accents, Ulster English, West and South-West Hiberno-English, Dublin English, and supraregional Hiberno-English. Its main subdivisions are mid Ulster English as well as Ulster Scots English, all Ulster English has more obvious pronunciation similarities with Scottish English than other Irish English dialects. Ulster varieties distinctly pronounce, An ordinarily grammatically structured declarative sentences, often, /ɪ/ as lowered, in the general vicinity of. /ʌ/ as fronted and slightly rounded, more closely approaching, /uː/ and /ʊ/ both in the general vicinity of. /aʊ/ with a backed on-glide and fronted off-glide, putting it in the vicinity of, /aɪ/ as, particularly before voiceless consonants. /eɪ/ as, though nowadays commonly or even when in a closed syllable, /oʊ/, almost always, as a slightly raised monophthong. A lack of happy-tensing, with the vowel of happy, holy, money. Syllable-final /l/ occasionally as dark, though especially before a consonant, christine Bleakley, Jamie Dornan, Rory McIlroy, Liam Neeson – The Northern Irish accent is the sexiest in the UK, according to a new poll. Daniel ODonnell – the languid Donegal accent made famous by Daniel ODonnell Colin Morgan – Colin Morgan has revealed that fans of the show are often confused by his accent. The 23-year-old. is originally from Northern Ireland West and South-West Irish English here refers to varieties of Irelands West and South-West Regions. Accents of both regions are known for, The pin–pen merger The backing and slight lowering of /aʊ/ towards, the more open starting point for /ɔːr/ and /ɔː/ of and, respectively. The preservation of /oʊ/ as monophthongal, /θ/ and /ð/, respectively, as and. Roy Keane – Cork accent Dáithí Ó Sé – his Kerry dialect The Rubberbandits – Rubberbandits strong Limerick accent, sits on a frequency like a tambourine which can cut through any noise Dublin English is highly internally diverse and refers collectively to the related Irish English varieties of eastern Ireland. The accent that most strongly uses the traditional working-class features is called local Dublin English

Irish English

18. Dublin – Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle

Dublin – Clockwise from top: Samuel Beckett Bridge, Trinity College, Custom House, Dublin Castle, O'Connell Bridge, and Convention Centre Dublin.
Dublin – Father Mathew Bridge, formerly Dublin Bridge, is understood to be near the ancient "Ford of the Hurdles" (Baile Átha Cliath), the original crossing point on the River Liffey.
Dublin – Dublin Castle was the fortified seat of British rule in Ireland until 1922.
Dublin – Henrietta Street, developed in the 1720s, is the earliest Georgian Street in Dublin.

19. Belfast – Belfast is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, the second largest on the island of Ireland, and the heart of the tenth largest Primary Urban Area in the United Kingdom. On the River Lagan, it had a population of 286,000 at the 2011 census and 333,871 after the 2015 council reform, Belfast was granted city status in 1888. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was an industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s, industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Irelands biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square. Belfast is served by two airports, George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport 15 miles west of the city. Although the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giants Ring, a 5, 000-year-old henge, is located near the city, Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. The ONeill clan had a presence in the area, in the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe ONeill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city. Conn ONeill of the Clannaboy ONeills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, evidence of this period of Belfasts growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries. Belfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries, industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland. The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, in 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city. In 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned, the accompanying conflict cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards. Belfast was heavily bombed during World War II, in one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a raid during the Blitz. Belfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and it had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively. The most recent example of conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998

Belfast – Top: Skyline of Belfast Middle top left to right, Queen's University Belfast, Albert Memorial Clock, Belfast, The Boat, Titanic Belfast Bottom left to right: Belfast City Hall, view of Belfast with Samson and Goliath.
Belfast – Belfast Castle
Belfast – Donegall Square in the early 1900s
Belfast – Aftermath of the Blitz in May 1941

20. Irish people – The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael

Irish people – Carrowmore tomb, circa 3000 BC
Irish people – Robert Boyle, Anglo-Irish scientist and father of chemistry, whose family obtained land in the plantations
Irish people – Finnian of Clonard imparting his blessing to the " Twelve Apostles of Ireland "
Irish people – Irish Gaels in a painting from the 16th century

21. Spanish language – Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania

Spanish language – A page of Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language – Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language – Antonio de Nebrija, author of Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language – Miguel de Cervantes author of Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.

22. Coat of arms of the Isle of Man – The Coat of Arms of the Isle of Man dates from 12 July 1996. As the Isle of Man is a Crown dependency, the arms are more accurately described as the Arms of Her Majesty in right of the Isle of Man. The coat of arms—featuring a triskeles—is based upon the coat of arms associated with island which first appears on record in the late thirteenth century. The origin of the triskeles is obscure but appears to stemmed from the Scottish takeover of the island at this point in history, the heraldic supporters are birds associated with the island, whilst the motto first appears on record in the seventeenth century. The coat of arms was granted by Elizabeth II, Lord of Mann, the escutcheon is blazoned, gules a triskele argent garnished and spurred or. The crest is blazoned, an imperial crown proper, the supporters are blazoned, dexter a peregrine falcon and sinister a raven both proper. The motto is, Quocunque Jeceris Stabit, the heraldic device of the triskele or triskeles has been associated with the Isle of Man for centuries. The supporters are symbolically associated with the island as well, in 1405, Henry IV, King of England gave the Isle of Man to John Stanley. The latter gave Henry two peregrine falcons, and was required to provide the same to every future English king on his coronation and this formal bestowal of two falcons continued as a late as the coronation of George IV in 1822. The raven is a bird associated with Norse mythology. The Latin motto Quocunque jeceris stabit can be translated as whithersoever you throw it, it will stand, or whichever way you throw, the motto dates to the 17th century, when it is first recorded on Manx coinage dating to the year 1668. The coat of arms is a form of the traditional arms associated with the island. It is unknown when the triskeles was originally adopted as a symbol in a Manx context and it appears associated with the island in several late 13th-century armorials, such as Camden Roll, Heralds Roll, Segars Roll, Walfords Roll, and Wijnbergen Roll. Just before this period in history, the formed part of the Kingdom of the Isles. The last member of ruling family died in 1265 without a legitimate heir. The island then passed into the possession of Alexander III, King of Scotland, in 1266, sovereignty of the Isle of Man and the Hebrides was formally transferred from the Norwegian Crown to the Scottish Crown. There is no evidence that the Crovan dynasty utilised the triskeles as a heraldic device, instead, members of this family are known to have borne ships and lions on their seals. The appearance of the triskeles in the last third of the 13th century may well be connected with the change on the island in 1265

Coat of arms of the Isle of Man – Arms of the King of Mann, in the Wijbergen Roll.
Coat of arms of the Isle of Man – The Arms of Her Majesty in Right of the Isle of Man

23. Triskelion – A triskelion or triskele is a motif consisting of a triple spiral exhibiting rotational symmetry. The spiral design can be based on interlocking Archimedean spirals, or represent three bent human legs, both terms are from Greek τρισκέλιον or τρισκελής, three-legged, from prefix τρι-, three times + σκέλος, leg. A triskelion is a symbol of Sicily, where it is called trinacria. It appears as an emblem on warriors shields depicted on Greek pottery. The triskelion is an ancient symbol of Sicily, with the head of the Gorgon, whose hair are snakes, the symbol dates back to when Sicily was part of Magna Graecia, the colonial extension of Greece beyond the Aegean. The Celtic symbol of three conjoined spirals may have had triple significance similar to the imagery that lies behind the triskelion, the triple spiral motif is a Neolithic symbol in Western Europe. Though popularly considered a Celtic symbol it is in fact a pre-Celtic symbol and it is carved into the rock of a stone lozenge near the main entrance of the prehistoric Newgrange monument in County Meath, Ireland. Newgrange, which was built around 3200 BC, predates the Celtic arrival in Ireland, the symbol is also found carved in rock in Castro Culture settlement in Galicia and Northern Portugal. Traditional Asian versions of the include the Japanese Mitsudomoe, the Tibetan Buddhist Gankyil. A triskelion is featured on the seal of the United States Department of Transportation, a triskelion shape is the basis for the roundel of the Irish Air Corps, and the logo for the Trisquel Linux distribution. A triskelion is used as a seal of Tau Gamma Phi fraternity, a member of the Tau Gamma Phi fraternity is called Triskelion and Lady Triskelion for the Tau Gamma Sigma sorority member. The design was practical, the three curved arms providing equal spring and thus keeping the hole centred, the iconic design of the Spider has led to its adoption as a popular symbol for record and music enthusiasts. One of the most commonly used symbols of the BDSM community is a derivation of a triskelion shape within a circle, the crest of the Breton football club En Avant de Guingamp combines the Flag of Brittany, the team colours and the triple spiral triskelion. The triskele, usually consisting of spirals, but also the horned triskelion, is used by some polytheistic reconstructionist and neopagan groups. As a Celtic symbol, it is used primarily by groups with a Celtic cultural orientation and, less frequently, the spiral triskele is one of the primary symbols of Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism. Celtic Reconstructionists use the symbol to represent a variety of triplicities in their cosmology and theology, the endocytic protein, clathrin, is triskelion-shaped

Triskelion – Gold cup from Mycenae decorated with triskelions, in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
Triskelion – Ancient Greek beaked jug decorated with triple spirals
Triskelion – Rhine Celts, electrum 'regenboogschoteltje' or rainbow cup with triskele
Triskelion – Triskèle Saint-Marcellin

24. Classical Irish – After the conversion to Christianity in the 5th century, Old Irish begins to appear as glosses and other marginalia in Latin manuscripts, beginning in the 6th century. It evolved in the 10th century to Middle Irish, early Modern Irish, otherwise known as Classical Irish, was a literary language that represented a transition between Middle and Modern Irish. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Irish has continued to survive in Gaeltacht regions and it has once again come to be considered an important part of the islands culture and heritage, with efforts being made to preserve and promote it. The history of the Irish language begins with the arrival of an ancestral Celtic language in Ireland and it is highly unlikely that the Mesolithic language of the first settlers or the Neolithic language of the first farmers was related to Irish. There is also evidence for Celtic tribal names in Ireland in this period, from these domains the language spread, just as English was to do later. The date of introduction continues to be debated by linguists and archaeologists, some scholars put the earliest date at ca.1200 BC, while others posit dates between 2600 and 2000 BC. The earliest written form of the Irish language is known to linguists as Primitive Irish, Primitive Irish is known only from fragments, mostly personal names, inscribed on stone in the Ogham alphabet. The earliest of such inscriptions probably date from the 3rd or 4th century, Ogham inscriptions are found primarily in the south of Ireland as well as in Wales and Cornwall, where it was brought by settlers from Ireland to sub-Roman Britain, and in the Isle of Man. Old Irish first appears in the margins of Latin manuscripts as early as the 6th century, a large number of early Irish literary texts, though recorded in manuscripts of the Middle Irish period, are essentially Old Irish in character. Middle Irish is the form of Irish used from the 10th to 12th centuries, it is therefore a contemporary of late Old English and it is the language of a large amount of literature, including the entire Ulster Cycle. Early Modern Irish, also called Classical Irish or in Scotland Classical Irish, was used as a language in Ireland and Scotland from the 13th to the 18th century. The tracts were edited and published by Osborn Bergin as a supplement to Ériu between 1916 and 1955, linguistically, this stage of Irish represents a transition between Middle Irish and Modern Irish. For example, neuter nouns still trigger eclipsis of a complement, as they did in Middle Irish. Verb endings are also in transition, the ending -ann, today the usual 3rd person ending in the present tense, was formerly found only in the imperfective. Queen Elizabeth I encouraged the use of Irish even in the Pale with a view to promoting the reformed religion. She was a proficient linguist and is reported to have expressed a desire to understand Irish, so a primer was prepared on her behalf by Sir Christopher Nugent, ninth baron of Delvin. The first book printed in any Goidelic language was published in 1564 in Edinburgh and he used a slightly modified form of the language shared by Ireland and Scotland at the time and also used the Roman script. In 1571 the first book in Irish to be printed in Ireland was a Protestant catechism, containing a guide to spelling and it was written by John Kearney, treasurer of St. Patricks Cathedral

Classical Irish – fol. 170r of the Book of Ballymote (1390), the Auraicept na n-Éces explaining the Ogham script.
Classical Irish – Multilingual phrase book compiled for Elizabeth I of England.
Classical Irish – The distribution of the Irish language in 1871.

25. Scotland – Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses

Scotland – Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.
Scotland – Flag
Scotland – The class I Pictish stone at Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.
Scotland – The Wallace Monument commemorates William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero.

26. Old Norse – Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders

Old Norse – The Rök Runestone in Östergötland, Sweden, is the longest surviving source of early Old East Norse. It is inscribed on both sides.
Old Norse – Old West Norse dialect

27. Laxey – Laxey is a village on the east coast of the Isle of Man. Its name derives from the Old Norse Laxa meaning Salmon River and its key distinguishing features are its 3 working vintage railways, having the largest working waterwheel in the world, and being set in a partly wooded valley. The village lies on the A2, the main Douglas to Ramsey road, and on the vintage Manx Electric Railway, Laxey Glen is one of the Manx National Glens, with Dhoon Glen being located close by. The Raad ny Foillan long distance footpath, opened in 1986. In the 19th century, mining for lead and zinc began, the Great Laxey Mines were the deepest in the world in the 19th century. Mining in Laxey came to an end 75 years later in 1929, the village also had a fishing industry. In the late 1800s the Manx Electric Railway line was built through the village, various other attractions were built at that time, such as Snaefell Mountain Railway and the Laxey Glen Pleasure Gardens. Laxey village is now a residential and a tourist area. There are several gardens, primarily Laxey Glen Gardens. There is also a mill which sells its own and many other products. The village has five pubs and a microbrewery, The Old Laxey Brewing Company, one can also walk around the cliffs to the north of the beach from opposite the La Mona Lisa Restaurant. This walk goes, over the cairn, from there are views of Clay Head to the south. A Laxey born & bred person would say, Im going over the kern for a walk, many of Laxeys buildings were built as mining cottages in the traditional Manx style. Old Laxey is made up of winding streets around the harbour, a newer, late Victorian section, further inland, is the area of shops and services around the railway station. The Isle of Man census 2006 lists the population as 1,768. It is the fourth largest village on the island, historically, Laxey was in the parish of Lonan within the sheading of Garff. Until 2016, Laxey was a district with its own commissioners. From 1 May 2016, it merged with the parishes of Lonan and Maughold to form the new district of Garff

Laxey – View of the harbour and old part of Laxey
Laxey – Beach and promenade at Laxey
Laxey – The Laxey Wheel
Laxey – Laxey station with a car of the Snaefell Mountain Railway

28. Ramsey, Isle of Man – Ramsey is a coastal town in the north of the Isle of Man. It is the second largest town on the island after Douglas and its population is 7,309 according to the 2006 census. It has one of the biggest harbours on the island, and has a prominent derelict pier and it was formerly one of the main points of communication with Scotland. Ramsey has also been a route for several invasions by Vikings, Ramsey is also known as Royal Ramsey due to royal visits from Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in 1847 and by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra in 1902. The name of the town derives from the Old Norse hrams-á, meaning wild garlic river, More specifically, it refers to the plant known as buckrams or wild garlic, in Latin Allium ursinum. The Isle of Man has been an important strategic location in conflicts between the Norse rulers of Man and the Isles, and the Scots and English, smugglers and pirates were also common at many times in Manx history. Ramsey was the place of the Viking warrior Godred Crovan around 1079, he was determined to subjugate the island. Two miles inland, on Sky Hill, an important battle was fought, on 17 May 1313 Robert the Bruce landed at Ramsey with a multitude of ships on his way to capturing Castle Rushen. Captain François Thurot, a then-famous French privateer, and notorious scourge of the British fleet, was defeated off the north-west of the island in February 1760 and his badly damaged, captured ship was brought into Ramsey Bay after the battle. Thurots actions had been part of a planned French invasion of Britain, in previous years Thurot had traded between Ireland and the Isle of Man and had been well liked by many Manx people, and regarded as an intelligent gentleman. Several cottages and bridges were built using timbers from the ship, hence Thurot Cottage. Pirate radio station Radio Caroline North was based in Ramsey Bay from 1964–68, during World War II, thirty boarding houses on the North Shore were requisitioned for the Mooragh Internment Camp. Ramsey is in the sunniest area of the Isle of Man and this is because Ramsey is in a rain shadow just to the north-east of the Manx hills, on the edge of the northern plain of the island. Rain clouds coming from the wind direction, the south-west. Ramsey is built mostly on ground and has miles of sandy beaches. To the north of Ramsey the beaches run continuously to the tip of the island. On the southern edge of Ramsey, at the edge of the hills, are a network of woods and glens, Ballure Walk, Lhergy Frissel, the Millennium Way and other paths and roads lead up to and across the upland heath. The new Ramsey Forest project aims to increase the tree cover in this area, a popular vantage point is Ramsey Hairpin, where enthusiasts gather to watch the racers

Ramsey, Isle of Man – Looking south across Mooragh Park to Ramsey
Ramsey, Isle of Man – Ramsey Bay appears as a curve at the upper right
Ramsey, Isle of Man – View South over Ramsey from Mooragh Park
Ramsey, Isle of Man – View North over Ramsey towards Scotland

29. Latin language – Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole

Latin language – Latin inscription, in the Colosseum
Latin language – Julius Caesar 's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman republic.
Latin language – A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the University Library of Graz
Latin language – Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at Duke University in 2014.