1.
Thermodynamics
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Thermodynamics is a branch of science concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics, the laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering. The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was extended early on to the study of chemical compounds, Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field. Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged in the following decades, statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, concerned itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory presented a mathematical approach to the field in his axiomatic formulation of thermodynamics. A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis, the first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work. In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized, central to this are the concepts of the thermodynamic system and its surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes. With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment and this can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in thermodynamic equilibrium, non-equilibrium thermodynamics is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotles long-held supposition that nature abhors a vacuum. Shortly after Guericke, the English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of Guerickes designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In time, Boyles Law was formulated, which states that pressure, later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and he did not, however, follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papins designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine, although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the idea of the condenser which resulted in a large increase in steam engine efficiency. Drawing on all the work led Sadi Carnot, the father of thermodynamics, to publish Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
2.
Carnot heat engine
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A Carnot heat engine is an engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle. The basic model for this engine was developed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824, the Carnot engine model was graphically expanded upon by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834 and mathematically elaborated upon by Rudolf Clausius in 1857 from which the concept of entropy emerged. Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular state, a thermodynamic cycle occurs when a system is taken through a series of different states, and finally returned to its initial state. In the process of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its surroundings, a heat engine acts by transferring energy from a warm region to a cool region of space and, in the process, converting some of that energy to mechanical work. The cycle may also be reversed, in the adjacent diagram, from Carnots 1824 work, Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, there are two bodies A and B, kept each at a constant temperature, that of A being higher than that of B. These two bodies to which we can give, or from which we can remove the heat without causing their temperatures to vary, exercise the functions of two unlimited reservoirs of caloric. We will call the first the furnace and the second the refrigerator. ”Carnot then explains how we can obtain power, i. e. “work”. It also acts as a cooler and hence can also act as a Refrigerator, the previous image shows the original piston-and-cylinder diagram used by Carnot in discussing his ideal engines. The figure at right shows a diagram of a generic heat engine. In the diagram, the “working body”, an introduced by Clausius in 1850. Carnot had postulated that the body could be any substance capable of expansion, such as vapor of water, vapor of alcohol, vapor of mercury. The output work W here is the movement of the piston as it is used to turn a crank-arm, Carnot defined work as “weight lifted through a height”. The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the steps, Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas at the hot temperature. During this step the gas is allowed to expand and it work on the surroundings. The temperature of the gas does not change during the process, the gas expansion is propelled by absorption of heat energy Q1 and of entropy Δ S H = Q H / T H from the high temperature reservoir. For this step the piston and cylinder are assumed to be thermally insulated, the gas continues to expand, doing work on the surroundings, and losing an equivalent amount of internal energy. The gas expansion causes it to cool to the cold temperature, Reversible isothermal compression of the gas at the cold temperature, TC. Now the surroundings do work on the gas, causing an amount of heat energy Q2, once again the piston and cylinder are assumed to be thermally insulated
3.
Chemical thermodynamics
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Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics, starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the fundamental equations of Gibbs can be derived. From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics. This outlines the framework of chemical thermodynamics. Gibbs’ collection of papers provided the first unified body of thermodynamic theorems from the principles developed by others, such as Clausius, the first was the 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall. This book was responsible for supplanting the chemical affinity with the free energy in the English-speaking world. The second was the 1933 book Modern Thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs written by E. A. Guggenheim, the primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is the establishment of a criterion for the determination of the feasibility or spontaneity of a given transformation. The 3 laws of thermodynamics, The energy of the universe is constant, breaking or making of chemical bonds involves energy or heat, which may be either absorbed or evolved from a chemical system. Energy that can be released because of a reaction between a set of substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants. This change in energy is called the change in energy of a chemical reaction. The change in energy is a process which is equal to the heat change if it is measured under conditions of constant volume. Another useful term is the heat of combustion, which is the energy released due to a combustion reaction, food is similar to hydrocarbon fuel and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized, its caloric content is similar. In chemical thermodynamics the term used for the potential energy is chemical potential. Even for homogeneous bulk materials, the energy functions depend on the composition, as do all the extensive thermodynamic potentials. If the quantities, the number of species, are omitted from the formulae. For a bulk system they are the last remaining extensive variables, the expression for dG is especially useful at constant T and P, conditions which are easy to achieve experimentally and which approximates the condition in living creatures T, P = ∑ i μ i d N i. While this formulation is mathematically defensible, it is not particularly transparent since one does not simply add or remove molecules from a system. There is always a process involved in changing the composition, e. g. a chemical reaction and we should find a notation which does not seem to imply that the amounts of the components can be changed independently
4.
Equilibrium thermodynamics
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Equilibrium Thermodynamics is the systematic study of transformations of matter and energy in systems in terms of a concept called thermodynamic equilibrium. The word equilibrium implies a state of balance, Equilibrium thermodynamics, in origins, derives from analysis of the Carnot cycle. Here, typically a system, as cylinder of gas, initially in its own state of thermodynamic equilibrium, is set out of balance via heat input from a combustion reaction. Then, through a series of steps, as the system settles into its equilibrium state. In an equilibrium state the potentials, or driving forces, within the system, are in exact balance, an equilibrium state is mathematically ascertained by seeking the extrema of a thermodynamic potential function, whose nature depends on the constraints imposed on the system. For example, a reaction at constant temperature and pressure will reach equilibrium at a minimum of its components Gibbs free energy. In equilibrium thermodynamics, by contrast, the state of the system will be considered uniform throughout, defined macroscopically by such quantities as temperature, pressure, systems are studied in terms of change from one equilibrium state to another, such a change is called a thermodynamic process. Ruppeiner geometry is a type of information used to study thermodynamics. It claims that thermodynamic systems can be represented by Riemannian geometry, non-equilibrium thermodynamics Thermodynamics Adkins, C. J. Equilibrium Thermodynamics, 3rd Ed. & Boles, M. Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach, 4th Ed, modern Thermodynamics – From Heat Engines to Dissipative Structures. New York, John Wiley & Sons
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Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
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Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is concerned with transport processes and with the rates of chemical reactions. It relies on what may be thought of as more or less nearness to thermodynamic equilibrium, non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a work in progress, not an established edifice. This article will try to sketch some approaches to it and some concepts important for it, some systems and processes are, however, in a useful sense, near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium to allow description with useful accuracy by currently known non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Nevertheless, many systems and processes will always remain far beyond the scope of non-equilibrium thermodynamic methods. This is because of the small size of atoms, as compared with macroscopic systems. The thermodynamic study of systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Another fundamental and very important difference is the difficulty or impossibility in defining entropy at an instant of time in terms for systems not in thermodynamic equilibrium. A profound difference separates equilibrium from non-equilibrium thermodynamics, equilibrium thermodynamics ignores the time-courses of physical processes. In contrast, non-equilibrium thermodynamics attempts to describe their time-courses in continuous detail, equilibrium thermodynamics restricts its considerations to processes that have initial and final states of thermodynamic equilibrium, the time-courses of processes are deliberately ignored. For example, in thermodynamics, a process is allowed to include even a violent explosion that cannot be described by non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Equilibrium thermodynamics does, however, for development, use the idealized concept of the quasi-static process. A quasi-static process is a conceptual smooth mathematical passage along a path of states of thermodynamic equilibrium. It is an exercise in differential geometry rather than a process that could occur in actuality, non-equilibrium thermodynamics, on the other hand, attempting to describe continuous time-courses, need its state variables to have a very close connection with those of equilibrium thermodynamics. This profoundly restricts the scope of thermodynamics, and places heavy demands on its conceptual framework. The suitable relationship that defines non-equilibrium thermodynamic state variables is as follows and it is necessary that measuring probes be small enough, and rapidly enough responding, to capture relevant non-uniformity. In reality, these requirements are demanding, and it may be difficult or practically, or even theoretically. This is part of why non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a work in progress, non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a work in progress, not an established edifice. This article will try to sketch some approaches to it and some concepts important for it, one problem of interest is the thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium steady states, in which entropy production and some flows are non-zero, but there is no time variation of physical variables
6.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
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The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Accordingly, thermal equilibrium between systems is a transitive relation, two systems are said to be in the relation of thermal equilibrium if they are linked by a wall permeable only to heat and they do not change over time. The physical meaning of the law was expressed by Maxwell in the words, for this reason, another statement of the law is All diathermal walls are equivalent. The law is important for the formulation of thermodynamics, which needs the assertion that the relation of thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation. This information is needed for a definition of temperature that will agree with the physical existence of valid thermometers. A thermodynamic system is by definition in its own state of thermodynamic equilibrium. One precise statement of the law is that the relation of thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on pairs of thermodynamic systems. This means that a tag can be assigned to every system. This property is used to justify the use of temperature as a tagging system. This statement asserts that thermal equilibrium is a relation between thermodynamic systems. If we also define that every system is in thermal equilibrium with itself. Binary relations that are both reflexive and Euclidean are equivalence relations, one consequence of an equivalence relationship is that the equilibrium relationship is symmetric, If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, then B is in thermal equilibrium with A. Thus we may say that two systems are in equilibrium with each other, or that they are in mutual equilibrium. A reflexive, transitive relationship does not guarantee an equivalence relationship, in order for the above statement to be true, both reflexivity and symmetry must be implicitly assumed. It is the Euclidean relationships which apply directly to thermometry, an ideal thermometer is a thermometer which does not measurably change the state of the system it is measuring. The zeroth law provides no information regarding this final reading, the zeroth law establishes thermal equilibrium as an equivalence relationship. An equivalence relationship on a set divides that set into a collection of distinct subsets where any member of the set is a member of one, in the case of the zeroth law, these subsets consist of systems which are in mutual equilibrium. This partitioning allows any member of the subset to be tagged with a label identifying the subset to which it belongs
7.
First law of thermodynamics
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The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, adapted for thermodynamic systems. The law of conservation of energy states that the energy of an isolated system is constant, energy can be transformed from one form to another. Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of the first kind are impossible, investigations into the nature of heat and work and their relationship began with the invention of the first engines used to extract water from mines. Improvements to such engines so as to increase their efficiency and power output came first from mechanics that worked with such machines, deeper investigations that placed those on a mathematical and physics basis came later. The first law of thermodynamics was developed empirically over about half a century, the first full statements of the law came in 1850 from Rudolf Clausius and from William Rankine, Rankines statement is less distinct relative to Clausius. A main aspect of the struggle was to deal with the previously proposed caloric theory of heat, in 1840, Germain Hess stated a conservation law for the so-called heat of reaction for chemical reactions. His law was recognized as a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics. The primitive notion of heat was taken as established, especially through calorimetry regarded as a subject in its own right. Jointly primitive with this notion of heat were the notions of empirical temperature and this framework also took as primitive the notion of transfer of energy as work. This framework did not presume a concept of energy in general, by one author, this framework has been called the thermodynamic approach. The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics, by Rudolf Clausius in 1850, because of its definition in terms of increments, the value of the internal energy of a system is not uniquely defined. It is defined only up to an additive constant of integration. This non-uniqueness is in keeping with the mathematical nature of the internal energy. The internal energy is customarily stated relative to a conventionally chosen standard reference state of the system, the concept of internal energy is considered by Bailyn to be of enormous interest. Its quantity cannot be measured, but can only be inferred. Bailyn likens it to the states of an atom, that were revealed by Bohrs energy relation hν = En − En. In each case, a quantity is revealed by considering the difference of measured quantities. In 1907, George H. Bryan wrote about systems between which there is no transfer of matter, Definition, when energy flows from one system or part of a system to another otherwise than by the performance of mechanical work, the energy so transferred is called heat
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