1.
Latinos (newspaper series)
–
Latinos is an award-winning, 27-part newspaper series on southern Californias Latino community and culture of the early 1980s. The Los Angeles Times series won the 1984 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service, the winning team of two editors and 11 reporters and photographers who were all of Mexican American descent were the first Hispanics to win the award. The Pulitzer Prize jury called the one of the largest reporting efforts in the newspapers history. Rick Corrales, photojournalist, was born in Pico Rivera, California, Corrales studied music at Whittier College and earned a bachelor’s degree in photojournalism from California State University, Long Beach. He started working for the Los Angeles Times as a photographer in 1981, besides being part of the Pulitzer Prize–winning team, Corrales also photographed the 1984 Summer Olympics. He created the 360-degree Spinshot camera and established Corrales Cameras, a company, in Whittier. The company sold about 1,000 units before competition with digital photography began, Corrales also pioneered 3D animation and created a company called Motion Graphix with former LA Times photo editor, Raleigh Souther. Corrales died 7 November 2005 of stomach cancer, José Galvez first entered the Arizona Daily Star newsroom as a 10-year-old shoe shine boy and then became a regular visitor at the Tucson, Arizona-based newspaper. The journalists at the Arizona Daily Star motivated him and Galvez learned journalism skills while growing up and he purchased his own camera at a pawn shop while in high school and first photographed the people and places in his barrio. At the University of Arizona, Galvez majored in journalism, Galvez became a staff photographer at the Arizona Daily Star after graduation. Galvez was the first Mexican American photographer hired by the Los Angeles Times, Galvez used his personal experience at photographing Mexican Americans in Tucson to illustrate the Los Angeles Times Pulitzer Prize–winning series. He left the LA Times to do solo photography work, Robert Montemayor graduated in 1975, from the College of Mass Communications at Texas Tech University with a bachelor’s degree in journalism. He earned a Master’s Degree in Business Administration in marketing in 1986 from the University of California, in 1977 and 1978, he was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize. He earned a George Polk Award in 1978 for his contribution on civil rights cases, in 1978, he joined the Los Angeles Times as a staff writer. Six years later in 1984, Montemayor would co-write the series in the 27-part series that would win the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service. After receiving his MBA, Montemayor worked in upper level management for companies as Dow Jones & Company, McGraw-Hill Companies. In 2004, he published a book, “Right Before Our Eyes, Latinos Past, Present, Montemayor is currently a member of the journalism faculty at Rutgers University. Frank del Olmo was raised in San Fernando Valley of southern California, when Del Olmo graduated from high school, he accepted a full scholarship to study journalism at the University of California, Los Angeles
2.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Latin America
–
Latin America is a group of countries and dependencies in the Americas where Romance languages are predominant. It is therefore broader than the terms Ibero-America or Hispanic America—though it usually excludes French Canada and it has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km2, almost 13% of the Earths land surface area. As of 2015, its population was estimated at more than 626 million and in 2014, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of 5,573,397 million USD and a GDP PPP of 7,531,585 million USD. The term Latin America was first used in 1861 in La revue des races Latines, a further investigation of the concept of Latin America is by Michel Gobat in the American Historical Review. The term was first used in Paris in an 1856 conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao and this term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement. Latin America is, therefore, defined as all parts of the Americas that were once part of the Spanish. By this definition, Latin America is coterminous with Ibero-America and this definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects. As such, some sources avoid this oversimplification by using the phrase Latin America, the distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance-language and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and it may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Hispanic America, Portuguese America and French America. *, Not a sovereign state The concept of Latin America has been criticized by a number of intellectuals, the earliest known settlement was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in Southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the continents, by the first millennium CE, South Americas vast rainforests, mountains, plains and coasts were the home of tens of millions of people. Some groups formed more permanent settlements such as the Chibcha and the Tairona groups and these groups are in the circum Caribbean region. The Chibchas of Colombia, the Quechuas and Aymaras of Bolivia, the region was home to many indigenous peoples and advanced civilizations, including the Aztecs, Toltecs, Maya, and Inca. The Aztec empire was ultimately the most powerful civilization known throughout the Americas, with the arrival of the Europeans following Christopher Columbus voyages, the indigenous elites, such as the Incas and Aztecs, lost power to the heavy European invasion. Hernándo Cortés seized the Aztec elites power with the help of local groups who had favored the Aztec elite, epidemics of diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox and measles, wiped out a large portion of the indigenous population. Historians cannot determine the number of natives who died due to European diseases, due to the lack of written records, specific numbers are hard to verify. Many of the survivors were forced to work in European plantations, intermixing between the indigenous peoples and the European colonists was very common, and, by the end of the colonial period, people of mixed ancestry formed majorities in several colonies
4.
Hispanic
–
The term Hispanic broadly refers to the people, nations, and cultures that have a historical link to Spain. It commonly applies to countries once colonized by the Spanish Empire in the Americas and Asia, particularly the countries of Latin America and the Philippines. It could be argued that the term should apply to all Spanish-speaking cultures or countries and it is difficult to label a nation or culture with one term, such as Hispanic, as the ethnicities, customs, traditions, and art forms vary greatly by country and region. The Spanish language and Spanish culture are the main traditions, the term Hispanic derives from Latin Hispanicus, the adjectival derivation of Latin Hispania and Hispanus/Hispanos, ultimately probably of Celtiberian origin. In English the word is attested from the 16th century, the words Spain, Spanish, and Spaniard are of the same etymology as Hispanus, ultimately. Hispanus was the Latin name given to a person from Hispania during Roman rule, in English, the term Hispano-Roman is sometimes used. The Hispano-Romans were composed of people from different indigenous tribes. A number of men, such as Trajan, Hadrian. Hispano-Roman is used to refer to the culture and people of Hispania, Hispanic is used to refer to modern Spain, to the Spanish language, and to the Spanish-speaking nations of the world and particularly the Americas. Spanish is used to refer to the people, nationality, culture, language, Spaniard is used to refer to the people of Spain. Hispania was the Roman name for the territory of the Iberian Peninsula. Initially, this territory was divided into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, in 27 B. C, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Hispania Baetica and Hispania Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis. This division of Hispania explains the usage of the singular and plural forms used to refer to the peninsula and this revival of the old Roman concept in the Middle Ages appears to have originated in Provençal, and was first documented at the end of the 11th century. In the Council of Constance, the four kingdoms shared one vote, the word Lusitanian, relates to Lusitania or Portugal, also in reference to the Lusitanians, possibly one of the first Indo-European tribes to settle in Europe. From this tribes name had derived the name of the Roman province of Lusitania, the terms Spain and the Spains were not interchangeable. Spain was a territory, home to several kingdoms, with separate governments, laws, languages, religions, and customs. Spain was not an entity until much later, and when referring to the Middle Ages. The term The Spains referred specifically to a collective of juridico-political units, first the Christian kingdoms, although colloquially and literally the expression King of Spain or King of the Spains was already widespread, it did not refer to a unified nation-state
5.
Portuguese language
–
Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
6.
Office of Management and Budget
–
The Office of Management and Budget is the largest office within the Executive Office of the President of the United States. The current OMB Director is Mick Mulvaney, the OMB Director reports to the President, Vice President and the White House Chief of Staff. The Bureau of the Budget was moved to the Executive Office of the President in 1939 and was run by Harold D. Smith during the rapid expansion of spending during the Second World War. The Bureau was reorganized into the Office of Management and Budget in 1970 during the Nixon administration, the first OMB included Roy Ash, Paul ONeill, Fred Malek and Frank Zarb and two dozen others. OMB prepares the Presidents budget proposal to Congress and supervises the administration of the executive branch agencies, OMB evaluates the effectiveness of agency programs, policies, and procedures, assesses competing funding demands among agencies, and sets funding priorities. OMB ensures that agency reports, rules, testimony, and proposed legislation are consistent with the presidents budget, OMB also oversees and coordinates the administrations procurement, financial management, information, and regulatory policies. OMB manages other agencies financials, paperwork, and IT, the Office is made up mainly of career appointed staff who provide continuity across changes of party and persons in the White House. Approximately half of all OMB staff are assigned to these offices, program examiners can be assigned to monitor one or more federal agencies or may be deployed by a topical area, such as monitoring issues relating to U. S. Navy warships. These staff have dual responsibility for management and budgetary issues, as well as responsibility for giving expert advice on all aspects relating to their programs. Each year they review federal agency budget requests and help decide what resource requests will be sent to Congress as part of the presidents budget and they are often called upon to provide analysis information to any EOP staff member. Other offices are OMB-wide support offices which include the Office of General Counsel, the Office of Legislative Affairs, the Budget Review Division, the BRD performs government-wide budget coordination and is largely responsible for the technical aspects relating to the release of the presidents budget each February. The Legislative Reference Division has the important role of being the clearing house across the federal government for proposed legislation or testimony by federal officials. It distributes proposed legislation and testimony to all relevant federal reviewers and they are also responsible for writing an Enrolled Bill Memorandum to the president once a bill is presented by both bodies of Congress for the presidents signature. They also issue Statements of Administration Policy that let Congress know the White Houses official position on proposed legislation. S. com, August 22,2005
7.
Mexico
–
Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
8.
Dominican Republic
–
The Dominican Republic is a sovereign state occupying the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western one-third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, christopher Columbus landed on the Western part of Hispaniola, in what is now Haiti, on December 6,1492. The island became the first seat of the Spanish colonial rule in the New World, the Dominican people declared independence in November 1821 but were forcefully annexed by their more powerful neighbor Haiti in February 1822. After the 1844 victory in the Dominican War of Independence against Haitian rule the country again under Spanish colonial rule until the Dominican War of Restoration of 1865. The Dominican Republic experienced mostly internal strife until 1916, a civil war in 1965, the countrys last, was ended by another U. S. military occupation and was followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer, 1966–1978. Since then, the Dominican Republic has moved toward representative democracy and has been led by Leonel Fernández for most of the time since 1996. Danilo Medina, the Dominican Republics current president, succeeded Fernandez in 2012, the Dominican Republic has the ninth-largest economy in Latin America and is the largest economy in the Caribbean and Central American region. Though long known for agriculture and mining, the economy is now dominated by services. Over the last two decades, the Dominican Republic have been standing out as one of the economies in the Americas – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5. 4% between 1992 and 2014. GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7. 0%, respectively, in the first half of 2016 the Dominican economy grew 7. 4% continuing its trend of rapid economic growth. Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing and tourism, private consumption has been strong, as a result of low inflation, job creation, as well as high level of remittances. The Dominican Republic has a market, Bolsa de Valores de la Republica Dominicana. and advanced telecommunication system. Nevertheless, unemployment, government corruption, and inconsistent electric service remain major Dominican problems, the country also has marked income inequality. International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives, mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues. A large Dominican diaspora exists, mostly in the United States, contributes to development, the Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. The year-round golf courses are major attractions, the island has an average temperature of 26 °C and great climatic and biological diversity. The country is also the site of the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress built in all of the Americas, located in Santo Domingos Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site. Music and sport are of importance in the Dominican culture, with Merengue and Bachata as the national dance and music
9.
Puerto Rico
–
Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
10.
Cuba
–
Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
11.
Central America
–
Central America is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. Central America is bordered by Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the east, Central America consists of seven countries, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. The combined population of Central America is between 41,739,000 and 42,688,190, Central America is a part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, which extends from northern Guatemala through to central Panama. Due to the presence of several active faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently, these disasters have resulted in the loss of many lives. In the Pre-Columbian era, Central America was inhabited by the peoples of Mesoamerica to the north and west. Soon after Christopher Columbuss voyages to the Americas, the Spanish began to colonize the Americas, the seven states finally became independent autonomous states, beginning with Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala, followed by El Salvador, then Panama, and finally Belize. Middle America is usually thought to comprise Mexico to the north of the 7 states of Central America as well as Colombia, usually the whole of the Caribbean to the north-east and sometimes the Guyanas are also included. According to one source, the term Central America was used as a synonym for Middle America as recently as 1962, in Brazil, Central America comprises all countries between Mexico and Colombia, including those in the Caribbean. Mexico, in whole or in part, is included by British people. For the people living in the 5 countries formerly part of the Federal Republic of Central America there is a distinction between the Spanish language terms América Central and Centroamérica, in the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, following Christopher Columbuss voyages to the Americas, the Spanish sent many expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America for the Spanish Empire. Beginning with his arrival in Soconusco in 1523, Alvarados forces systematically conquered and subjugated most of the major Maya kingdoms, including the Kiche, Tzutujil, Pipil, and the Kaqchikel. By 1528, the conquest of Guatemala was nearly complete, with only the Petén Basin remaining outside the Spanish sphere of influence, the last independent Maya kingdoms – the Kowoj and the Itza people – were finally defeated in 1697, as part of the Spanish conquest of Petén. In 1538, Spain established the Real Audiencia of Panama, which had jurisdiction over all land from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Fonseca. This entity was dissolved in 1543, and most of the territory within Central America then fell under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real de Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican state of Chiapas, the president of the Audiencia, which had its seat in Antigua Guatemala, was the governor of the entire area
12.
South America
–
South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
13.
Guyana
–
Guyana, officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, is a sovereign state on the northern mainland of South America. It is, however, included in the Caribbean Region due to its cultural, historical. Guyana is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, Brazil to the south and southwest, Suriname to the east, with 215,000 square kilometres, Guyana is the fourth-smallest country on mainland South America after Uruguay, Suriname and French Guiana. The region known as the Guianas consists of the large landmass north of the Amazon River. Originally inhabited by indigenous groups, Guyana was settled by the Dutch before coming under British control in the late 18th century. It was governed as British Guiana, with mostly a plantation style economy until the 1950s and it gained independence in 1966, and officially became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970. The legacy of British rule is reflected in the political administration and diverse population, which includes Indian, African, Amerindian. Guyana is the only South American nation in which English is the official language, the majority of the population, however, speak Guyanese Creole, an English-based creole language, as a first language. In addition to being part of the Anglophone Caribbean, Guyana is one of the few Caribbean countries that is not an island in the West Indies, CARICOM, of which Guyana is a member, is headquartered in Guyanas capital and largest city, Georgetown. In 2008, the joined the Union of South American Nations as a founding member. The name Guyana is derived from Guiana, the name for the region that formerly included Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Guyana is derived from an Indigenous Amerindian language, there are nine indigenous tribes residing in Guyana, the Wai Wai, Macushi, Patamona, Lokono, Kalina, Wapishana, Pemon, Akawaio and Warao. Historically the Lokono and Kalina tribes dominated Guyana, although Christopher Columbus sighted Guyana during his third voyage, the Dutch were the first to establish colonies, Essequibo, Berbice, and Demerara. After the British assumed control in 1796, the Dutch formally ceded the area in 1814, in 1831 the three separate colonies became a single British colony known as British Guiana. Since its Independence in 1824 Venezuela has claimed the area of land to the west of the Essequibo River, in 1899 an international tribunal ruled the land belonged to Great Britain. Guyana achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 26 May 1966 and became a republic on 23 February 1970, the US State Department and the US Central Intelligence Agency, along with the British government, played a strong role in influencing political control in Guyana during this time. The American government supported Forbes Burnham during the years of independence because Cheddi Jagan was identified as a Marxist. In 1978, Guyana received international notice when 918 members of the American cult, Peoples Temple, however, most of the suicides were by Americans and not Guyanese
14.
French Guiana
–
French Guiana, officially called Guiana, is an overseas department and region of France, located on the north Atlantic coast of South America in the Guyanas. It borders Brazil to the east and south, and Suriname to the west. Its 83,534 km2 area has a low population density of only 3 inhabitants per km2, with half of its 244,118 inhabitants in 2013 living in the metropolitan area of Cayenne. By land area, it is the second largest region of France, both the region and the department have been ruled since December 2015 by a single assembly within the framework of a new territorial collectivity, the French Guiana Territorial Collectivity. This assembly, the French Guiana Assembly, has replaced the regional council and departmental council. The French Guiana Assembly is in charge of regional and departmental government, the area was originally inhabited by Native Americans. The first French establishment is recorded in 1503 but the French presence didnt really become durable until 1643, Guiana then became a slave colony and saw its population increase until the official abolition of slavery at the time of the French revolution. During World War II, the Guianan Félix Éboué was one of the first to stand behind General de Gaulle as early as June 18,1940, Guiana officially rallied Free France in 1943. It definitively abandoned its status as a colony and became again a French department in 1946, de Gaulle, who became president, decided to establish the Guiana Space Center in 1965. It is now operated by the CNES, Arianespace and the European Space Agency, several thousand Hmong refugees from Laos migrated to French Guiana in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Nowadays fully integrated in the French central state, Guiana is a part of the European Union, the region is the most prosperous territory in South America with the highest GDP per capita. A large part of Guianas economy derives from the presence of the Guiana Space Centre, as elsewhere in France, the official language is French, but each ethnic community has its own language, of which Guianan Creole is the most widely spoken. Guiana is derived from an Amerindian language and means land of many waters, French Guiana and the two larger countries to the north and west, Guyana and Suriname, are still often collectively referred to as the Guianas and constitute one large shield landmass. French Guiana was originally inhabited by people, Kalina, Arawak, Emerillon, Galibi, Palikur, Wayampi. The French attempted to create a colony there in the 18th century in conjunction with its settlement of some other Caribbean islands, in this penal colony, the convicts were sometimes used as butterfly catchers. During its existence, France transported approximately 56,000 prisoners to Devils Island, fewer than 10% survived their sentence. In addition, in the nineteenth century, France began requiring forced residencies by prisoners who survived their hard labor. A Portuguese-British naval squadron took French Guiana for the Portuguese Empire in 1809 and it was returned to France with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1814
15.
Suriname
–
Suriname, officially known as the Republic of Suriname, is a sovereign state on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, at just under 165,000 square kilometers, it is the smallest country in South America. Suriname has a population of approximately 566,000, most of live on the countrys north coast, in and around the capital and largest city. Long inhabited by cultures of indigenous tribes, Suriname was explored and contested by European powers before coming under Dutch rule in the late 17th century. In 1954, the country one of the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its indigenous peoples have been active in claiming land rights and working to preserve their traditional lands. Suriname is considered to be a culturally Caribbean country, and is a member of the Caribbean Community, while Dutch is the official language of government, business, media, and education, Sranan, an English-based creole language, is a widely used lingua franca. Suriname is the territory outside Europe where Dutch is spoken by a majority of the population. The people of Suriname are among the most diverse in the world, spanning a multitude of ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups. This area was occupied by cultures of indigenous peoples long before European contact, remnants of which can be found in petroglyph sites at Werehpai. The name Suriname may derive from a Taino indigenous people called Surinen, British settlers, who founded the first European colony at Marshalls Creek along the Suriname River, spelled the name as Surinam. When the territory was taken over by the Dutch, it part of a group of colonies known as Dutch Guiana. The official spelling of the countrys English name was changed from Surinam to Suriname in January 1978, a notable example is Surinames national airline, Surinam Airways. The older English name is reflected in the English pronunciation, /ˈsʊrᵻnæm/ or /ˈsʊrᵻnɑːm/, in Dutch, the official language of Suriname, the pronunciation is, with the main stress on the third syllable and a schwa terminal vowel. Indigenous settlement of Suriname dates back to 3,000 BC, the largest tribes were the Arawak, a nomadic coastal tribe that lived from hunting and fishing. They were the first inhabitants in the area, the Carib also settled in the area and conquered the Arawak by using their superior sailing ships. They settled in Galibi at the mouth of the Marowijne River, while the larger Arawak and Carib tribes lived along the coast and savanna, smaller groups of indigenous peoples lived in the inland rainforest, such as the Akurio, Trió, Warrau, and Wayana. Beginning in the 16th century, French, Spanish, and English explorers visited the area, a century later, Dutch and English settlers established plantation colonies along the many rivers in the fertile Guiana plains
16.
Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans, are Americans who are descendants of the peoples of Spain, Portugal, or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, other U. S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese-speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably, origin can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the persons parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race, as the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States, Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, the predominant origin of regional Hispanic populations varies widely in different locations across the country. Hispanic Americans are the second fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States after Asian Americans, hispanic/Latinos overall are the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites. Hispanics have lived within what is now the United States continuously since the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565, after Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, the terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity, people of this group may be of any race. Hispanic people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, according to the Smithsonian Institution, the term Latino includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish-language origin. In the United States, many Hispanics and Latinos are of both European and Native American ancestry, others are wholly or predominately of European ancestry, or wholly or predominantly of Amerindian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean, as well as regions of Latin America where African slavery was widespread. The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some, the U. S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions, one definition of Latino is a Latin male in the United States. This is the oldest and the definition used in the United States. This definition encompasses Spanish speakers from both Europe and the Americas, under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino. This definition is consistent with the 21st-century usage by the U. S. Census Bureau and OMB, a later definition of Latino is as a condensed form of the term Latino-Americano, the Spanish word for Latin-American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino, a Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America. An immigrant from Spain, however, would be classified as Hispanic, while the U. S. Census Bureaus definition of Hispanic is limited to Spain and Spanish-speaking Latin America, other government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term
17.
Pew Research Center
–
The Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan American fact tank, which is based in Washington, D. C. It provides information on issues, public opinion, and demographic trends shaping the United States. It also conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis, Pew Research Center does not take explicit policy positions, and is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts. In 1990 the Times Mirror Company founded the Times Mirror Center for the People & the Press as a project, tasked with conducting polls on politics. Andrew Kohut became its director in 1993, and The Pew Charitable Trusts became its sponsor in 1996. In 2004, the trust established the Pew Research Center in Washington, in 2013, Kohut stepped down as president and became founding director, and Alan Murray became the second president of the center. In October 2014, Michael Dimock, a 14-year veteran of the Pew Research Center, was named president, the Pew Research Center is a nonprofit, tax-exempt 501 organization and a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. Some projects are funded by the Evangelical Protestant John Templeton Foundation, the Centers research is divided into seven areas. Politics & Policy Journalism & Media Internet, Science & Tech Religion & Public Life Hispanic Trends Global Attitudes & Trends Social & Demographic Trends Official website The Pew Charitable Trusts
18.
AP Stylebook
–
It is a guide for grammar, punctuation and principles of reporting, including many definitions and rules for usage as well as styles for capitalization, abbreviation, spelling and numerals. The first publicly available edition of the book was published in 1953 and was updated biennially over the next 20 years, today the AP Stylebook is updated annually. On September 28,2009 the Associated Press released the first mobile edition of the Stylebook for the iPhone—the AP Stylebook app, in 2013, Associated Press publishers celebrated the books 60th anniversary. The first Basic Books edition was published in August 1977, modern editions are released in several formats, including trade paperback, flat-lying spiral-bound, an online subscription and an iOS mobile app. Writers in broadcasting, magazine publishing, marketing departments and public relations firms traditionally adopt and apply AP grammar, over the last 50 years, the AP Stylebook has become a leading style for non-journalistic publishers such as corporate marketing and public relations departments. Its simplified grammar, such as dropping the Oxford comma and using figures for all numbers above nine, saves scarce print, for instance, it includes explanations of five different chapters of bankruptcy. Sports Guidelines and Style Includes terminology, statistics, organization rules and guidelines commonly referenced by sports reporters, example, The correct way to spell and use basketball terminology e. g. half-court pass, field goal and goaltending. Guide to Punctuation A specific guide on how to use punctuation in journalistic materials, example, In a series use commas to separate items but no comma before a conjunction e. g. We bought eggs, milk and cheese at the store, Briefing on Media Law An overview of legal issues and ethical expectations for those working in the journalism industry. Example, The difference between slander and libel, slander is spoken, libel is written, to start with. Photo Captions The simple formula of what to include writing a photo outline. Editing Marks A key with editing symbols to assist the journalist with the proofreading process, example, When a word is circled it means that the word should be abbreviated, or that an abbreviation should be unabbreviated. Bibliography This provides second reference materials for information not included in the book, example, Use Websters New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, Wiley, Hoboken, N. J. as first reference after the AP Stylebook for spelling, style, usage and foreign geographic names. For many years the AP Stylebook was titled The Associated Press Stylebook, in 2000, the guide was renamed The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law. Some editions, such as the 2004 copy, used the shorter title The Associated Press Stylebook on their covers, the Associated Press organization was first created in 1846. Throughout much of its history, the AP maintained a book for member reporters. By the early 1950s the publication was formalized into the AP Stylebook, due to growing demand by both journalistic and non-journalistic editors, the AP published their style book for the general public in 1953. In 1977, prompted by AP Executive News Editor Louis Boccardis request for more of a reference work and that years book was produced jointly with competitor United Press International
19.
Argentine Americans
–
Argentine Americans are Americans whose full or partial origin is in Argentina. Prior to the 1970s, the Argentines that emigrated to the United States were classified in the category of Other Hispanics, therefore, early Argentines who settled in the United States arrived primarily in the 1960s, looking for greater economic possibilities. The majority of them held academic degrees, and many were medical doctors, however, immigrants in the late 1970s arrived fleeing the political persecution of the Dirty War. This new immigrant group had a level lower than earlier immigrants. The majority of Argentine immigrants are directed to areas, especially New York City. In the 1980s, that increased to just over 23 percent. Immigration to New York City was popular because of the existing Argentine and Italian communities, the 1990 U. S. Census recorded 92,563 Argentines, evidencing that nearly half of the Argentine immigrants arrived in the last two decades alone. After the nineties, Southern California and Florida became leading destinations for new immigrants from Argentina, the profile of the Argentine American population is generally similar to the overall U. S. populations. Among the key differences, however, is educational attainment, Argentine Americans exhibit a rate of 39. 5% of holders of bachelors, graduate, or professional degrees, contrasted with the 27. 5% of the overall U. S. population. The difference is marked among women,40. 2% for Argentine American females. Another major difference is that 69. 1% of Argentine Americans are immigrants, Argentine Americans had a median household income of $55,044. Again, this is higher than the figure, which was $50,740. The most noticeable Argentine American populations are in the areas of Florida, Texas, California, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut. Minority have Amerindian ancestors, Chinese ancestors, Indian/Indo-Caribbean ancestors, only data for immigrant Argentine Americans are available
20.
Bolivian Americans
–
A Bolivian American is an American of Bolivian descent. Bolivian Americans are identified as Indigenous, European, Afro Bolivian, additionally, there are Bolivian Americans of Japanese descent, albeit, in small numbers. Bolivians compose the third smallest Hispanic group in the United States, the highest concentration resides in the Washington Metropolitan Area, which accounts for 38% of the total Bolivian population in the US. Additional areas of concentration include the New York City borough of Queens, Miami-Dade County, Bolivian immigration into the United States occurred in two significant phases. The first phase occurred during and subsequent to the 1952 National Revolution, most of these immigrants consisted of middle- to upper-middle income occupational professionals or political dissidents, and identify with Bolivias White or Criollo society. The second notable phase of Bolivian immigration was a result of Bolivias fiscal policies in the 1970s which gave way to the hyperinflation throughout most of the 1980s, most of these immigrants consisted of lower-income Mestizo and Indigenous Bolivians obtaining work posts as service and manual laborers. Many Bolivians who emigrated to the United States came as tourists, however, many remained indefinitely in the country, setting with family and friends. This made it difficult to know the number of Bolivians living in the United States, between 1984 and 1993, only 4,574 Bolivians got U. S. citizenship. In this period about 457 were naturalized each year, Bolivians have settled throughout the United States, mainly in Washington D. C. Maryland, and Virginia, there are large groups of Bolivian immigrants in Texas, New York City, New Jersey, South Florida, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Chicago. The number of Bolivians in the U. S. in 2006 was estimated at 82,322, slater - singer/songwriter Alberto Torrico - member of the California Unemployment Insurance Appeals Board. Kori Udovički, politician Raquel Welch, actress, author Marcelo Claure, CEO of Sprint Wireless, and Brightstar Corporation Jacob Thalacker - local celebrity, public interest
21.
Brazilian Americans
–
Brazilian Americans are Americans who are of full or partial Brazilian ancestry. There were an estimated 371,529 Brazilian Americans as of 2012, other U. S. Previously, Brazilians were not identified separately from other South Americans. Of approximately 234,761 South American emigres arrived in the United States between 1820 and 1960, at least some of them were Brazilian, the 1960 United States Census report recorded 27,885 Americans of Brazilian ancestry. From 1960 until the mid-1980s, between 1,500 and 2,300 Brazilian immigrants arrived in the United States each year, during the mid-1980s, economic crisis struck Brazil. As a result, between 1986 and 1990 approximately 1.4 million Brazilians emigrated to parts of the world. It was not until this time that Brazilian emigration reached significant levels, thus, between 1987 and 1991, an estimated 20,800 Brazilians arrived in the United States. A significant number of them,8,133 Brazilians, arrived in 1991, the 1990 U. S. Census Bureau recorded that there are about 60,000 Brazilians living in the United States. C. Los Angeles, Miami, Houston, and Phoenix. The 2000 U. S. Census showed that 34.5 percent of Brazilians had completed four or more years of college, second-and third-generation Brazilian Americans tend to have better jobs, they have been educated in the United States, speak English, and have citizenship. Naza is a Brazilian American Visual Artist, people who profess Spiritism make up 1. 3% of the countrys population, and those professing Afro-Brazilian religions make up 0. 3% of the countrys population. Brazilians began immigrating to the United States in large and increasing numbers in the 1980s as a result of worsening conditions in Brazil at that time. However, many of the Brazilians who have emigrated to the United States since this decade have been undocumented, more women have immigrated to the United States from Brazil than men, with the 1990 and 2000 U. S. Censuses showing there to be ten percent more female than male Brazilian Americans, the top three metropolitan areas by Brazilian population are New York City, Boston, and Miami. New York City is a point of entry for Brazilians entering the United States. West 46th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues in Manhattan has been designated Little Brazil has historically been a center for Brazilians living in or visiting New York City. Another NYC neighborhood home to many Brazilian Americans is located in Astoria, newark, New Jersey is also home to many Brazilian and Portuguese-Americans, most prominently in the citys Ironbound district. Massachusetts, particularly the Boston metropolitan area, has a sizable Brazilian immigrant population, framingham has the highest percentage of Brazilians of any municipality in Massachusetts. Large populations also exist in Somerville, Everett, Barnstable, Lowell, South Floridas large Brazilian community is mostly centered between around the islands and northeastern section of Miami-Dade County with the exception of Doral
22.
Chilean Americans
–
Chilean Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from Chile. The Chilean population at the 2010 US Census was 126,810, in the United States, Chileans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group from South America and the fifth smallest overall amongst all Hispanic groups. Most Chileans migrating to the United States settle in metropolitan areas, in recent history, it is for economic or academic rather than political reasons that Chileans emigrate. Chileans and other South Americans have been present in the state of California since the 1850s gold rush, not all Chileans made it to the gold fields. Some remained in San Francisco, San Jose, Sacramento, and Stockton where they worked as bricklayers, bakers. Some with capital established themselves in various businesses, particularly the importation of flour, in the cities most tended to congregate and live in specific areas in the poorer sections of town. In the gold fields they lived in camp sites. In the summer of 1849 Chileans constituted the majority of the population of Sonora, Chileans frequently worked their mines as group efforts. When the placer gold ran out around Sonora the Chileans were amongst the first miners in California to extract gold from quartz, names of Chilean towns and places are often found in the names of streets in Northern California, Valparaiso, Santiago, and Calera. Many of San Franciscos streets carry names of residents of Chile, Atherton, Ellis, Lick, Larkin. Chilean women also left their names, Mina and Clementina, manuel Briseño, an early journalist in the mines was one of the founders of the San Diego Union. Juan Evangelista Reyes was a Sacramento pioneer as were the Luco brothers, luis Felipe Ramírez was one of the City Fathers in Marysville. The Leiva family owned at one time, much of the land in Marin County, in 1975, Chilean exiles of the Agusto Pinochet dictatorship established La Peña Cultural Center in Berkeley, California, which is to this day the largest Chilean cultural center in the United States. Chileans integrated quickly and like their Little Chiles, becoming part of the mainstream of the United States, Chilean Americans have achieved many skills as entrepreneurs, judges, congressmen, and others. Most Chilean immigration to the U. S. has occurred largely since the 1990s, for the most part, Chileans left as either political asylees and refugees during the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, or for economic reasons. Also, there have been others that have emigrated to seek higher education, since the 2010 Chile earthquake, many Chileans have pursued economic opportunities in the United States, with Paterson, New Jersey, representing an increasingly common destination. Many of the Pinochet-era immigrants were of middle or upper class origin, a significant proportion of them arrived with advanced educations and well-developed skills. They had contacts with other Chilean exiles and a sense of identity from their commitment to a democratic Chile
23.
Colombian Americans
–
Colombian Americans are Americans who trace their full or partial nationality or heritage to Colombia. They are the largest South American ethnic group in the United States, the first Colombians immigrants who settled in the United States likely arrived in the 1800s. However, the Colombian presence in United States would not be known with certainty since the census did not specify the country of origin for South Americans until 1960. These immigrants did not maintain any relation with their countries, just until a few generations after. Most immigrants settled in Jackson Heights, a neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City. The growth of the Colombian American population was slow until 1940, most Colombians who arrived after the mid-1960s wanted to stay in the United States temporarily. Therefore, the number of Colombian illegal immigrants increased, from 250,000 to 350,000 people in the mid 1970s, despite a succession of immigration laws, the Colombian population in the United States continued to grow. New York remained the most popular destination, smaller communities formed in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Houston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D. C. and in the 1970s, North Side, Chicago. Since the 1980s, many Colombians have settled in Miami, initially they settled in Little Havana, the largest Cuban neighborhood, many of them engaged in the business of trade between Miami and Latin America. The area also attracted wealthy Colombians, who settled there to get medical care, send their children to school, and escape from social, economic, by 1987, Colombian Americans were one of the fastest growing Hispanic groups in Miami. By the early 1990s, many Colombian Americans left the metropolitan centers for the due to crime. This trend was started for the first time in the coastal towns of Connecticut. Despite the migration to areas, the largest communities remained in New York City, Miami. In 1990 and 1991,43,891 Colombians were admitted to the United States and they were for the first time the most populous group of illegal immigrants in the US from South America. Between 1992 and 1997, the intensity of the conflict in Colombia increased, so nearly 75,000 Colombians immigrated to the United States in this period, many of them going to California. After of World War I, many Colombians immigrated to United States in order to complete their education there, most of them settled in New York. After the civil war in 1948 and increased poverty in Colombia many Colombians also emigrated to United States during the 1950s, in the 1960s, the economic crisis prompted the emigration of many Colombians to the United States, obtaining U. S. citizenship Between 1960 and 1977. Since the 1980s, many Colombians American fled their cities to migrate to suburban areas in states like New Jersey and Connecticut
24.
Costa Rican Americans
–
Costa Rican Americans are Americans of Costa Rican descent. The Costa Rican population at the 2010 Census was 126,418, Costa Ricans are the fourth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the smallest Central American population. Costa Rican populations are prominent in the New York Metropolitan Area, additional areas with significant Costa Rican residents include New York City, Suffolk County, New York, and Fairfield County, Connecticut. There are also groups of Costa Ricans in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, South Florida metropolitan area. There have never been waves of migration from Costa Rica to the United States, the Immigration and Naturalization Service records indicate that very few Costa Ricans have actually tried to enter the country illegally. This is because, unlike other Hispanic groups, they have not been forced to emigrate to the U. S. for political oppression or extreme economic circumstances. Most Costa Ricans living in the United States have settled in the U. S. for any of the reasons, they have married American citizens. Since 1931 only 57,661 Costa Ricans have immigrated to the United States, hence, the number of Costa Rican emigrants has been increasing very slowly. This is a different from the pattern of emigration from most other Central American countries. The other two countries in this region that have a slow rate of emigration are Belize and Panama. Costa Ricans tend to blend in the English-speaking population or form working and friendly relationships with other Hispanics. If both parents speak Spanish, chances are that the children will be raised bilingually, however, if only one parent speaks Spanish, the children usually grow up speaking only English. Therefore, they usually acculturate and assimilate rapidly, most of Costa Ricans who live in the US live in California, Florida, Texas, and the New York City / New Jersey area. There is a significant Costa Rican American population in the Chicago, Illinois, the geographical preferences of Costa Ricans become evident in the statistics from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, as consistent with the findings of the 1990 census. Jardines - intelligence officer Rosa Mendes - professional wrestler Candice Michelle - professional wrestler, model, actress Alexander Salazar - prelate Harry Shum, Jr. com
25.
Cuban Americans
–
Cuban Americans are Americans who trace their ancestry to Cuba. Cuban Americans are the third largest Latino group in the United States, many communities throughout the United States have significant Cuban American populations. Florida has the highest concentration of Cuban Americans in the US, standing out in part because of its proximity to Cuba, followed by California, New Jersey, New York and Texas. South Florida is followed by New York City, Tampa, Union County and North Hudson, New Jersey areas, particularly Union City, Elizabeth, with a population of 141,250, the New York metropolitan areas Cuban community is the largest outside of Florida. Nearly 70% of all Cuban Americans live in Florida, thousands of Cuban settlers also immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1802 and Texas during the period of Spanish rule. Since 1820, the Cuban presence was more than 1,000 people. In 1870 the number of Cuban immigrants increased to almost 12,000, of which about 4,500 resided in New York City, about 3,000 in New Orleans, and 2,000 in Key West. The year 1869 marked the beginning of one of the most significant periods of emigration from Cuba to the United States, the exodus of hundreds of workers and businessmen was linked to the manufacture of tobacco. It was an exodus of skilled workers, precisely the class in the island that had succeeded in establishing a free labor sector amid a slave economy. The manufacture of snuff by the Cuban labor force, became the most important source of income for Key West between 1869 and 1900. Tampa was added to such efforts, with a migration of Cubans. However, the half of the 1890s marked the decline of the Cuban immigrant population. The War accentuated Cuban immigrant integration into American society, whose numbers were significant, in the mid- to late 19th century, several cigar manufacturers moved their operations to Key West to get away from growing disruptions as Cubans sought independence from Spanish colonial rule. The Cuban government had established a grammar school in Key West to help preserve Cuban culture. There, children learned folk songs and patriotic hymns such as La Bayamesa, in 1885, Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his cigar operations from Key West to the town of Tampa, Florida to escape labor strife. Ybor City was designed as a company town, and it quickly attracted thousands of Cuban workers from Key West. West Tampa, another new cigar manufacturing community, was founded nearby in 1892, both Ybor City and West Tampa were instrumental in Cubas eventual independence. After the Spanish–American War, some Cubans returned to their native land, several other small waves of Cuban emigration to the U. S. occurred in the early 20th century
26.
Dominican Americans
–
Dominican Americans are Americans who have full or partial origin from the Dominican Republic. Although their emigration began in the century, thousands of Dominicans passed through the gates of Ellis Island in the 19th. The most recent movement of emigration to the United States began in the 1960s, in 2010, there were approximately 1.41 million people of Dominican descent in the US, including both native and foreign-born. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic group in the United States, the first recorded person of Dominican descent to migrate into what is now known as the United States, outside of New Spain, was sailor-turned-merchant Juan Rodriguez. He arrived on Manhattan in 1613 from his home in Santo Domingo and he also became the first Dominican, the first Latino and the first person with European and African ancestry to settle in what is present day New York City. Dominican emigration to the United States continued throughout the centuries, recent research from the CUNY Dominican Studies Institute has identified some 5,000 Dominican immigrants who were processed through Ellis Island between 1892 and 1924. With increased emigration, Dominican diaspora communities have sprouted in New York metro area, New Jersey, Boston metro area, Providence, South Florida, Dominican emigrant communities have similar settlement patterns to that of the Puerto Rican population. Almost half of all the Dominican Americans today arrived since the 1990s, there has been another surge of immigration in recent years as immigration from Mexico has declined, which allowed more backlogged Dominican applicants to obtain legal residence. Dominican Americans are the fifth-largest Hispanic or Latino American group, after Mexican Americans, Stateside Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, as of 2010, the five largest concentrations of Dominican Americans are in New York, New Jersey, Florida, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. Rhode Island is the state where Dominicans are the largest Hispanic group. Dominicans are the most dominant Hispanic group in most of southeastern New England, Dominicans are also starting to be pretty dominant in many areas in North Jersey and the Lower Hudson Valley. The 2010 Census estimated the nationwide Dominican American population at 1,414,703, about 41% of Dominican Americans live in New York City alone. Many of New Yorks Dominicans live in the boroughs of the Bronx and Manhattan, there are also large populations in other parts of New York State, including Long Island and the Hudson Valley. S. There are smaller and growing Dominican populations in states like Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Ohio, Texas, however, in both cities, Dominicans make up only a plurality of the Hispanic population. Since 1980, the Census Bureau has asked US residents to classify their race separately from their Hispanic or Latino origin, in 2010,29. 6% of Dominican Americans responded that they were white, while 12. 9% considered themselves black. A majority of 57. 5% chose the category Other race, in New York City, Dominican entrepreneurs have carved out roles in several industries, especially the bodega and supermarket and taxi and black car industries. Over two dozen Dominican Americans are elected local or state legislators, mayors or other in New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Maryland, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. A1997 Dominican law, which took effect in 2004, allows Dominicans living abroad to retain their Dominican citizenship and voting rights even if they become citizens of another country
27.
Ecuadorian Americans
–
Ecuadorian Americans are Americans of full or partial Ecuadorian ancestry. Ecuadorian Americans can be Mestizo, White Spaniard, Afro-Ecuadorian, Indigenous, Mulato, some Ecuadorians are also of Lebanese, Sephardic and Japanese descent. Until the 1960s, very few Ecuadorians migrated to the United States, in the late 1960s, several waves of migration started. Most Ecuadorian immigration to the United States has occurred since the early 1970s and this emigration was because of several reasons, The first of them was that United States immigration law changed. Before 1965, national quotas on immigrants favored more European immigration than Latin American immigration, after 1965, changes in immigration law made it easier for Latin Americans and other foreign groups to emigrate to United States. In addition, the price of air travel lowered making immigration more accessible to Latin Americans and they were drawn to the U. S. for economic opportunities and political freedoms. Ecuadorian immigration peaked in the turmoil of 1996-97 and national banking crisis of 1998-99. Another factor in Ecuadorian emigration was the 1964 Ecuadorian land reform and this improved the lives of many Ecuadorian poor, but also had far-reaching and unpredictable consequences. Many new small landowners were forced to sell their land, many landowners abandoned their land and migrated to countries like Venezuela and the United States. Most immigrants who live in the United States send money home, many immigrants get American citizenship, others simply are legalized, while other groups live illegally, crossing the border from Mexico or entering by boat from Puerto Rico. Ecuadorian Americans come from every part of Ecuador, during the 1970s, most of the Ecuadorians came from the northern and central highlands, including the area around Quito. In the 1980s, many Ecuadorians came from the coast, in the 1990s, most of them came from the southern highlands, near the border with Peru. The majority of Ecuadorian immigrants emigrate into New York City and its surrounding suburbs, the 1990 census recorded that 60 percent of Ecuadorians living in the United States live in the New York City Metropolitan Area, while another 10% live in Miami. Queens Countys percentage of Ecuadorians is about 4. 7%, and it has the largest Ecuadorian community of any county in New York and in the United States, Ecuadorians are the largest South American Latino group in New York City as well as in the State of New York. Ecuadorians are the fourth largest Latino group in New York after Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, Ecuadorians also constitute Queens Countys largest Latino group. Another New York group of Ecuadorians live in the Bronx, in the Morris Heights, still other Ecuadorian neighborhoods are situated in Brooklyn, in New Jersey cities such as Newark and Jersey City, and in towns in Connecticut. S. State with the smallest Ecuadorian population was North Dakota with 55 Ecuadorians, first Licensed Latin American to import spirits into the United States. Zhumir Aguardiente from Ecuador was the first spirit product he imported to United States, violet Chachki - American drag queen, singer and actress born in Atlanta, Georgia
28.
Guatemalan Americans
–
Guatemalan Americans are Americans of full or partial Guatemalan descent. The Guatemalan American population at the 2010 Census was 1,044,209, Guatemalans are the fifth largest Latino group in the United States and the second largest Central American population after Salvadorans. Half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California, Guatemalans have emigrated to the USA since the 1930s and 1940s. Along with other Central Americans they first arrived by way of Mexico and settled in areas like Chicago, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Houston, New York City. Guatemalan refugees became an important political and economic influence on seeking an end to the civil war, during the Guatemalan civil war, there was massive destruction of rural villages and farmlands. In the 1996 peace accords, there was an exchange of civilian land to favor the rise of corporate agribusinesses with the drop of prices of local agricultural products. This heavily affected farm workers and inhabitants of the countryside and they had to immigrate into the US through Mexican territory, Guatemalan Americans are a very culturally diverse group of people, included about 23 distinct ethnic groups, whose languages are different, although maintain unique cultural traditions. The groups are, in majority, Mayan, the Ladino are a different group that speak Spanish language and have the Spanish culture. So, Guatemalan Americans are a multicultural community and this reason is why the assimilation processes, traditional beliefs, and customs vary differently between groups. Immigrant Mayan American communities have preserved their ethnic customs, the Guatemalans of European descent often mixed with other U. S. Hispanic groups. However, it is unknown the transmission of cultural traditions Guatemalans of immigrants to their descendants by lack of studies, some Guatemalan traditions are the celebration of Quinceñeros, the formation of soccer leagues, and the Organization de las Fiestas de la Patronal. The difference with Guatemalans in the US from other Latinos is that a percentage of Guatemalans are Evangelical Protestants. Guatemala had seen a rise of Protestant and Evangelist churches in the late 20th century, according to the national census in 2006, Protestants constituted about 30% of the population in Guatemala, the majority are from rural indigenous communities. Guatemalan-Americans are a contributor to the rise of Hispanic Protestants in the USA during the 2000s, half of the Guatemalan population is situated in two parts of the country, the Northeast and Southern California. A combined population of 267,335 resides in Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, the Northeast megalopolis, extending from Northern Virginia to north of Boston is home to a population of 257,729 Guatemalans. Luis Beza – American trumpet player for third-wave ska band Suburban Legends, David Campos – Guatemalan-American attorney and member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors representing District 9. David Estrada – He is of Guatemalan descent, Francisco Goldman – American novelist, journalist, and Allen K. Smith Professor of Literature and Creative Writing. He is son of a Guatemalan Catholic mother and Jewish-American father, oscar Isaac – Guatemalan born American raised actor and singer
29.
Honduran Americans
–
Honduran Americans are Americans of Honduran descent. Honduran Americans are a group of people who may descend from Spanish, Honduran Native, Garifuna, African, Palestinian and Chinese people, the Honduran population at the 2015 Census was 837,694. Hondurans are the eighth largest Hispanic group in the United States, all periods of conflict have led to minor waves of Honduran emigration to the United States. This was the case after the 1956 military coup, Hondurans immigrated to the United States in the 1960s, primarily to Miami, New York City, and Los Angeles. The main reason for Hondurans to leave their country was to escape poverty, many Honduran-Americans are migrant farm laborers who first established themselves in the largest U. S. cities, in which they had support networks from the Honduran-American communities. In the late 1980s and 1990s, most Honduran Americans lived in New York City, Los Angeles, in 2000, Hondurans grew to be the third largest immigrant from Central America. Honduran-Americans have actively participated in U. S. military service, a total of 13.7 percent of native Honduran-American males older than 16 years are in the military. In addition,769 Honduran-American non-citizen males serve in the military, usually, Honduran-Americans live in areas with high economic growth and demand for employment in construction, domestic services, and other industries. Many Honduran-Americans suffer discrimination, as other Hispanic groups do, Honduran-American girls tend to spend more years in school than Honduran-Americans boys, in part due to pressure by their families on boys to start working at age 12 or 14. A total of 1,091 Honduran-Americans have a degree,862 have other professional degrees. The majority of individuals are women. According to the 2010 United States Census there are 633,401 Hondurans living in the United States, by 2011, the number of Hondurans estimated to reside in the United States by the Census Bureaus American Community Survey was 702,000. In 2014, according to Pew Research, 60% of 573,000 Honduran immigrants in the U. S. are unauthorized and he was a Republican candidate for the United States Senate in 2004. Steve Van Buren - NFL Hall of Fame Running Back Bianca Del Rio - actor, comedian, costume designer, brandon Escobar - wrestler Roger Espinoza - footballer who currently plays for Sporting Kansas City in Major League Soccer. Miguel Estrada - an attorney who became embroiled in controversy following his 2001 nomination by President George W. Bush to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. He was the first Latino to be nominated to a position in the judicial branch. America Ferrera - film actress Michelle Fields - political journalist, Huffington Post contributor Henry Flores - professional American photographer who addresses modern pop culture and his background is Engineering and Information Technology. Brina Palencia - American voice actress, ADR director, and singer known for her work for Funimation Entertainment/OkraTron 5000
30.
Mexican Americans
–
Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. As of July 2015, Mexican Americans made up 11. 1% of the United States population, as of July 2015, Mexican Americans comprised 63. 4% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, second only to Mexico itself, canada is a distant third, with a small Mexican Canadian population of 96,055 as of 2011. Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California, in 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016,1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. Mexican-American history spans more than 400 years and varies from region to region within the United States, in 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas. Most were Mexican Americans of Spanish descent and other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Indians. Approximately ten percent of the current Mexican-American population are descended from the colonial settlers. As early as 1813, some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico, in those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole and this was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatán, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc. As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as Antonio Menchaca, Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, English-speaking settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the part of the territory. The Mexican government became concerned about the volume of Anglo-American immigration. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state and his story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he, after receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican–American War. As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an population of colonial settlers. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory, in California, Spanish settlement began in 1769 with the establishment of the Presidio and Catholic mission of San Diego. 20 more missions were established along the California coast by 1823, along with military Presidios, settlers in California tended to stay close to the coast and outside of the California interior
31.
Nicaraguan Americans
–
A Nicaraguan American is an American of Nicaraguan descent. The Nicaraguan American population at the 2010 Census was 348,202, Nicaraguans are the eleventh largest Hispanic group in the United States and the fourth largest Central American population. More than two-thirds of the Nicaraguan population in the US resides in California or Florida, in California, Nicaraguans are more dominant in the Greater Los Angeles Area and San Francisco Bay Area. Large populations also reside in the Inland Empire and the cities of Sacramento, San Diego, in Florida, 90% of Nicaraguans reside in the Miami Metropolitan Area. Miami-Dade County is home to 30% of Nicaraguans residing in the US, Nicaraguans have immigrated to the United States in small groups since the early 1900s, but their presence was especially felt over the last three decades of the 20th century. The Nicaraguan community is concentrated in three major urban areas, Metropolitan Miami, Greater Los Angeles, and San Francisco Bay Area. A more affluent group of Nicaraguan Americans reside in the New York metropolitan area, the earliest documents of immigration from Nicaragua to the United States was combined in total with those of other Central American countries. However, according to the U. S. Census Bureau some 7,500 Nicaraguans legally immigrated from 1967 to 1976, an estimated 28,620 Nicaraguans were living in the U. S. in 1970, 90% of which self-reported as white on the 1970 census. Most Nicaraguan immigrants during the late 1960s were women, there were only 60 male Nicaraguan immigrants for every 100 female immigrants during this period, over 62 percent of the total documented immigration from 1979 to 1988 occurred after 1984. In 1998 more than two million Nicaraguans were left due to hurricane Mitch, as a result many Nicaraguans received permanent residence or temporary protected status in the late 1990s. According to the 1990 U. S. Census 168,659 of the total 202,658 documented Nicaraguans in the U. S. were born in Nicaragua, in 1992 approximately 10–12% of the Nicaraguan population had emigrated. These emigrants tended to be disproportionately of working age, better educated, in addition, emigrants were more likely to come from larger premigration households and higher income households. The Sandinista revolution that started in the mid-1970s and the Contra war that brought the first large waves of Nicaraguan refugees into the U. S. As a result of the reforms under the FSLNs rule. They consisted mainly of large landholders, industrialists, and managers of North American enterprises, many Nicaraguan upper-class exiles had economic roots in the United States and in Miami before the upheaval. This phase of upper-class arrivals included exiled dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle and his family, another major wave of Nicaraguans to the United States, consisting primarily of bluecollar workers, peaked in the dramatic exodus of early 1989. Again, their motivation for migration was escape from political and economic torment in their homeland. By the late 1980s, the war, Hurricane Joan in 1988, many of these Nicaraguan immigrants settled in poor and deteriorated sections of Miami, where struggling Cubans who came during the Mariel boatlift exodus of 1980 had previously lived
32.
Panamanian Americans
–
A Panamanian American are Americans of Panamanian descent. The Panamanian population at the 2010 Census was 165,456, Panamanians are the sixth smallest Hispanic group in the United States and the second smallest Central American population. The largest population of Panamanians reside in Brooklyn and South Florida, since 1820, more than one million immigrants from Central and South America migrated to the United States. Until 1960, the U. S. Census Bureau did not produce statistics that separated the Panamanian immigrants, the Panamanian Americans increased slowly in the United States. Since the 1830s, only 44 arrivals were recorded in this country, after World War II the flow of immigrants from Panama remained small even though there were no immigration restrictions on the people from the Western Hemisphere. However, the Panamanian immigration increased dramatically after the 1965 Immigration Act and its increase immigration was such that by 1970, Panamanians were able to be one of the largest of the Central American groups in the United States. Most Panamanians that came were nonwhites and most were women, the number of immigrant males per 100 females was very low in the 1960s, falling to 51 for Panama. Many of the immigrants worked of in service, domestic, or low-paid, white-collar workers who immigrated to earn money to, in return. Since 1962 the percentage of employed newcomers who are domestic servants has remained high, the entry of homemakers and children after 1968 was eased by the immigration preference system favoring family reunions. They had already approximated 86,000 people of Panamanian ancestry living in the United States, although many of the first Panamanian immigrants managed to get or to hold jobs, the second generation of Panamanian Americans placed more emphasis on vocational training and college education. Most newcomers are domestic, very few are agricultural or industrial laborers, in the last two decades many Panamanians have embraced professional careers, and become white collar workers. Subsequent generations have progressed further in their educational and professional pursuits. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Panamanians congregated mainly in urban areas, most Panamanian immigrants are set in New England, or on the Gulf Coast, or Pacific Coast, or in middle Atlantic or Great Lakes areas. While, New York City contains the largest urban population of Panamanians, also there an important number of Panamanians settled in Florida and California. In contrast to other Hispanic nationalities, Panamanians are heavily concentrated in Army base cities, cities home to Navy and Air Force bases also lay claim to a concentration of Panamanians. These include San Antonio, Hampton Roads, Jacksonville, San Diego, more than other Hispanic groups, a significant percentage of Panamanian Americans are black, with the remaining being of mixed race. Although most Panamanian Americans speak Spanish, the group tends to identify more with English speaking West Indian groups rather than with other Hispanic groups. As a result, Panamanians are one of the least visible Hispanic nationalities in the US
33.
Paraguayan Americans
–
A Paraguayan American are Americans of Paraguayan descent. The Paraguayan population at the 2010 Census was 20,023, Paraguayans are the smallest Hispanic group in the United States. The Paraguayan population is concentrated mainly in Queens, NY, Westchester County, NY, additional areas of concentration include Miami-Dade County and Montgomery County, MD. The highest concentration of Paraguayans in the US reside in Somerset County and it is estimated that the first Paraguayans arrived to the United States between the years of 1841 and 1850. At that time, Paraguayans were not coming directly to the United States from Paraguay, but through others countries such as Brazil, Argentina, the Paraguayan residents in the U. S. were included in the early records in the group of other South Americans. During those years,3,579 other immigrants arrived, in the 1960s, one-fourth of all Paraguayans were registered as living in countries outside Paraguay, with a majority in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. In 1979, close to 11,000 Paraguayans immigrated to the United States, in 1982,4000 Paraguayans immigrated to the United States. The reasons of migration were varied, but many immigrants were people that wanted educational opportunities to get professional knowledge, skills. Additionally, some of the immigrants arrived for political reasons or to escape civil riots, the women exceeded in number to the male immigrants slightly, and more than half of its immigrants lacked occupation. Many Paraguayan immigrants were also adopted by American families. More than a thousand Paraguayan infants were adopted in this country, of these,254 were adopted in 1989,405 in 1993 and 351 in 1995. Others have agricultural jobs in California and Kansas, the latter state has partnered with Paraguay in an exchange program through a non-profit volunteer organization called Partners of the Americas. Both Kansas and Paraguay are land-locked, grow cattle and wheat, also a small number of Paraguayan American professionals who immigrated in search of better job and pay. It should be noted that of the 80 Paraguayan Americans who became U. S. citizens in 1984, in fact, most of these immigrants arrived eight to ten years earlier. Between 1987 and 1996, naturalization figures for Paraguayans in the United States increased slightly, thus, in 1996,420 Paraguayans became American citizens. In 1990,5,144 Paraguayan Americans spoke Spanish or Guarani and they have grown within the Hispanic community in the United States. In accordance with the 1990 U. S, of the 5,415 Paraguayan Americans in the U. S. population,1,830 only are enrolled in school. The large populations of Paraguayan Americans are in New York City, Miami, Paraguayan Americans also have population importance in Dallas and Atlanta
34.
Peruvian Americans
–
Peruvian Americans are Americans of Peruvian descent. Among Peruvian Americans there are those of White, mestizo, Amerindian, and Afro-Peruvian descent, as well as others, including British, Italian, French, German, a significant number are of pure or mixed Chinese and/or Japanese heritage. Peruvians have emigrated mainly due to turmoil and economic hardships the country had faced during the 1980s. Peruvian Americans are a relatively recent ethnic group, as most of them have moved to the United States since 1990, according to the U. S. Census Bureau,594,418 U. S. residents identify themselves as being of Peruvian origin. Small but significant waves of immigration occurred in San Francisco during the gold rush, however, the majority of Peruvians that have emigrated to the United States have arrived since the 90s. Peruvians typically emigrate due to economic reasons, to escape poverty, significant demographics of Peruvians are found in Northern New Jersey, the New York City Metropolitan Area, Miami, the Washington, D. C. The most popular dishes of Peruvian food in the U. S. include cebiche, papa a la huancaina, Peruvian cuisine is often recognized for being one of the most diverse and appreciated of the worlds cuisines, with influences including European, Native American, and African. Since there is a sizable Chinese and Japanese minority in Peru, there are Chifas, or Asian style Peruvian restaurants that serve typical Chinese or Japanese food with a Peruvian culinary influence. Inca Kola, a soda that originated in Peru, is sold in many heavily concentrated Latino areas, the Peruvian American Coalition in Passaic, New Jersey functions as an activist organization on behalf of the overall welfare of Peruvian Americans. The annual Peruvian Independence Day Parade is held in Paterson. S, state with the smallest Peruvian population was North Dakota with 78 Peruvians. Her mother is Puerto Rican, and her father is from Peru and he is a Peruvian born, but American raised. S. Soccer forward Lorenzo OBrien - writer-producer Carlos Bustamante biologist Julio C, canani - Peruvian trainer in American Thoroughbred horse racing who has won three Breeders Cup races. Kenny Florian - mixed martial artist Gabriela Lena Frank - American pianist and he is of Spanish and Peruvian descent. Santillan - Peruvian- American Actor and Currency Trader, also has many doubles in the DC metro area. Wenceslaus Sarmiento - also known as W. A. Sarmiento, carmen Giménez Smith - American poet, writer, and editor. Tony Succar - Peruvian born American musician, composer, arranger and producer, david Utrilla - The 31st member of the Utah Corps of Consuls Jose Valdivia, Jr. - jockey in American Thoroughbred horse racing. Carlos De Valdez - Peruvian film actor who appeared in around forty American films and he spend the last years of his life in United States. Boris Vallejo - Peruvian-born American painter, alberto Vargas - Peruvian painter of pin-up girls. peruanosenusa. net http, //www. peruvian-americans. tv http, //www. peruvianamericans. com http, //www. peruvianamerican. com http, //www. curito. com
35.
Puerto Ricans in the United States
–
Puerto Ricans, either born in the island or in the states, are American citizens. At 10 percent of the Latino population in the United States, Puerto Ricans are the second largest Latino group nationwide, and comprise 1. 5% of the entire population of the United States. Although the 2010 Census counted the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States at 4.6 million, more recent estimates show the Puerto Rican population to be over 5 million, as of 2012. The portmanteau Nuyorican refers to Puerto Ricans and their descendants in the New York City metropolitan area, important Puerto Rican institutions have emerged from this long history. ASPIRA was established in New York City in 1961 and is now one of the largest national Latino nonprofit organizations in the United States, the government of Puerto Rico has a long history of involvement with the stateside Puerto Rican community. In July 1930, Puerto Ricos Department of Labor established an employment service in New York City. The Migration Division, also part of Puerto Rico’s Department of Labor, was created in 1948, the strength of stateside Puerto Rican identity is fueled by a number of factors. Since 1898, Puerto Rico has been under the control of the United States, even during Spanish rule, Puerto Ricans settled in the US. However, it was not until the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898 that a significant influx of Puerto Rican workers to the US began, with its 1898 victory, the United States acquired Puerto Rico from Spain and has retained sovereignty since. The 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act made all Puerto Ricans US citizens, freeing them from immigration barriers, the massive migration of Puerto Ricans to the mainland United States was largest in the early and late 20th century, prior to its resurgence in the early 21st century. U. S. political and economic interventions in Puerto Rico created the conditions for emigration, by concentrating wealth in the hands of US corporations, policymakers promoted colonization plans and contract labour programs to reduce the population. US employers, often with government support, recruited Puerto Ricans as a source of labour to the United States. Puerto Ricans migrated in search of jobs, first to New York City, and later to other cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia. New York City neighborhoods such as East Harlem in Upper Manhattan, the South Bronx, between the 1950s and the 1980s, large numbers of Puerto Ricans migrated to New York, especially to Brooklyn, the Bronx, Spanish Harlem and Loisaida neighborhoods of Manhattan. Labor recruitment was the basis of this particular community, in 1960, the number of stateside Puerto Ricans living in New York City as a whole was 88%, with most living in East Harlem. They helped others settle, find work, and build communities by relying on social networks containing friends, there are significant Puerto Rican communities in all five boroughs. The Puerto Rican population in East Harlem and New York City as a whole remains the poorest among all migrant groups in US cities, as of 1973, about 46. 2% of the Puerto Rican migrants in East Harlem were living below the federal poverty line. The struggle for legal work and affordable housing remains fairly low, New York Citys Puerto Rican community contributed to the creation of hip hop music, and to many forms of Latin music including Boogaloo, Salsa, Latin House, and Freestyle
36.
Salvadoran Americans
–
Salvadoran Americans are Americans of full or partial Salvadoran descent. As of 2010, there are 1,648,968 Salvadoran Americans in the United States, recent estimates put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013. Salvadorans are the largest group of Central Americans of the Central American Isthmus community in the U. S, among the Hispanic groups, Salvadorans are also the largest group of Spanish speakers in the United States who use voseo. Salvadoran is the accepted and used term for naming people of Salvadoran ancestry, however both Salvadorian and Salvadorean are equally the most widely used terms in daily life by English speaking Salvadoran citizens living in the U. S and other English speaking countries. Salvadorian and Salvadorean in their spelling and pronunciation can be seen in most restaurant and other El Salvador related signs in the U. S. This is because the sounds ia and ea, in Salvadorian and Salvadorean sound more closely to the ñ sound in the Spanish term Salvadoreño. The first Salvadorians that came to the United States before the war began arrived mostly to San Francisco, where they worked as shipyard employees in the early twentieth century. These were mostly working class Salvadorans, as Salvadorans from the middle and upper classes came to the U. S. for education or residence in the early 1900s, usually in the East Coast. Salvadorans that came during this period were economic migrants, as El Salvador was affected by economic turmoil during the Great Depression. In the 1960s and early 1970s, most of the immigrants were women, documented Salvadorans in the United States 1930-1970 While Salvadoran migration to the U. S. Many Salvadoran refugees came to the city of Los Angeles, where today holds the largest population of Salvadorans in the country, a large population of Salvadorans also arrived in Washington D. C, where by 1989, an estimated 150,000 Salvadorans reside in the nation’s capital. It is important to note that many Salvadorans came undocumented and applied for asylum and/or work permits in order to legalize their situation. This massive migration to the U. S. was a result of the violence as much as it was the deteriorating economic conditions in El Salvador. Young men, escaping the country from being drafted to the military or the guerilla and they numbered over 1,000 individuals and many of them are temporary exiles, who planned to go back after the war ends. By the end of 1989, more than 250,000 Salvadorans migrated to the U. S. Unofficially, El Salvadors exiled population is already changing life at home through its influence and its dollars and will undoubtedly play an important role in its future history. Salvadoran American immigration has changed the face of foreign affairs in the United States, the flood of refugees from a U. S. -supported government forced a national rethinking of foreign policy priorities. This in turn transformed the nature of American support for the Salvadoran government, Salvadoran Americans are at the center of an ongoing national debate about U. S. responsibility toward the worlds refugees and the future of immigration in general. The exodus of Salvadorans was a result of economic and political problems
37.
Spanish Americans
–
Spanish Americans is a term with multiple meanings. The term can also extend to mean those who share a language and culture rooted in Spain, Spanish Americans are the longest-established European-American group with a continuous presence in Florida since 1565 and are the eighth-largest Hispanic group in the United States of America. Throughout the colonial times, there were a number of settlements of Spanish populations in the present–day United States of America with governments answerable to Madrid. The first settlement was at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, followed by others in New Mexico, California, Arizona, Texas, and Louisiana. In 1598, San Juan de los Caballeros was established, near present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico, by Juan de Oñate, Spanish immigrants also established settlements in San Diego, California, San Antonio, Texas and Tucson, Arizona. By the mid-1600s the Spanish in America numbered more than 400,000 and these Spanish settlers expanded European influence in the New World. The Canary Islanders settled in areas surrounding New Orleans in Louisiana from 1778 to 1783 and in San Antonio de Bejar, San Antonio, Texas. The earliest known Spanish settlements in the then northern Mexico were the result of the forces that later led the English to come to North America. Exploration had been fueled in part by imperial hopes for the discovery of wealthy civilizations, in addition, like those aboard the Mayflower, most Spaniards came to the New World seeking land to farm, or occasionally, as historians have recently established, freedom from religious persecution. A smaller percentage of new Spanish settlers were descendants of Spanish Jewish converts, basques stood out in the exploration of the Americas, both as soldiers and members of the crews that sailed for the Spanish. Prominent in the service and colonial administration, they were accustomed to overseas travel. The Spanish presence in the United States declined sharply between 1930 and 1940 from a total of 110,000 to 85,000, many immigrants moved either back to Spain or to another country. Beginning with the Fascist revolt against the Second Spanish Republic in 1936, at the time of the Fascist takeover, a small but prominent group of liberal intellectuals fled to the United States. After the civil war the country endured 20 years of autarky, as a result, in the mid-1960s,44,000 Spaniards immigrated to the United States. In the 1970s, when Franco abandoned Spains autarkic economic system, prosperity began to emerge in Spain, in the 1980s, as Europe enjoyed an economic boom, Spanish immigrants to the United States dropped to only 15,000. The 1990 U. S. census recorded 76,000 foreign-born Spaniards in the country, many of the Hispanic and Latino Americans bring their Spanish-speaking culture into the country. However, some Spanish Americans are descendants of settlers in the southwestern states, especially New Mexico. Spanish-Americans in the United States are found in large concentrations in five states from 1940 through the early twenty-first century
38.
Uruguayan Americans
–
Uruguayan Americans are Americans of Uruguayan ancestry or birth. The American Community Survey of 2006 estimated the Uruguayan American population to number 50,538, similar to neighboring country Argentina, Uruguay took in many immigrants from Europe beginning in the late 19th century and lasting until the mid 20th century. As it stands, approximately 93% of Uruguays population is of European descent with Italians, Spaniards, French, because of this, many Uruguayan Americans identify both with their nationality and their familys country of origin. The history of Uruguayan emigration to the United States is very recent, before 1960, the Uruguayan living conditions were favorable, with many job opportunities, good education and a good healthcare system. The few Uruguayans that left the country migrated to other Hispanic countries such as Argentina, for this reason the Uruguayan emigration to the United States was low during that period. Moreover, Uruguay was ruled by a military regime for approximately a decade since 1973. All this led to a major Uruguayan emigration, which included numbers of well-educated professionals. This migration, also, contributed to a security crisis, as the population aged. This grew the burden on the financial resources. Of the Uruguayan immigrants from 1963 to 1975,17.7 percent of them were aged 14 years or younger, while 68 percent of them were between the ages of 15 and 39, only 14.3 percent were over 40 years old. The continued unemployment problem of the late 1980s developed yet another impetus for the youth of Uruguay to seek employment, some of them went to the United States, but the majority of Uruguayan emigrants continued to migrate to Argentina. Most Uruguayans find it easy to adapt to life in cities in the United States. Uruguayans in general have an exposure that makes English not an obstacle for adaptation in American society. In addition, the value that is given to higher education has led many Uruguayan students to migrate to the United States to continue their University studies there. According to the 2010 census on the Uruguayan descent population in the U. S. there are about 56,884 people of that origin, the majority of Uruguayans that migrated to the United States arrived in the 1960s and 1970s. It is estimated that, between 1963 and 1975,180,000 Uruguayans left the country, later on, between 1973 and 1985, during the period of oppressive military control,150,000 Uruguayans left Uruguay. And, in 1989, only 16,000 of these citizens had returned to their native country, when these two figures are added together, the migration figure stands at approximately one-tenth of the population of Uruguay. Most Uruguayan immigrants established themselves in New York City, New Jersey, two other remarkable centers for Uruguayan American population are Washington, D. C. and Florida
39.
Venezuelan Americans
–
Venezuelan Americans are Americans who trace their heritage, or part of their heritage, to the nation of Venezuela. Venezuelan Americans are one of 20 Latin American groups in the United States and this includes influences from Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, Germans, and the French, along with influences from African and indigenous Amerindian elements. Venezuelan Spanish is the spoken form of the Spanish language. Until the 20th century, there was no record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the United States. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States, however, there are not many specific figures that indicate the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to this country. Many Venezuelans settled in the United States with hopes of receiving a better education and they are frequently joined by relatives. In recent years, more Venezuelans opposing the economic and political policies of president Hugo Chávez are migrating to the U. S, the largest concentration of Venezuelans in the United States is in South Florida, especially the suburbs of Doral and Weston. Other main states with Venezuelan American populations are, according to the 1990 census, New York, California, Texas, New Jersey, Massachusetts and Maryland. Some of the areas with a highly populated Venezuelan community include Miami, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles. State with the smallest Venezuelan population was South Dakota with 25 Venezuelans, some 70 percent of Venezuelan immigrants are a mixture of European, Amerindian, and African ancestry. The rest are 21 percent white,8 percent black and 1 percent is Amerindian, most Venezuelan Americans are descendants of Spanish, Italians, Portuguese, Germans, French, and Chinese. The Venezuelan American population is highly educated, thus, they teach the language to their children. Venezuelan Americans work in a variety of professions, however, most of them are inclined to banking and the petroleum industry. Thus, they often have an expertise in these professions. Venezuelan Americans also work in highlighted positions of television, publishing, also, many Venezuelan Americans are becoming politicians, working both local politics as in government. In addition, also is growing the number of Venezuelan Americans that work in government service on the federal level, now, the Venezuelan Americans are involved in all the aspect of the American politics. Venezuelan Americans still maintain strong relations with their country of origin, which can easily be seen in business, family, Venezuelan Americans often report on the social and current events in Venezuela and first-generation immigrants visit there frequently. It is also common for Venezuelans to visit their relatives in the United States
40.
History of Mexican Americans
–
Large-scale new migration augmented their numbers during the 1910s, as Mexico was torn by a high-casualty civil war. Until the 1960s, most lived within a few hundred miles of the border, more recently, Mexican Americans have diffused throughout the U. S. especially in the Midwest and Southeast, with the largest numbers in California and Texas. In the past hundred years Mexican-Americans have campaigned for voting rights, stood against educational, employment, at the same time many Mexican-Americans have struggled with defining and maintaining their communitys identity. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. When Mexico took over control from Spain in the early 1820s, when Texas seemed too independent, Mexicos President Santa Anna led an army to massacre the villagers and destroy the American settlements. After initial victories and massacres at The Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna was decisively defeated by the Texans, who declared independence. The Tejanos in Texas joined the revolution and supported the new Republic of Texas, The Hispanics in New Mexico and California were localistic and did not identify with the regime in Mexico City. Only when large numbers of Americans arrived did they develop a sense of lo mexicano, that is of being Mexican, American entrepreneurs often cultivated alliances and partnerships with the Mexican propertied elites in the states of Texas and California, and the territories of New Mexico and Arizona. The Latino culture of the rest of the Southwest, especially New Mexico and southern Texas, beginning in the 1820s, immigrants from the U. S. and Europe settled in Texas, then part of Mexico. Anglo and Hispanic Texas joined to fight Mexico in 1836, defeating an invading army, the Texas Republic included Tejanos as leading citizens, but Mexico refused to recognize its legal existence. The US annexed Texas in 1845, leading to the Mexican–American War of 1846–48, while there were some Americans who considered the war with Mexico illegal and immoral, others considered it part of Manifest Destiny—the American destiny to pursue the war. This policy claimed that it was the United States right to expand westward across North America, the Americans won easily and the war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In the Treaty Mexico gave up more than 500,000 square miles of territory, which today comprises Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The United States in 1853 purchased the Gadsden Purchase, a strip of land in southern New Mexico, the vast majority of Hispanic populations chose to stay and become full US citizens. By and large, the Hispanic populations of these supported the new government. After the Santa Fe Ring succeeded in dispossessing thousands of landholders in New Mexico, some Hispanics, of whom Joaquín Murieta was a legendary example and Tiburcio Vásquez a real one, responded by resorting to banditry. During the Gold Rush, there was an immigration of Mexican miners to California, about 20,000 Tejanos lived in South Texas in the 1850s. The social structure has been analyzed by historian Randolph Campbell, South Texans of Hispanic descent lived in a three-tiered society during the antebellum years, at the top stood the landed elite, the owners of huge ranches, many of which originated as haciendas in the Spanish colonial period
41.
Casta
–
A casta was a hierarchical system of race classification created by Spanish elites in Hispanic America during the eighteenth century. The process of mixing ancestries in the union of people of different races was known as mestizaje. Created by Hispanic elites, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas, was based on the principle that people varied largely due to their birth, color, race, the system of castas was more than socio-racial classification. It had an effect on every aspect of life, including economics, both the Spanish colonial state and the Church required more tax and tribute payments from those of lower socio-racial categories. The whiter the heritage a person could claim, the higher in status they could claim, conversely, Casta paintings were a new, secular art form primarily produced in eighteenth-century Mexico. A notable exception to the nature of the genre is Luis de Menas 1750 painting of Virgin of Guadalupe with castas. Casta is an Iberian word, meaning lineage, breed or race and it is derived from the older Latin word castus, chaste, implying that the lineage has been kept pure. Casta gave rise to the English word caste during the Early Modern Period, the idea of purity of blood, limpieza de sangre, developed in Christian Spain to denote those without the taint of Jewish or Muslim heritage. It was directly linked to religion and notions of legitimacy, lineage and it was institutionalized during the Inquisition. The Inquisition only allowed those Spaniards who could not to have Jewish and Moorish blood to emigrate to Latin America. Several spectacular autos de fe in New Spain in the mid-seventeenth century featured the public punishment of those convicted of being Judaizers. In Spanish America, the idea of purity of blood was in a complex fashion linked to ideas of race, Spaniards had become obsessed with lineage, following the expulsion of Moors and Jews, and forced conversion of those who chose to remain. Evidence of lack of purity of blood had consequences for marriage, eligibility for office, entrance into the priesthood, having to produce genealogical records to prove ones pure ancestry gave rise to a trade in the creation of false genealogies. When the concept of purity of blood was transferred overseas, it retained the concerns about tainted ancestry of Jews or Muslims in a family line. During the early decades, the Spanish in the New World had unions and marriages with indigenous women. In the late century, some investigations of ancestry classified as stains any connection with Black Africans. The idea that any hint of Blacks in a lineage was a stain continued to the end of the colonial period and it was illustrated in eighteenth-century paintings of racial hierarchy, known as casta paintings. Indians in Central Mexico were affected by ideas of purity of blood from the other side, Crown decrees on purity of blood were affirmed by indigenous communities, which barred Indians from holding office who had any non-Indians in their lineage
42.
Castizo
–
Castizo is a Spanish word with a general meaning of pure, genuine or representative of its race. From this meaning it evolved other meanings, such as typical of an area and it was used for one of the colonial Spanish race categories, the castas. In Latin America Castizo is used to describe the individuals with an admixture of 75% European, during this era, various other terms were also used. The word cuarterón usually denotes someone whose racial origin is three-quarters White and one-quarter Black, under the colonial caste system, the offspring of a Spaniard and a Castiza was classified as a criollo, thus the offspring regained his or her purity of blood. For castizos whose residual quarter of Amerindian ancestry was not apparent at all, many simply consolidated themselves within the criollos, some countries, however, have recently reintroduced voluntary and anonymous declarations of race in recent population censuses for statistical purposes, with no legal consequence to the individual. A person who formerly would have deemed a castizo would today simply identify as mestizo or White. The word castizo itself has lost all racial meaning, today they are scattered in almost all Latin America but many focus on specific countries or regions of the same. ARGENTINA, Since most of European immigrants arrived in Argentina during the century were men, many of these mixed with mestizo women. They in turn, mixed with Europeans over and over again, recent studies show that nearly 60% of Argentinas population has at least one ancestor of Native American or African origin, and that the average Argentinian is about 74% European and 23% Amerindian. CHILE, It might be the country with the highest percentage of castizos of America and they are located mainly in the central valleys of the country, in cities such as Santiago, Valparaíso, Viña del Mar, Rancagua and Talca. They also constitute an important percentage in Northern and Southern Chile, in Chile whites and castizos together represent the countrys largest ethnic group. COSTA RICA, It could also be the country with the highest percentage of castizos of America due to continued European immigration, castizos are located in almost all the national territory. MEXICO, Castiza population in Mexico is located mainly in north and these areas have a similar castiza and white population to Costa Rica or Chile. PERU, Peruvian castizos are concentrated in the departments of Lima, Cajamarca, Arequipa, La Libertad, Lambayeque and Piura, GUATEMALA, Most Guatemalan castizos inhabit the eastern region of the country such as the departments of Zacapa, Chiquimila, and Jalapa. Castizo is used in Madrid for costumes, music, speech typical of the Madrid populace about the end of the 19th century, a person dressed in Castizo fashion can be called manolo/manola and chulapo/chulapa. Many zarzuelas are set in a Castizo environment, like La verbena de la Paloma, items associated with Castizo culture are the street swivel piano, barquillos, Schottisch music and Manila shawls. Casticismo is a tendency among Spanish and Latin American intellectuals to reject foreign loanwords, an example is deporte, a word recovered from Medieval Castilian meaning pastime, that successfully replaced the Anglicism sport, which has the same Latin origin as the Spanish word. Its closely related to costumbrismo in literature, White Latin American Peninsulares Mestizo Cholo Casta
43.
Cholo
–
Its use has migrated from the initial negative ethnic designation as originated by Hispanic criollos in the 16th century. In sociological literature, it is one of castas, and refers to Mexican American gangsters, the precise usage of cholo has varied widely in different times and places. In modern American usage, it most often applies to the low-rider sub-culture manner of dress, the terms use is first recorded in a Peruvian book published in 1609 and 1616, the Comentarios Reales de los Incas by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. He writes The child of a Black male and an Indian female, or of an Indian male and Black female, they call mulato, the children of these they call cholo. Cholo is a word from the Windward Islands, it means dog, not of the variety, but of very disreputable origin. In Colonial Mexico, the terms cholo and coyote co-existed, indicating mixed Mestizo, other terms were used to denote other ratios of smaller or greater Spanish-to-Amerindian ancestry. During the War of the Pacific Peruvians were contemptuously referred to as cholos by Chilean officers, an article in the Los Angeles Express of April 2,1907, headlined Cleaning Up the Filthy Cholo Courts Has Begun in Earnest, uses the terms cholos and Mexicans interchangeably. In 1571, Fray Alonso de Molina, in his Nahuatl vocabulary, defined the word xolo as slave, servant, or waiter. The Porrúa Dictionary defines cholo, as used in the Americas, as a civilized Native American or a half-breed or mestizo of a European father and Native American mother. The word has historically been used along the borderland as a term to mean lower class Mexican migrants. Despite, or because of, its history of denigrating semantics. During the 1930s and 40s, Cholos and Chicanos were known as pachucos and were associated with the zoot suit, the press at the time accused the Cholos in the US of gang membership and petty criminality, leading to the Zoot Suit Riots. Continuing until the early 1970s, the typical cholo and chicano hairstyle was a variant of the pompadour, piled high on the head, Cholos are known for starching and pressing their pants and shirts, and often wear military-style webbed belts. Cholos in the 1990s and 2000s frequently have their hair buzzed very short, though some continue to have the more traditional slicked-back hair, footwear originally included Stacy Adams dress shoes, and biscuits. Modern cholos tend to wear shoes, such as Converse, Nike Cortez, Vans, Fila, Adidas Stan Smith, slip-on house shoes. Popular Cholo brands include Dickies, Ben Davis, Joker, Lowrider, in South Texas, cholos are sometimes referred to as chucs or chukes. This term is short for pachucos, tejano cholos typically make heavy use of starch on their pants but so do traditional Tejanos. This designation may also be associated with black ink tattoos, commonly involving calligraphy, a cholo might also stereotypically own a lowrider
44.
Criollo people
–
Although Criollos were legally Spaniards, in practice, they ranked below the Iberian-born Peninsulares. Nevertheless, they had preeminence over all the populations, Amerindians, enslaved Africans. According to the Casta system, a criollo could have up to 1/8 Amerindian ancestry without losing social place, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, changes in the Spanish Empires policies towards its colonies led to tensions between Criollos and Peninsulares. Criollos were the supporters of the Spanish American wars of independence. The word criollo and its Portuguese cognate crioulo are believed to come from the Spanish/Portuguese verb criar, in Spanish colonies, an español criollo was an ethnic Spaniard who had been born in the colonies, as opposed to an español peninsular born in Spain. Whites in colonial Brazil, born in the Iberian Peninsula, were known as mazombos, limpieza de sangre or cleanness of blood was a legal concept in use since the Spanish Reconquista, and introduced to the Spanish colonies in the Americas. The English word creole was a loan from French créole, which in turn is believed to come from Spanish criollo or Portuguese crioulo, such cases might include the offspring of a Castizo parent and one Peninsular or Criollo parent. This one-eighth rule, also in theory, did not apply to African admixture, in reality, officials assigned various racial categories to mix-raced people depending on their social status, what they were told or due to testimony from friends and neighbors. To preserve the Spanish Crowns power in the colonies, the Spanish colonial society was based on a caste system. The highest-ranking castes were the españoles, Spaniards by birth or descent, people of mixed ancestry were classified in other castes — such as castizos, mestizos, cholos, mulatos, indios, zambos, and enslaved Africans, called blacks. Poole argues that the Virgin Mary, especially as Our Lady of Guadalupe and they used the story to legitimize their own social position and infuse it with an almost messianic sense of mission and identity. Until 1760, the Spanish colonies were ruled under laws designed by the Spanish Habsburgs and that situation changed by the Bourbon Reforms during the reign of Charles III. Spain needed to extract increasing wealth from its colonies to support the European, the Crown expanded the privileges of the Peninsulares, who took over many administrative offices which had been filled by Criollos. At the same time, reforms by the Catholic Church reduced the roles and privileges of the ranks of the clergy. By the 19th century, this policy of the Spanish Crown. With increasing support of the castes, they engaged Spain in a fight for independence. The former Spanish Empire in the Americas separated into a number of independent republics, the word criollo retains its original meaning in most Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas. In some countries, however, the word criollo has over time come to have additional meanings, for instance, comida criolla in Spanish-speaking countries refers to local cuisine, not cuisine of the criollos
