1.
Leavening, North Yorkshire
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Leavening is a village and civil parish in the Ryedale District of North Yorkshire, England. The village is situated approximately 13 miles north-east from the centre of the city and county town of York, Leavening is listed in the 1086 Domesday Book as in the Acklam Hundred of the East Riding of Yorkshire. At the time of the survey the settlement contained 10 households,5 villagers,5 smallholders, in 1823 Leavening was in the civil parish of Acklam, the Wapentake of Buckrose and the Liberty of St Peters, in the East Riding of Yorkshire. Wesleyan and Primitive Methodist chapels were established in Leavening in the 1820s, in Kellys Directory it is stated that the school had an average attendance of 55 and that the population of Leavening in 1891 was 339. Leavening has a house, The Jolly Farmers, a place of worship, The Venerable Bede - a shared Anglican / Methodist church. The Jolly Farmers Inn was the York CAMRA pub of the year in 1997, the pub was previously known as the Board Inn and before becoming a pub it was a blacksmith’s workshop. It hosts an annual ‘World Championship Yorkshire Pudding Eating Competition’, the church was built in 1850 originally as a church school and was licensed for use as a chapel of ease to the church in Acklam. It became a church in its own right in 1965 and was re-dedicated to the Venerable Bede and it is used by the Anglican and Methodist congregations of the village. Parish records dating as far back as 1716 are held in the Borthwick Institute, Leavening County Primary School was established in 1906 with extensions added in 1963,2003 and 2007. It caters for children aged 3–11, has a student capacity of 70, in May 2015 the school was rated as Good in an Ofsted report
2.
Bread
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Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the world and is one of the oldest artificial foods, proportions of types of flour and other ingredients vary widely, as do modes of preparation. As a result, types, shapes, sizes, and textures of breads differ around the world, Bread may be leavened by processes such as reliance on naturally occurring sourdough microbes, chemicals, industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration. Some bread is cooked before it can leaven, including for traditional or religious reasons, non-cereal ingredients such as fruits, nuts and fats may be included. Commercial bread commonly contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, Bread is served in various forms with any meal of the day. It is eaten as a snack, and used as an ingredient in other preparations, such as sandwiches. It forms the main component of bread pudding, as well as of stuffings designed to fill cavities or retain juices that otherwise might drip out. Bread has a social and emotional significance beyond its importance as nourishment and it plays essential roles in religious rituals and secular culture. Its prominence in daily life is reflected in language, where it appears in proverbs, colloquial expressions, in prayer and in the etymology of words, the Old English word for bread was hlaf, which appears to be the oldest Teutonic name. Old High German hleib and modern German Laib derive from this Proto-Germanic word, Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a rock, placed over a fire. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age, yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally. There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread, airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce a kind of bread than other peoples. Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine. The most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the day to use as a form of sourdough starter. In 1961 the Chorleywood bread process was developed, which used the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period, the process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of lower protein grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories
3.
Dough
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Dough is a thick, malleable, sometimes elastic, paste made out of any grains, leguminous or chestnut crops. Doughs are made from a variety of flours, commonly wheat but also flours made from maize, rice, rye, legumes, almonds. Doughs vary widely depending on ingredients, the kind of product being produced, the type of leavening agent, how the dough is mixed, there is no formal definition of what makes dough, though most doughs have viscoelastic properties. Leavened or fermented doughs are used all over the world to various breads. Salt, oils or fats, sugars or honey and sometimes milk or eggs are common ingredients in bread dough. Commercial bread doughs may also include dough conditioners, a class of ingredients that aid in dough consistency and final product. Flatbreads such as pita, lafa, lavash, matzah or matzo, naan, roti, sangak, tortilla, some flatbreads, such as naan, use leavening agents, others, such as matzo, do not. Crackers are also made from dough, and some are leavened, pasta and noodles are generally based on unleavened doughs that are worked until they are dry and smooth, and then shaped into their final form. The finished pasta may be cooked immediately or dried before cooking, doughs with higher fat content have a lesser water content, develop less gluten and are therefore generally less elastic than bread doughs, these doughs are often called short by bakers. This category includes many cookie and pie crust doughs, such as shortcrust pastry, in many parts of central India, people use the quick method of making an instant roasted dough ball or baati. In countries in the Sahel region of Africa, dough balls called aiysh or biya are made from sorghum or millet, and are ground and boiled. Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast, and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more, Techniques used in dough production depend on the type of dough and final product. For yeast-based and sponge breads, a production technique is the dough is mixed, kneaded. Many bread doughs call for a stage, where the dough is kneaded again, shaped into the final form. Kneading is the process of working a dough to produce a smooth, pasta is typically made from a dry dough that is kneaded and shaped, either through extrusion, rolling out in a pasta machine, or stretched or shaped by hand. Pasta may be cooked directly after production or dried, which renders it shelf-stable, doughs for biscuits and many flatbreads which are not leavened with yeast are typically mixed but not kneaded or left to rise, these doughs are shaped and cooked directly after mixing. While breads and other products made from doughs are often baked, some types of dough-based foods are cooked over direct heat, such as tortillas, fried dough foods are also common in many cultures. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network, the word dough is a common slang term for money in English-speaking countries, this usage is originally American, and dates to the mid-19th century
4.
Batter (cooking)
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Batter is a liquid mixture of one or more flours made with ground grains or soaked grains that are ground. Batters are used to various foods. The word batter comes from the old French word battre which means to beat, many batters are made by combining dry flours with liquids such as water, milk or eggs. Batters can also be made by soaking grains in water and grinding them wet. Often a leavening agent such as baking powder is included to aerate and fluff up the batter as it cooks, carbonated water or another carbonated liquid such as beer may instead be used to aerate the batter in some recipes. The liquid mixture churned and frozen in order to ice cream is also referred to as batter. The viscosity of batter may range from heavy to thin. Heat is applied to the batter, usually by frying, baking or steaming, in order to cook the ingredients, batters may be sweet or savoury, often with either sugar or salt being added. Many other flavourings such as herbs, spices, fruits or vegetables may be added to the mixture, beer is a popular ingredient in batters used to coat foods before frying. One reason is that a batter can be made from merely flour, beer. The purpose of using beer is so the bubbles in the beer will add body, depending on the type and quality of the beer, beer may also add colour or some flavour to the batter. The practice of beer battering is popular in Australia, New Zealand, some foods that are commonly beer battered and fried are fish, chips, and onion rings. Batters are used in many cuisines under many names, tempura in Japan, pakora in India, spoon bread in the USA, and many other examples are all types of batters. All batters work by forming a shell around the food, preventing scorching and retaining flavor. The ideal batter for fried foods is to be enough to adhere to the food. This ideal batter has been described poetically as being like a newlywed brides negligee, batters thicken with every second that passes after mixing because of the development of gluten. Strategies to reduce this effect include the use of ice water when mixing, alcohol, media related to Batter at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Hydrogen
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Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard weight of circa 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has one proton, the universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays an important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a charge when it is known as a hydride. The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water. Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market, Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen gas is flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol,2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O +572 kJ Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74%, the explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C, the detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector, such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames, the destruction of the Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible orange flames in that incident were the result of a mixture of hydrogen to oxygen combined with carbon compounds from the airship skin. H2 reacts with every oxidizing element, the ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, however, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. The most complicated treatments allow for the effects of special relativity
6.
Starch
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Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store and it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes, wheat, maize, rice, and cassava. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in water or alcohol. It consists of two types of molecules, the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin, depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight. Glycogen, the store of animals, is a more branched version of amylopectin. In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by malting and it is processed to produce many of the sugars used in processed foods. Dissolving starch in water gives wheatpaste, which can be used as a thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive in the papermaking process, starch can be applied to parts of some garments before ironing, to stiffen them. The word starch is from a Germanic root with the strong, stiff. Amylum for starch is from the Greek αμυλον, amylon which means not ground at a mill, the root amyl is used in biochemistry for several compounds related to starch. Starch grains from the rhizomes of Typha as flour have been identified from grinding stones in Europe dating back to 30,000 years ago, starch grains from sorghum were found on grind stones in caves in Ngalue, Mozambique dating up to 100,000 years ago. Pure extracted wheat starch paste was used in Ancient Egypt possibly to glue papyrus, the extraction of starch is first described in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder around AD 77–79. Romans used it also in cosmetic creams, to powder the hair, persians and Indians used it to make dishes similar to gothumai wheat halva. Rice starch as surface treatment of paper has been used in production in China. In addition to starchy plants consumed directly,66 million tonnes of starch were being produced per year world-wide by 2008. In the EU this was around 8.5 million tonnes, with around 40% being used for applications and 60% for food uses. Most green plants use starch as their energy store, an exception is the family Asteraceae, where starch is replaced by the fructan inulin. In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide, the glucose is used to make cellulose fibers, the structural component of the plant, or is stored in the form of starch granules, in amyloplasts
7.
Gluten
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Gluten is a composite of storage proteins termed prolamins and glutelins found in wheat and related grains, including barley, rye, oat, and all their species and hybrids. Gluten is appreciated for its viscoelastic properties and it gives elasticity to dough, helping it rise and keep its shape and often gives the final product a chewy texture. Gluten is conjoined with starch in the endosperm of various grassrelated grains, Wheat prolamins are called gliadins, barley prolamins are hordeins, rye prolamins are secalins and oats prolamins are avenins, which are collectively named gluten. Oat avenin toxicity in people with gluten-related disorders depends on the oat cultivar consumed because the immunoreactivities of toxic prolamins are different among oat varieties, also, many oat products are cross-contaminated with other gluten-containing cereals. The fruit of most flowering plants have endosperms with stored protein to nourish embryonic plants during germination, true gluten is limited to the grains listed above. The stored proteins of maize and rice are sometimes called glutens, gluten is a protein complex that accounts for 75 to 85% of the total protein in bread wheat. Gluten is prepared from flour by kneading the flour under water, agglomerating the gluten into a network, a dough. Starch granules disperse in water, and the dispersed starch is sedimented and dried. If a saline solution is used instead of water, a protein is obtained. Where starch is the product, cold water is the favored solvent because the impurities depart from the gluten. In home or restaurant cooking, a ball of flour dough is kneaded under water until the starch disperses out. In industrial production, a slurry of wheat flour is kneaded vigorously by machinery until the gluten agglomerates into a mass and this mass is collected by centrifugation, then transported through several stages integrated in a continuous process. The process yields a powder with a 7% moisture content. In the final step, the gluten is sifted and milled to produce a uniform product. Gluten forms when glutenin molecules cross-link to form a network attached to gliadin. If this dough is leavened with yeast, fermentation produces carbon dioxide bubbles, baking coagulates the gluten, which, along with starch, stabilizes the shape of the final product. Gluten content has been implicated as a factor in the staling of bread, the development of gluten affects the texture of the baked goods. More refining leads to products such as pizza and bagels
8.
Polysaccharide
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They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen, and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose, polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure, these macromolecules can have distinct properties from their building blocks. They may be amorphous or even insoluble in water, natural saccharides are generally of simple carbohydrates called monosaccharides with general formula n where n is three or more. Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and glyceraldehyde, polysaccharides, meanwhile, have a general formula of Cxy where x is usually a large number between 200 and 2500. When the repeating units in the backbone are six-carbon monosaccharides, as is often the case, the general formula simplifies to n. Polysaccharides are an important class of biological polymers and their function in living organisms is usually either structure- or storage-related. Starch is used as a polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In animals, the structurally similar glucose polymer is the more densely branched glycogen, glycogens properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the active lives of moving animals. Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides, cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms, and is said to be the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. It has many such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries, and is used as a feedstock for the production of rayon, cellulose acetate, celluloid. Chitin has a structure, but has nitrogen-containing side branches. It is found in arthropod exoskeletons and in the walls of some fungi. It also has multiple uses, including surgical threads, polysaccharides also include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, arabinoxylan, mannan, fucoidan and galactomannan. Nutrition polysaccharides are common sources of energy, many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose, however, most organisms cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose, even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they provide important dietary elements for humans. Called dietary fiber, these carbohydrates enhance digestion among other benefits, the main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and to change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed
9.
Pentosan
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The calcium salt of PPS was one of the first reported disease-modifying osteoarthritis drugs. PPS, as Elmiron, is the only oral medication approved by the U. S. Food, Elmiron is available as pills or as a direct infusion into the bladder. A review of four placebo-controlled studies concluded that PPS was significantly more effective than placebo for pain, urgency and frequency of urination, in IC, PPS is believed to work by providing a protective coating to the damaged bladder wall. PPS is similar in structure to the natural glycosaminoglycan coating of the lining of the bladder. This lining is important in preventing urinary toxins from irritating the underlying cell layers, evidence for this mechanism was found by irritating the lining of the bladders of female rats with acrolein. If the rats were pre-treated with PPS, the damage was much less, potassium sensitivity tests showed abnormal cell lining permeability in most patients with IC and indicated a significant reduction in permeability after successful PPS therapy. The sodium salt of PPS has low bioavailability when taken orally, research presented in 2005 by Alza Pharmaceuticals demonstrated that 94% of the medication was excreted, intact, in faeces. This means that 6% was excreted through urine and in contact with the bladder, the drug appears to be most effective when taken for several months. More recently, PPS has been studied as part of a rescue instillation which is placed directly in the bladder and can, perhaps, research presented in 2005 showed PPS had 90% effectiveness in reducing the symptoms of IC/PBS patients by using this instillation. PPS was first reported as a drug in 1988 with a detailed rationale of the disease-modifying activity of this molecule subsequently published in 1999. The mechanism of PPS action in osteoarthritis is multifactorial, with both stimulation of cartilage matrix synthesis and prevention of cartilage breakdown, there are also systemic effects on blood lipids and fibrinolysis that may help clear the subchondral circulation. Read et al. used three different doses of sodium PPS to treat 40 geriatric dogs with well-established clinical signs of chronic OA with SC injection, the 3 mg/kg dose was the most effective. There are few published reports describing the use of PPS for equine joint disease, when administered to racing Thoroughbreds with chronic osteoarthritis, PPS treatment improved but did not eliminate clinical signs of joint disease. Articular cartilage fibrillation was substantially reduced by similar NaPPS treatment intramuscularly in nine horse with experimentally-induced carpal osteoarthritis, NaPPS was significantly better than placebo for patient stiffness, walking on a level surface and pain in the previous 48 hours and previous month for multiple time points after treatment. The patients who had intra-articular PPS injections had synovial fluid with significantly better viscoelasticity due to significantly higher molecular weight hyaluronan, twenty patients with knee OA were assessed clinically at Nagasaki University Hospital in a single-center, open-label trial. Treatment consisted of 6 weekly subcutaneous injections of pentosan, knee flexion, pain while walking, pain after climbing up and down stairs were improved significantly for up to a year. PPS gained attention as possibly being effective in the treatment of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, as PPS can bind to the cellular isoform of the prion protein, it may stabilise this form and prevent its conversion to the pathological isoform. The treatment of one patient in Northern Ireland and around six other patients in mainland Britain were reported in the press, no patients showed signs of clinical improvement, however the disease was very advanced when the therapy was initiated
10.
Xanthan gum
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Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide secreted by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, used as a food additive and rheology modifier, commonly used as a food thickening agent and a stabilizer. It is composed of pentasaccharide repeat units, comprising glucose, mannose and it is produced by the fermentation of glucose, sucrose, or lactose. After a fermentation period, the polysaccharide is precipitated from a medium with isopropyl alcohol, dried. Later, it is added to a medium to form the gum. This links the synthesis of xanthan to the carbohydrate metabolism. The repeat units are built up at undecaprenylphosphate lipid carriers that are anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane, specific glycosyltransferases sequentially transfer the sugar moieties of the nucleotide sugar xanthan precursors to the lipid carriers. Acetyl and pyruvyl residues are added as non-carbohydrate decorations, mature repeat units are polymerized and exported in a way resembling the Wzy-dependent polysaccharide synthesis mechanism of Enterobacteriaceae. Products of the gum gene cluster drive synthesis, polymerization, the polysaccharide is prepared by inoculating a sterile aqueous solution of carbohydrate, a source of nitrogen, dipotassium phosphate, and some trace elements. The medium is well-aerated and stirred, and the polymer is produced extracellularly into the medium, the final concentration of xanthan produced will vary greatly depending on the method of production, strain of bacteria, and random variation. In the United States, the manufacture of one kilogram of cheese creates nine kg of the byproduct whey, whey is composed mostly of water and lactose, so researchers developed a strain of X. campestris that would grow on lactose rather than glucose. The newly developed lactose-using bacteria produced 30 g/L of xanthan gum for every 40 g/L of whey powder, whey-derived xanthan gum is commonly used in many commercial products, such as shampoos and salad dressings. It was brought into production by CP Kelco under the trade name Kelzan in the early 1960s. It was approved for use in foods after animal testing in 1968 and it is accepted as a safe food additive in the USA, Canada, Europe, and many other countries, with E number E415. Xanthan gum derives its name from the strain of bacteria used during the fermentation process, X. campestris is the same bacterium responsible for causing black rot to form on broccoli, cauliflower, and other leafy vegetables. The bacterium forms a slimy substance that acts as a stabilizer or thickener. One of the most remarkable properties of xanthan gum is its ability to produce an increase in the viscosity of a liquid by adding a very small quantity of gum. In most foods, it is used at 0. 5%, the viscosity of xanthan gum solutions decreases with higher shear rates, this is called shear thinning or pseudoplasticity. This means that a product subjected to shear, whether from mixing, shaking or even chewing, will thin out, but, once the forces are removed
11.
Starch gelatinization
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Starch gelatinization is a process of breaking down the intermolecular bonds of starch molecules in the presence of water and heat, allowing the hydrogen bonding sites to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule in water, three main processes happen to the starch granule, granule swelling, crystal or double helical melting, and amylose leaching. During heating, water is first absorbed in the space of starch. Water then enters via amorphous regions the tightly bound areas of double helical structures of amylopectin, at ambient temperatures these crystalline regions do not allow water to enter. Heat causes such regions to become diffuse, the chains begin to dissolve, to separate into an amorphous form. Under the microscope in polarized light starch loses its birefringence and its extinction cross, some types of unmodified native starches start swelling at 55 °C, other types at 85 °C. The gelatinization temperature of modified starch depends on for example on the degree of cross-linking of the amylopectin, gel temperature can also be modified by genetic manipulation of starch synthase genes. Gelatinization temperature also depends on the amount of damaged starch granules, damaged starch can be produced, for example, during the wheat milling process, or when drying the starch cake in the starch plant. There is a correlation between gelatinization temperature and glycemic index. Gelatinization improves the availability of starch for amylase hydrolysis, so gelatinisation of starch is used constantly in cooking to make the starch digestable or to thicken/bind water in roux, sauce, or soup. Cooked, unmodified starch, when cooled for a long period, will thicken and rearrange itself again to a more crystalline structure. During cooling, starch molecules gradually aggregate to form a gel, molecular associations occur, Amylose-Amylose, Amylose-Amylopectin, Amylopectin-Amylopectin. A mild association amongst chains come together with water still embedded in the molecule, due to the tightly packed organization of small granule starches, retrogradation occurs much more slowly compared to larger starch granules. High amylose starches require more energy to break up bonds to gelatinize into starch molecules, leading to a rigid, a mild association amongst chains come together with water still embedded in the molecule. Due to strong associations of hydrogen bonding, longer amylose molecules will form a stiff gel, amylopectin molecules with longer branched structure, increases the tendency to form strong gels. Granule size do not directly impact starch performance, but it is one of the factors affecting starch gelatinization and retrogradation. High amylopectin starches will have a gel, but will be softer than high amylose gels. Retrogradation restricts the availability for amylase hydrolysis to occur, pregelatinized starch is starch cooked and then dried in the starch factory on a drum dryer or in an extruder making the starch cold-water-soluble
12.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
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Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of yeast. It has been instrumental to winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times and it is believed to have been originally isolated from the skin of grapes. It is one of the most intensively studied model organisms in molecular and cell biology. It is the microorganism behind the most common type of fermentation, S. cerevisiae cells are round to ovoid, 5–10 μm in diameter. It reproduces by a process known as budding. Many proteins important in biology were first discovered by studying their homologs in yeast, these proteins include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins. S. cerevisiae is currently the only yeast cell known to have Berkeley bodies present, antibodies against S. cerevisiae are found in 60–70% of patients with Crohns disease and 10–15% of patients with ulcerative colitis. Saccharomyces derives from Latinized Greek and means sugar-mold or sugar-fungus, saccharo being the combining form sugar, cerevisiae comes from Latin and means of beer. Refinements in microbiology following the work of Louis Pasteur led to more advanced methods of culturing pure strains, in 1879, Great Britain introduced specialized growing vats for the production of S. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time, lesaffre would later create instant yeast in the 1970s, which has gained considerable use and market share at the expense of both fresh and dry yeast in their various applications. In nature, yeast cells are primarily on ripe fruits such as grapes. Since S. cerevisiae is not airborne, it requires a vector to move, queens of social wasps overwintering as adults can harbor yeast cells from autumn to spring and transmit them to their progeny. The intestine of Polistes dominula, a wasp, hosts S. cerevisiae strains as well as S. cerevisiae × S. paradoxus hybrids. The optimum temperature for growth of S. cerevisiae is 30–35 °C, two forms of yeast cells can survive and grow, haploid and diploid. The haploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth and this is the asexual form of the fungus. The diploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth. The rate at which the cell cycle progresses often differs substantially between haploid and diploid cells. Under conditions of stress, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering meiosis and producing four haploid spores and this is the sexual form of the fungus
13.
Baker's yeast
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Bakers yeast is of the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is the same species commonly used in alcoholic fermentation, which is called brewers yeast. Bakers yeast is also a single-cell microorganism found on and around the human body, the use of steamed or boiled potatoes, water from potato boiling, or sugar in a bread dough provides food for the growth of yeasts, however, too much sugar will dehydrate them. Yeast growth is inhibited by both salt and sugar, but more so with salt than sugar and it is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread, the earliest definite records come from Ancient Egypt. The resulting bread would have lighter and tastier than the previous hard flatbreads. Also, the development of leavened bread seems to have developed in proximity to the development of beer brewing. However, beer brewers slowly switched from top-fermenting to bottom-fermenting yeast, refinements in microbiology following the work of Louis Pasteur led to more advanced methods of culturing pure strains. In 1879, Great Britain introduced specialized growing vats for the production of S, the company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time. Lesaffre would later create instant yeast in the 1970s, which has gained considerable use, Bakers yeast is available in a number of different forms, the main differences being the moisture contents. Though each version has certain advantages over the others, the choice of form to use is largely a question of the requirements of the recipe at hand. Dry yeast forms are good choices for longer-term storage, often lasting more than a year at room temperatures without significant loss of viability, in general, with occasional allowances for liquid content and temperature, the different forms of commercial yeast are considered interchangeable. Cream yeast is the closest form to the yeast slurries of the 19th century, in essence being a suspension of yeast cells in liquid, siphoned off from the growth medium. Its primary use is in industrial bakeries with special high-volume dispensing and mixing equipment, compressed yeast is, in essence, cream yeast with most of the liquid removed. It is a solid, beige in color, and best known in the consumer form as small. It is also available in form for bulk usage. Active dry yeast is the form of yeast most commonly available to non-commercial bakers in the United States and it consists of coarse oblong granules of yeast, with live yeast cells encapsulated in a thick jacket of dry, dead cells with some growth medium. Under most conditions, active dry yeast must first be proofed or rehydrated, instant yeast appears similar to active dry yeast, but has smaller granules with substantially higher percentages of live cells per comparable unit volumes. It is more perishable than active dry yeast but also not require rehydration. In general, instant yeast has an amount of ascorbic acid added as a preservative
14.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
15.
Ginger beer
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Traditional ginger beer is a naturally sweetened and carbonated, usually non-alcoholic beverage. It is produced by the fermentation of prepared ginger spice, yeast. Its origins date from the spice trade with the Orient. It was popular in Britain and its colonies from the 18th century, other spices were variously added and any alcohol content was limited to 2% by excise tax laws in 1855. Few brewers have maintained an alcoholic product, current ginger beers are often manufactured rather than brewed, frequently with flavor and color additives. Ginger beer is produced at home using a symbiotic colony of yeast. Ginger beer has experienced an increase in popularity in recent years accompanying the popularity of cocktails based on it, such as the Moscow Mule. As early as 500 BC, ginger was used as a medicine and for flavouring food in Ancient China, in the western hemisphere, ginger was used to spice up drinks. During the Victorian era, it was used to brew a beverage termed ginger beer. It forms a gelatinous substance that allows it to be transferred from one fermenting substrate to the next, much like kefir grains, kombucha. The GBP was first described by Harry Marshall Ward in 1892, original ginger beer is made by leaving water, sugar, ginger, and GBP to ferment. GBP may be obtained from commercial sources or from yeast banks. A ginger beer plant may refer to a fermenting liquid mix of water, brewers or bakers yeast, ginger. This is kept for a week or longer to which sugar is added to increase alcohol content. Ginger may also be added along with the sugar, which increase the ginger flavour strength. At the end of the period, this mix is strained, diluted with water and lemon juice. Brewed ginger beer originated in the UK, but is sold worldwide, Crabbies is a popular brand in the UK. It is usually labelled alcoholic ginger beer to distinguish it from the established commercial ginger beers, which are not brewed
16.
Kefir
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Kefir or kephir, alternatively milk kefir, or búlgaros, is a fermented milk drink that originated in the north Caucasus Mountains made with kefir grains, a yeast/bacterial fermentation starter. It is prepared by inoculating cow, goat, or Sheep milk with kefir grains, traditional kefir was made in goatskin bags that were hung near a doorway, the bag would be knocked by anyone passing through to help keep the milk and kefir grains well mixed. The word kefir, known in Russian since at least 1884, is probably of North Caucasian origin, Kefir has become the most commonly used term, but other names are found in different geographic regions. Traditional kefir is fermented at ambient temperatures, generally overnight, Fermentation of the lactose yields a sour, carbonated, slightly alcoholic beverage, with a consistency and taste similar to thin yogurt. The kefir grains initiating the fermentation are a combination of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts in a matrix of proteins, lipids and this symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast forms grains that resemble cauliflower. A complex and highly variable community of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts can be found in these grains although some predominate, Lactobacillus species are always present. Even successive batches of kefir may differ due to such as the kefir grains rising out of the milk while fermenting, or curds forming around the grains. Kefir grains contain kefiran, a polysaccharide, which imparts a creamy texture. Grains may grow to the size of walnuts, and in some cases larger, the composition of kefir depends greatly on the type of milk that was fermented, including the concentration of vitamin B12. During fermentation, changes in composition of nutrients and other ingredients occur, lactose, the sugar present in milk, is broken down mostly to lactic acid by the lactic acid bacteria, which results in acidification of the product. Propionibacteria further break down some of the acid into propionic acid. A portion of lactose is converted to kefiran, which is indigestible by gastric digestion, other substances that contribute to the flavor of kefir are pyruvic acid, acetic acid, diacetyl and acetoin, citric acid, acetaldehyde and amino acids resulting from protein breakdown. The slow-acting yeasts, late in the process, break lactose down into ethanol. Depending on the process, ethanol concentration can be as high as 1–2%, with the kefir having a bubbly appearance and this makes kefir different from yogurt and most other sour milk products where only bacteria ferment the lactose into acids. Most modern processes, which use shorter fermentation times, result in much lower concentrations of 0. 2–0. 3%. As a result of the fermentation, very little remains in kefir. People with lactose intolerance are able to tolerate kefir, provided the number of bacteria present in this beverage consumed is high enough. It has also shown that fermented milk products have a slower transit time than milk
17.
Sourdough
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Sourdough bread is made by the fermentation of dough using naturally occurring lactobacilli and yeast. Sourdough bread has a sour taste not present in most breads made with bakers yeast and better inherent keeping qualities than other breads. Sourdough is a dough containing a Lactobacillus culture in symbiotic combination with yeasts and it is one of the principal means of biological leavening in bread baking, the others using cultivated forms of yeast. It is important in baking rye-based breads, where yeast does not produce comparable results, in the Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology Michael Gaenzle writes The origins of bread-making are so ancient that everything said about them must be pure speculation. Bread made from 100% rye flour, popular in the half of Europe, is usually leavened with sourdough. Bakers yeast is not useful as a agent for rye bread. The lowered pH of a starter, therefore, inactivates the amylases when heat cannot, allowing the carbohydrates in the bread to gel. French bakers brought sourdough techniques to Northern California during the California Gold Rush, the nickname remains in Sourdough Sam, the mascot of the San Francisco 49ers. Sourdough has long associated with the 1849 gold prospectors, though they were more likely to make bread with commercial yeast or baking soda. The sourdough tradition was carried into Alaska and the western Canadian territories during the Klondike Gold Rush of 1898, conventional leavenings such as yeast and baking soda were much less reliable in the conditions faced by the prospectors. Experienced miners and other settlers frequently carried a pouch of starter either around their neck or on a belt, however, freezing does not kill a sourdough starter, excessive heat does. Old hands came to be called sourdoughs, a term that is applied to any Alaskan or Klondike old-timer. The significance of the association with Yukon culture was immortalized in the writings of Robert Service. In English-speaking countries, where wheat-based breads predominate, sourdough is no longer the standard method for bread leavening and it was gradually replaced, first by the use of barm from beer making, then, after the confirmation of germ theory by Louis Pasteur, by cultured yeasts. Although sourdough bread was superseded in commercial bakeries in the 20th century, manufacturers of non-sourdough breads make up for the lack of yeast and bacterial culture by introducing into their dough an artificially-made mix known as bread improver or flour improver. The preparation of sourdough begins with a pre-ferment, a mixture of flour and water, containing a colony of microorganisms including wild yeast. The purpose of the starter is to produce a vigorous leaven, in practice there are several kinds of starters, as the ratio of water to flour in the starter varies. A starter may be a liquid batter or a stiff dough, flour naturally contains a variety of yeasts and bacterial spores
18.
Clostridium perfringens
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Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive, rod-shaped, anaerobic, spore-forming pathogenic bacterium of the genus Clostridium. C. perfringens is everpresent in nature and can be found as a component of decaying vegetation, marine sediment, the intestinal tract of humans and other vertebrates, insects. It has the shortest reported generation time of any organism at 6.3 minutes in thioglycollate medium, C. perfringens is the third most common cause of food poisoning in the United Kingdom and the United States though it can sometimes be ingested and cause no harm. Infections due to C. perfringens show evidence of necrosis, bacteremia, emphysematous cholecystitis, and gas gangrene. The toxin involved in gas gangrene is known as α-toxin, which inserts into the membrane of cells. C. perfringens can participate in polymicrobial anaerobic infections, Clostridium perfringens is commonly encountered in infections as a component of the normal flora. In this case, its role in disease is minor, the action of C. perfringens on dead bodies is known to mortuary workers as tissue gas and can be halted only by embalming. Although they lack flagella, C. perfringens bacteria are able to glide across surfaces because their bodies are lined with filaments from end-to-end, the hypermotile variants such as SM101, are often found arising on the edges of colonies on agar plates. Video microscopy of their gliding movement suggest that they form long, genome sequencing was used to identify the cause of the hypermotile phenotype and their direct derivatives. In comparing them, strains SM124 and SM127, hypermotile derivatives of strains SM101 and SM102, respectively, mutations in cell division genes is the common feature of the hypermotile strains. In the United Kingdom and United States, C, the clostridium perfringens enterotoxin mediating the disease is heat-labile. It can be detected in contaminated food, and feces, incubation time is between six and 24 hours after ingestion of contaminated food. Since C. perfringens forms spores that can withstand cooking temperatures, if cooked food is let stand for long enough, germination can ensue, symptoms typically include abdominal cramping, diarrhea, vomiting, and fever. The whole course usually resolves within 24 hours, but can last up to two weeks in older or infirm hosts, perfringens poisoning can also lead to another disease known as enteritis necroticans, this is caused by the same strain that causes perfringens food poisoning. However this infection is often fatal, large numbers of C. perfringens grow in the intestines, and secrete exotoxin. This exotoxin causes necrosis of the intestines, varying levels of hemorrhaging, inflammation usually occurs in sections of the jejunum, midsection of the small intestine. This disease eventually leads to septic shock and death and this particular disease is rare in the United States, typically it occurs in populations with a higher risk. This disease is contracted in populations living in New Guinea, parts of Africa, Central America, South America, many cases of C. perfringens food poisoning likely remain subclinical, as antibodies to the toxin are common among the population
19.
Salt-rising bread
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Salt-rising bread is made from wheat flour, a starter consisting of either water or milk and corn, potatoes, or wheat, and minor ingredients such as salt and sugar. Salt in the name is a misnomer, the bread is not leavened by salt nor does it taste salty, one explanation for the name of the bread is that the starter was kept warm in a bed of heated salt. Compared to a starter, salt-rising bread starter requires a shorter incubation period of 6–16 hours. Salt-rising bread is denser, with a grain, than yeast-leavened bread. The pungent odor of the starter has been described as similar to very ripe cheese. The exact origin of this bread is unknown, but evidence suggests that it was the women in early American states who discovered how to make bread this way. Commercial yeast was not available until the 1860s, currently, the tradition of making salt-rising bread is kept alive by relatively few individuals and bakeries that tend to be clustered in the central to eastern United States. It is particularly popular in Kentucky, West Virginia, Western New York, one of the main rising agents, the bacterium Clostridium perfringens, is a common cause of food poisoning and can cause enteritis necroticans and gas gangrene. Although disease-causing strains of C. perfringens have been isolated from salt-rising breads, the baking process appears to reduce bacteria to safe levels. Brown, Susan Ray The Salt Rising Bread Project http, //www. saltrisingbread. net/ Greenwood, Darrell
20.
Salt (chemistry)
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In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral and these component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride, or organic, such as acetate, and can be monatomic, such as fluoride, or polyatomic, such as sulfate. There are several varieties of salts, salts that hydrolyze to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are alkali salts, whilst those that hydrolyze to produce hydronium ions in water are acidic salts. Neutral salts are those salts that are neither acidic nor basic, zwitterions contain an anionic centre and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered to be salts. Examples of zwitterions include amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, usually, non-dissolved salts at standard conditions for temperature and pressure are solid, but there are exceptions. Molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts are called electrolytes, as they are able to conduct electricity. As observed in the cytoplasm of cells, in blood, urine, plant saps and mineral waters, therefore, their salt content is given for the respective ions. Salts can appear to be clear and transparent, opaque, and even metallic, in many cases, the apparent opacity or transparency are only related to the difference in size of the individual monocrystals. Since light reflects from the boundaries, larger crystals tend to be transparent. The color of the salt is due to the electronic structure in the d-orbitals of transition elements or in the conjugated organic dye framework. Different salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e. g. salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami or savory. Salts of strong acids and strong bases are non-volatile and odorless and that slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak salts. Many ionic compounds can be dissolved in water or other similar solvents, the exact combination of ions involved makes each compound have a unique solubility in any solvent. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, for example, all salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are soluble in water, as are all nitrates and many sulfates – barium sulfate, calcium sulfate and lead sulfate are examples of exceptions. However, ions that bind tightly to each other and form highly stable lattices are less soluble, for example, most carbonate salts are not soluble in water, such as lead carbonate and barium carbonate. Some soluble carbonate salts are, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, solid salts do not conduct electricity. Moreover, solutions of salts also conduct electricity, the name of a salt starts with the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion. Salts are often referred to only by the name of the cation or by the name of the anion. g
21.
Bicarbonate
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In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. It is an anion with the chemical formula HCO−3. Bicarbonate serves a crucial role in the physiological pH buffering system. The term bicarbonate was coined in 1814 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston, the name lives on as a trivial name. It is isoelectronic with nitric acid HNO3, a bicarbonate salt forms when a positively charged ion attaches to the negatively charged oxygen atoms of the ion, forming an ionic compound. Many bicarbonates are soluble in water at temperature and pressure, in particular, sodium bicarbonate contributes to total dissolved solids. Bicarbonate is alkaline, and a component of the pH buffering system of the human body. 70–75% of CO2 in the body is converted into carbonic acid and this is especially important for protecting tissues of the central nervous system, where pH changes too far outside of the normal range in either direction could prove disastrous. Bicarbonate also acts to regulate pH in the small intestine and it is released from the pancreas in response to the hormone secretin to neutralize the acidic chyme entering the duodenum from the stomach. In freshwater ecology, strong photosynthetic activity by freshwater plants in daylight releases gaseous oxygen into the water and these shift the pH upward until in certain circumstances the degree of alkalinity can become toxic to some organisms or can make other chemical constituents such as ammonia toxic. In darkness, when no photosynthesis occurs, respiration processes release carbon dioxide, the most common salt of the bicarbonate ion is sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, which is commonly known as baking soda. When heated or exposed to a such as acetic acid. This is used as an agent in baking. The flow of ions from rocks weathered by the carbonic acid in rainwater is an important part of the carbon cycle. Bicarbonate also serves much in the digestive system and it raises the internal pH of the stomach, after highly acidic digestive juices have finished in their digestion of food. Ammonium bicarbonate is used in digestive biscuit manufacture, in diagnostic medicine, the blood value of bicarbonate is one of several indicators of the state of acid–base physiology in the body. It is measured, along with carbon dioxide, chloride, potassium, the parameter standard bicarbonate concentration is the bicarbonate concentration in the blood at a PaCO2 of 40 mmHg, full oxygen saturation and 36 °C
22.
Quick bread
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Quick bread is any bread leavened with leavening agents other than yeast or eggs. An advantage of quick breads is their ability to be prepared quickly and reliably, without requiring the time-consuming skilled labor and the climate control needed for traditional yeast breads. Quick breads include many cakes, brownies and cookies—as well as bread, beer bread, biscuits, cornbread, muffins, pancakes, scones. Quick bread most probably originated in the United States at the end of the eighteenth century, before the creation of quick bread, baked goods were leavened with either yeast or by mixing dough with eggs. Both forms of chemical leaveners are still being produced under their original names. During the American Civil War, the demand for portable and quickly-made food was high and this encouraged the adoption of bread which was rapidly made and leavened with baking soda, instead of yeast. The shortage of chemical leaveners in the American South during the Civil War contributed to a crisis there. These factors were traded off against the loss of traditional yeast flavor, nutrition, preparing a quick bread generally involves two mixing containers. One contains all dry ingredients and one contains all wet ingredients, in some variations, the dry ingredients are in a bowl and the wet ingredients are heated sauces in a saucepan off-heat and cooled. During the chemical leavening process, agents are added into the dough during mixing and these agents undergo a chemical reaction to produce carbon dioxide, which increases the baked goods volume and produces a porous structure and lighter texture. Yeast breads often take hours to rise, and the baked goods texture can vary greatly based on external factors such as temperature. By contrast, breads made with chemical leavening agents are relatively uniform, reliable, usually, the resulting baked good is softer and lighter than a traditional yeast bread. Baking powder contains both an acid and a base in dry powdered form, and simply needs a medium in which to react. Other alternative leavening agents are egg whites mechanically beaten to form stiff peaks, as in the case of many recipes, or steam. Nevertheless, in a process, designated chemical leavening acids and bases are used to make gas production consistent. Examples of acid—base combinations include, Almost all quick breads have the basic ingredients, flour, leavening, eggs, fat. Ingredients beyond these basic constituents are added for variations in flavor, the type of bread produced varies based predominantly on the method of mixing, the major flavoring, and the ratio of liquid in the batter. Some batters are thin enough to pour, and others thick enough to mold into lumps and it calls for measurement of dry and wet ingredients separately, then quickly mixing the two
23.
Cake
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Cake is a form of sweet dessert that is typically baked. Typical cake ingredients are flour, sugar, eggs, butter or oil, a liquid, common additional ingredients and flavourings include dried, candied, or fresh fruit, nuts, cocoa, and extracts such as vanilla, with numerous substitutions for the primary ingredients. Cakes can also be filled with preserves or dessert sauces, iced with buttercream or other icings. Cake is often served as a dish on ceremonial occasions, such as weddings, anniversaries. There are countless cake recipes, some are bread-like, some are rich and elaborate, the term cake has a long history. The word itself is of Viking origin, from the Old Norse word kaka, the ancient Greeks called cake πλακοῦς, which was derived from the word for flat, πλακόεις. It was baked using flour mixed with eggs, milk, nuts and they also had a cake called “satura”, which was a flat heavy cake. During the Roman period, the name for cake became “placenta” which was derived from the Greek term, placenta were baked on a pastry base or inside a pastry case The Greeks invented beer as a leavener, frying fritters in olive oil, and cheesecakes using goats milk. In ancient Rome, basic bread dough was sometimes enriched with butter, eggs, and honey, latin poet Ovid refers his and his brothers birthday party and cake in his first book of exile, Tristia. Sponge cakes, leavened with beaten eggs, originated during the Renaissance, during the Great Depression, there was a surplus of molasses and the need to provide easily made food to millions of economically depressed people in the United States. One company patented a cake-bread mix in order to deal with this economic situation, in so doing, cake as it is known today became a mass-produced good rather than a home- or bakery-made specialty. Later, during the boom, other American companies developed this idea further, marketing cake mix on the principle of convenience. When sales dropped heavily in the 1950s, marketers discovered that the cake in a box rendered the cake-making function of housewives relatively dispiriting, in order to compensate for this situation, the marketing psychologist Ernest Dichter ushered in the solution to the cake mix problem, frosting. Ever since, cake in a box has become a staple of supermarkets, Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily on ingredients and mixing techniques. Although clear examples of the difference between cake and bread are easy to find, the classification has always been elusive. For example, banana bread may be considered either a quick bread or a cake. Butter cakes are made from creamed butter, sugar, eggs and they rely on the combination of butter and sugar beaten for an extended time to incorporate air into the batter. A classic pound cake is made with a pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, baking powder is in many butter cakes, such as Victoria sponge
24.
Cookie
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A cookie is a baked or cooked good that is small, flat, and sweet, usually containing flour, sugar and some type of oil or fat. It may include ingredients such as raisins, oats, chocolate chips or nuts. In most English-speaking countries except for the US and Canada, crisp cookies are called biscuits, chewier biscuits are sometimes called cookies even in the UK. Some cookies may also be named by their shape, such as squares or bars. Cookies or biscuits may be mass-produced in factories, made in bakeries or home-made. Cookies are often served with such as milk, coffee or tea. Factory-made cookies are sold in stores, convenience stores and vending machines. Fresh-baked cookies are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses, with the latter ranging from small business-sized establishments to multinational corporations such as Starbucks, in most English-speaking countries outside North America, including the United Kingdom, the most common word for a crisp cookie is biscuit. The term cookie is used to describe chewier ones. However, in many regions both terms are used, in Scotland the term cookie is sometimes used to describe a plain bun. Cookies that are baked as a layer on a sheet pan and then cut. According to the Scottish National Dictionary, its Scottish name derives from the form of the word cook, giving the Middle Scots cookie. It also gives an etymology, from the Dutch word koekje, the diminutive of koek. There was much trade and cultural contact across the North Sea between the Low Countries and Scotland during the Middle Ages, which can also be seen in the history of curling and, perhaps, golf. Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on how long it is baked, a general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base as thin as possible, in the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil
25.
Fermentation in food processing
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Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desired, the science of fermentation is known as zymology or zymurgy. The term fermentation sometimes refers specifically to the conversion of sugars into ethanol, producing alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer. However, similar processes take place in the leavening of bread, other widely consumed fermented foods include vinegar, olives, and cheese. More localised foods prepared by fermentation may also be based on beans, grain, vegetables, fruit, honey, dairy products, fish, meat, since ancient times, humans have exploited the fermentation process. Seven-thousand-year-old jars containing the remains of wine, now on display at the University of Pennsylvania, were excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting alcoholic drinks in Babylon c.3000 BC, ancient Egypt c.3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico c.2000 BC, the French chemist Louis Pasteur founded zymology, when in 1856 he connected yeast to fermentation. When studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was catalyzed by a force, called ferments. The ferments were thought to only within living organisms. Alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells, nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts can ferment sugar even in the absence of living yeast cells. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research, one year earlier, in 1906, ethanol fermentation studies led to the early discovery of NAD+. Food fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates into alcohol or preservative organic acids, all three products have found human uses. The production of carbon dioxide is used to leaven bread, the production of organic acids is exploited to preserve and flavor vegetables and dairy products. It has more cases of botulism than any state in the United States of America. The World Health Organization has classified pickled foods as possibly carcinogenic, other research found that fermented food contains a carcinogenic by-product, ethyl carbamate. A2009 review of the studies conducted across Asia concluded that regularly eating pickled vegetables roughly doubles a persons risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Science aid, Fermentation - Process and uses of fermentation Fermented cereals, a global perspective - FAO1999
26.
American Cookery
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American Cookery, by Amelia Simmons, is the first known cookbook written by an American, published in Hartford, Connecticut in 1796. Until then, the printed and used in the Thirteen Colonies were British. This book was popular and was printed, reprinted and pirated for 30 years after its first appearance. Only four copies of the first edition are known to exist, the only biographical information known about the author is from the cover and title pages of her cookbook that list her as Amelia Simmons, An American Orphan, all else is by inference. American Cookery is her only published work. The preface reads, The candor of the American Ladies is solicitously intreated by the Authoress, as she is circumscribed in her knowledge and this indicates that she probably lacked formal education. Based on other quotes from her preface, she was most likely a domestic laborer and she wrote of those females who have parents, or brothers, or riches, and how female orphans may be reduced to the necessity of going into families in the line of domestics. Culinary historian Karen Hess says that because. the first edition is from Hartford and this assumption is bolstered by the inclusion of southern New England specialties such as Indian pudding and johnnycakes. However, many of the editions were published from a cluster around the Hudson River Valley. Also, several Dutch words appeared in her work, words that would have more likely come from that region, so a case can be made that Simmons more likely came from the Hudson Valley region. Karen Hess also referred to Miss Simmons as a good cook, noting the generous use and variety of herbs. Simmons also showed the use of English extraordinarily fine roasting techniques in her recipes, there were 13 known editions of this book published between 1796 and 1831. American Cookery has also reprinted in several editions and formats in the 20th Century. The first edition was published in 1796 by Hudson & Goodwin of Hartford, the words For the Author on the title page likely indicate that Simmons paid the printing costs herself. The book was issued without hard covers, the page also served as the front cover. The second edition was published in 1796, but by Charles R. and George Webster of Albany. The second edition consists of 64 pages, in 1808, Lucy Emerson plagiarized Simmonss book by renaming part of the title and copying verbatim most of the rest of it. She changed the words American Cookery to The New-England Cookery, published in Montpelier, VT in 1808
27.
Potash
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Potash /ˈpɒtæʃ/ is any of various mined and manufactured salts that contain potassium in water-soluble form. The name derives from pot ash, which refers to plant ashes soaked in water in a pot, the word potassium is derived from potash. Potash is produced worldwide at amounts exceeding 30 million tonnes per year, various types of fertilizer-potash thus constitute the single largest global industrial use of the element potassium. Potassium was first derived by electrolysis of caustic potash, in 1807, Potash refers to potassium compounds and potassium-bearing materials, the most common being potassium chloride. The term potash comes from the Middle Dutch word potaschen, approximately 10% by weight of common wood ash can be recovered as pot ash. Later, potash became the term applied to naturally occurring potassium salts. Potash ores are rich in potassium chloride and sodium chloride and are typically obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. Other methods include dissolution mining and evaporation methods from brines, in the evaporation method hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. Amine reagents are added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl, air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for plant nutrition. Potash deposits can be all over the world. At present deposits are being mined in Canada, Russia, China, Belarus, Israel, Germany, Chile, the United States, Jordan, Spain, Potash has been used in bleaching textiles, making glass, and making soap, since about AD500. Potash was principally obtained by leaching the ashes of land and sea plants, beginning in the 14th century potash was mined in Ethiopia. One of the worlds largest deposits,140 to 150 million tons, is located in the Tigrays Dallol area, Potash was one of the most important industrial chemicals in Canada. It was refined from the ashes of broadleaved trees and produced primarily in the areas of Europe, Russia. The first U. S. patent of any kind was issued in 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for an improvement in the making of Pot ash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus, Pearl ash was a purer quality made by the ignition of cream of tartar. Potash pits were used in England to produce potash that was used in making soap for the preparation of wool for yarn production
28.
Baking powder
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Baking powder is a dry chemical leavening agent, a mixture of a carbonate or bicarbonate and a weak acid, and is used for increasing the volume and lightening the texture of baked goods. Baking powder works by releasing carbon dioxide gas into a batter or dough through a reaction, causing bubbles in the wet mixture to expand. Because carbon dioxide is released at a faster rate through the reaction than through fermentation. Most commercially available baking powders are made up of sodium bicarbonate, typical formulations call for 30% sodium bicarbonate, 5-12% monocalcium phosphate, and 21-26% sodium aluminum sulfate. The last two ingredients are acidic, they combine with the bicarbonate and water to produce the gaseous carbon dioxide. The use of two components is the basis of the term double acting. Another typical acid in such formulations is cream of tartar, a derivative of tartaric acid, Baking powders also include components to help with the consistency and stability of the mixture. Commercial baking powder formulations are different from domestic ones, although the principles remain the same, instead of sodium aluminum sulfate, commercial baking powders use sodium acid pyrophosphate as one of the two acidic components. The most important additive is cornstarch, although potato starch may also be used, the inert starch serves several functions in baking powder. Primarily it is used to absorb moisture, and thus prolong shelf life by keeping the powders additional alkaline, a dry powder also flows and mixes more easily. Finally, the added bulk allows for accurate measurements. The acid in a powder can be either fast-acting or slow-acting. A fast-acting acid reacts in a wet mixture with baking soda at room temperature, Baking powders that contain both fast- and slow-acting acids are double acting, those that contain only one acid are single acting. Double-acting baking powders work in two phases, once when cold, and once when hot, common low-temperature acid salts include cream of tartar and monocalcium phosphate. High-temperature acid salts include sodium sulfate, sodium aluminum phosphate. Despite very low toxicity, exposure to aluminum salts has raised concerns regarding potential neurotoxicity. For example, Rumford Baking Powder is a double acting consumer product that contains only monocalcium phosphate as a leavening acid, with this acid, about two-thirds of the available gas is released within about two minutes of mixing at room temperature. It then becomes dormant because a form of dicalcium phosphate is generated during the initial mixing
29.
Monocalcium phosphate
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Monocalcium phosphate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ca2. It is commonly found as the monohydrate, Ca2·H2O and they are used mainly as superphosphate fertilizers and are also popular leavening agents. Using phosphoric acid, fluorapatite is converted to Ca2, Ca53F +7 H3PO4 →5 Ca2 + HF This solid is called triple superphosphate, several million tons are produced annually for use as fertilizers. Residual HF typically reacts with silicate minerals co-mingled with the ores to produce hydrofluorosilicic acid. The majority of the acid is converted to aluminium fluoride. These materials are central to the conversion of aluminium ore into aluminium metal, when sulfuric acid is used, the product contains phosphogypsum and is called single superphosphate. Calcium dihydrogen phosphate is used in the industry as a leavening agent. Because it is acidic, when combined with an ingredient, commonly sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate, it reacts to produce carbon dioxide. Outward pressure of the carbon dioxide gas causes the rising effect, AMCP and MCP are fast acting, releasing most carbon dioxide within minutes of mixing. It is popularly used in pancake mixes, in double acting baking powders, MCP is often combined with the slow acting acid sodium acid pyrophosphate. Dicalcium phosphate Havlin, J. L. J. D. Beaton, 7th edn. Pearson Prentice Hall, N. J
30.
Disodium pyrophosphate
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Disodium pyrophosphate or sodium acid pyrophosphate is an inorganic compound consisting of sodium cations and pyrophosphate anion. It is a white, water-soluble solid that serves as a buffering and chelating agent, when crystallised from water, it forms a hexahydrate, but it dehydrates above room temperature. Pyrophosphate is a polyvalent anion with an affinity for polyvalent cations. Disodium pyrophosphate is produced by heating sodium dihydrogen phosphate,2 NaH2PO4 → Na2H2P2O7 + H2O Disodium pyrophosphate is a popular leavening agent found in baking powders. It combines with bicarbonate to release carbon dioxide, Na2H2P2O7 + NaHCO3 → Na3HP2O7 + CO2 + H2O It is available in a variety of grades that affect the speed of its action. Because the resulting phosphate residue has an off-taste, SAPP is usually used in sweet cakes which mask the off-taste. In the United States, it is classified as generally recognized as safe for food use, in canned seafood, it is used to maintain color and reduce purge during retorting. Retorting achieves microbial stability with heat and it is an acid source for reaction with baking soda to leaven baked goods. In baking powder, it is labeled as food additive E450. In cured meats, it speeds the conversion of sodium nitrite to nitrite by forming the nitrous acid intermediate, Disodium pyrophosphate is also found in frozen hash browns and other potato products, where it is used to keep the color of the potatoes from darkening. In leather treatment, it can be used to remove stains on hides during processing. It can stabilize hydrogen peroxide solutions against reduction and it can be used with sulfamic acid in some dairy applications for cleaning, especially to remove soapstone. When added to scalding water, it facilitates removal of hair and scurf in hog slaughter and feathers, in petroleum production, it can be used as a dispersant in oil well drilling muds. It is used in cat foods as a palatability additive, Disodium pyrophosphate is used as a tartar control agent in toothpastes
31.
Steam
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Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils. Steam is invisible, however, steam often refers to wet steam, at lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 °C at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam, piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the worlds electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure. Steam explosions have been responsible for many accidents, and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster. Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high temperature all of the water evaporates. Superheated steam is steam at a higher than its boiling point for the pressure. Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/steam and are used by engineers and scientists in design. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article. Steam charts are used for analysing thermodynamic cycles. In agriculture, steam is used for sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents. Steams capacity to transfer heat is used in the home, for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing. About 90% of all electricity is generated using steam as the working fluid, in electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The worlds biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, in other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a reservoir for thermal energy because of waters high heat of vaporization
32.
Atmosphere of Earth
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The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earths gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention. By volume, dry air contains 78. 09% nitrogen,20. 95% oxygen,0. 93% argon,0. 04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains an amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level. The atmosphere has a mass of about 5. 15×1018 kg, the atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km, or 1. 57% of Earths radius, is used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km, several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition. The study of Earths atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science, early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann. The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earths atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor accounts for roughly 0. 25% of the atmosphere by mass. The remaining gases are often referred to as gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide. Filtered air includes trace amounts of other chemical compounds. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine, fluorine compounds, sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere, however, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions. In this way, Earths atmosphere can be divided into five main layers, excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km where it merges into the solar wind. This layer is composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another, thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind, the exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible
33.
Popover
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Popovers may be served either as a sweet—topped with fruit and whipped cream or butter and jam for breakfast or with afternoon tea—or with meats at lunch and dinner. The name popover comes from the fact that the batter swells or pops over the top of the muffin tin while baking, another name for them is Lapplander, a term for the Sami people. The popover is an American version of Yorkshire pudding and similar batter puddings made in England since the 17th century, the oldest known reference to popovers is in a letter of E. E. Stuarts in 1850. The first cookbook to print a recipe for popovers was M. N. Henderson, the first book other than a cookbook to mention popovers was Jesuits Ring by A. A. Hayes published in 1892. The result is called Portland popover pudding, individual balloons of crusty meat-flavored pastry, other American popover variations include replacing some of the flour with pumpkin puree and adding spices such as allspice or nutmeg. Most American popovers today, however, are not flavored with meat or herbs, instead, they have a buttery taste. Ogden Nash inverts the order of events. Lets call Yorkshire pudding A fortunate blunder, Its a sort of popover That turned and popped under
34.
Yorkshire pudding
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Yorkshire pudding is an English food made from batter consisting of eggs, flour, and milk or water. It is often served with beef and gravy and is part of the traditional Sunday roast, similar instructions were published during 1747 in the book The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse, with the name Yorkshire pudding. It was she who renamed the version, known as Dripping Pudding. An early recipe appeared in Sir Alexander William George Casseys The Whole Duty of a Woman during 1737, because the rich gravy from the roast meat drippings was used up with the first course, the main meat and vegetable course was often served with a parsley or white sauce. In poorer households, the pudding was served as the only course. Using dripping and blood, a meal was made with flour, eggs. This was traditionally eaten with a gravy or sauce, to moisten the pudding, the Yorkshire pudding is meant to rise. The Royal Society of Chemistry suggested during 2008 that A Yorkshire pudding isnt a Yorkshire pudding if it is less than four inches tall. Yorkshire pudding is cooked by pouring a batter made from milk, flour and eggs into preheated, oiled, a basic formula uses 1⁄3 cup flour and 1⁄3 cup liquid per egg. Yorkshire Pudding at Wikibook Cookbooks Media related to Yorkshire pudding at Wikimedia Commons
35.
Tempura
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Tempura is a Japanese dish of seafood or vegetables that have been battered and deep fried. A light batter is made of water and soft wheat flour. Eggs, baking soda or baking powder, starch, oil, the batter is often kept cold by adding ice, or by placing the bowl inside a larger bowl with ice in it. Overmixing the batter will result in activation of wheat gluten, which causes the mixture to become soft. Specially formulated tempura flour is available in worldwide supermarkets and this is generally light flour, and occasionally contains leaveners such as baking powder. Tempura generally does not use breadcrumbs in the coating, generally, fried foods which are coated with breadcrumbs are considered to be furai, Japanese-invented Western-style deep fried foods, such as tonkatsu or ebi furai. Thin slices or strips of vegetables or seafood are dipped in the batter, vegetable oil or canola oil are most common, however, tempura was traditionally cooked using sesame oil. Many specialty shops still use oil or tea seed oil. Oil temperature is kept between 160 and 180 degrees Celsius, depending on the ingredient. To preserve the flavor and texture of the ingredients, care is taken not to overcook tempura. Cooking times range between a few seconds for delicate leaf vegetables, to several minutes for thick items or large kaki-age fritters, the bits of batter are scooped out between batches of tempura, so they do not burn and leave a bad flavor in the oil. A small mesh scoop is used for this purpose, tenkasu are often reserved as ingredients in other dishes or as a topping. Various seafood and vegetables are used as the ingredients in traditional tempura. The most popular seafood tempura is probably ebi tempura, types of seafood used in tempura includes, Vegetables tempura is called yasai tempura. The all vegetable tempura might be served as a vegetarian dish, types of vegetables includes, Cooked bits of tempura are either eaten with dipping sauce, salted without sauce, or used to assemble other dishes. Tempura is commonly served with grated daikon and eaten hot immediately after frying, in Japan, it is often found in bowls of soba or udon soup often in the form of a shrimp, shiso leaf, or fritter. The most common sauce is tentsuyu sauce, alternatively, tempura may be sprinkled with sea salt before eating. Mixtures of powdered green tea and salt or yuzu and salt are also used, kakiage is a type of tempura made with mixed vegetable strips, such as onion, carrot, and burdock, and sometimes including shrimp or squid, which are deep fried as small round fritters
36.
Nitrous oxide
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Nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas or nitrous, is a chemical compound, an oxide of nitrogen with the formula N 2O. At room temperature, it is a colorless, odorless non-flammable gas, at elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular oxygen. Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses, especially in surgery and dentistry and its name laughing gas is due to the euphoric effects of inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic. It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket propellants, Nitrous oxide occurs in small amounts in the atmosphere, but has been found recently to be a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone, with impact comparable to that of CFCs. It is estimated that 30% of the N 2O in the atmosphere is the result of human activity, Nitrous oxide can be used as an oxidizer in a rocket motor. This has the advantages over other oxidisers in that it is not only non-toxic, as a secondary benefit it can be readily decomposed to form breathing air. Its high density and low storage pressure enable it to be competitive with stored high-pressure gas systems. In a 1914 patent, American rocket pioneer Robert Goddard suggested nitrous oxide, Nitrous oxide has been the oxidiser of choice in several hybrid rocket designs. The combination of nitrous oxide with hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene fuel has been used by SpaceShipOne and it is also notably used in amateur and high power rocketry with various plastics as the fuel. Nitrous oxide can also be used in a monopropellant rocket, in the presence of a heated catalyst, N 2O will decompose exothermically into nitrogen and oxygen, at a temperature of approximately 1,070 °F. Because of the heat release, the catalytic action rapidly becomes secondary as thermal autodecomposition becomes dominant. In a vacuum thruster, this can provide a monopropellant specific impulse of as much as 180 s, while noticeably less than the Isp available from hydrazine thrusters, the decreased toxicity makes nitrous oxide an option worth investigating. Nitrous oxide is said to deflagrate somewhere around 600 °C at a pressure of 21 atmospheres, at 600 psi for example, the required ignition energy is only 6 joules, whereas N 2O at 130 psi a 2500-joule ignition energy input is insufficient. In vehicle racing, nitrous oxide allows the engine to burn more fuel by providing more oxygen than air alone, the gas itself is not flammable at a low pressure/temperature, but it delivers more oxygen than atmospheric air by breaking down at elevated temperatures. Therefore, it is mixed with another fuel that is easier to deflagrate. Nitrous oxide is a strong oxidant roughly equivalent to hydrogen peroxide, Nitrous oxide is sometimes injected into the intake manifold, whereas other systems directly inject right before the cylinder to increase power. The technique was used during World War II by Luftwaffe aircraft with the GM-1 system to boost the output of aircraft engines. Originally meant to provide the Luftwaffe standard aircraft with superior high-altitude performance, accordingly, it was only used by specialized planes like high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft, high-speed bombers, and high-altitude interceptor aircraft
37.
Creaming (food)
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L Creaming is used to refer to several different culinary processes. Creaming, in sense, is the technique of softening solid fat, like shortening or butter, into a smooth mass. The technique is most often used in making buttercream, cake batter or cookie dough, the dry ingredients are mixed or beaten with the softened fat until it becomes light and fluffy and increased in volume, due to the incorporation of tiny air bubbles. These air bubbles, locked into the fat, remain in the final batter and expand as the item is baked. It then gives it a nice finish to the cake, creamed food, in cooking, denotes food that is prepared by slow simmering or poaching in milk or cream. Some typical creamed dishes include creamed corn and creamed chipped beef on toast, some commercial preparations of creamed food substitute water and a starch for all or some of the milk or cream. This produces a creamy texture with no actual cream or milk used, Creaming in milk production is the process by which cream rises to the top of un-homogenized milk. In this sense, the word is similar to the term creaming as it is used in chemistry
38.
Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
39.
Mixer (cooking)
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A mixer is a kitchen utensil which uses a gear-driven mechanism to rotate a set of beaters in a bowl containing the food to be prepared. It automates the tasks of stirring, whisking or beating. When the beaters are replaced by a hook, a mixer may also be used to knead. A mixer may be a mechanism known as an eggbeater. Stand mixers vary in size from small counter top models for use to large capacity commercial machines. Stand mixers create the mixing action by rotating the mixing device vertically, mixers for the kitchen first came into use midway through the nineteenth century, the earliest were mechanical devices. The demand from commercial bakers for large-scale uniform mixing resulted in the development of the electric stand mixer, smaller counter-top stand mixers for home kitchen use soon followed. When selecting a mixer, the purchaser should consider how the mixer will be used, electric mixers with more speed options give the user more control over the development of the mixture. An eggbeater is a device with a crank on the side geared to one or more beaters. The user grips the handle with one hand and operates the crank with the other, a mixer is a kitchen utensil which uses a gear-driven mechanism to rotate a set of beaters in a bowl containing the food to be prepared. It automates the tasks of stirring, whisking or beating. When the beaters are replaced by a hook, a mixer may also be used to knead. A mixer may be a mechanism known as an eggbeater. Stand mixers vary in size from small counter top models for use to large capacity commercial machines. Stand mixers create the mixing action by rotating the mixing device vertically, mixers for the kitchen first came into use midway through the nineteenth century, the earliest were mechanical devices. The demand from commercial bakers for large-scale uniform mixing resulted in the development of the electric stand mixer, smaller counter-top stand mixers for home kitchen use soon followed. When selecting a mixer, the purchaser should consider how the mixer will be used, electric mixers with more speed options give the user more control over the development of the mixture. Stand mixers mount the motor driving the action in a frame or stand which bears the weight of the device
40.
Whisk
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A whisk is a cooking utensil which can be used to blend ingredients smooth, or to incorporate air into a mixture, in a process known as whisking or whipping. Most whisks consist of a long, narrow handle with a series of wire loops joined at the end, the wires are usually metal, but some are plastic for use with nonstick cookware. Whisks are also made from bamboo, whisks are commonly used to whip egg whites into a firm foam to make meringue, or to whip cream into whipped cream. An 18th century Shaker recipe calls to “Cut a handful of peach twigs which are filled with sap at this season of the year, clip the ends and bruise them and beat the cake batter with them. This will impart a delicate peach flavor to the cake. ”The wire whisk was invented by the Victorians in the 19th century, however, they were not in use until Julia Child used one in her first ever televised appearance. The television broadcast was on the television show Ive been Reading to promote her new book “Mastering the Art of French Cooking. ”The most common shape is that of a wide teardrop, termed a balloon whisk. Balloon whisks are best suited to mixing in bowls, as their curved edges conform to a bowls concave sides, with longer, narrower wire loops, the French whisk has a more cylindrical profile, suiting it to deep, straight-sided pans. A flat whisk, sometimes referred to as a roux whisk, has the loops arranged in a flat successive pattern and it is useful for working in shallow vessels like skillets. A gravy whisk, sometimes referred to as a spiral whisk, the angle of the whisk head is ideal for mixing gravy, jello, batters and sauces. Similarly, a twirl whisk or a coil whisk has one single wire that is spiralled into a balloon shape, designed to remain stationary in a bowl while the user pumps the handle up and down, it circulates liquids readily throughout a bowl. It is not suitable for whisking in the sense, since dragging the whisk through a liquid or batter simply stretches out the coils. Ball whisks have no loops whatsoever, instead, a group of individual wires comes out of the handle, each tipped with a metal ball. The heavy balls are capable of reaching into the corners of a straight-sided pan, since there are no crossing wires, the ball whisk is easier to clean than traditional looped varieties. Manufacturers of ball whisks also purport that their shape allows for better aeration, a cage whisk, sometimes referred to as a ball whisk, is a balloon whisk with a small spherical cage trapped inside of it, which in turn holds a metal ball. Since the 19th century, various mechanical devices have been designed to make whisking more efficient, under the names egg beater, rotary mixer, etc
41.
Cream
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Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location
42.
Egg white
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Albumen is the name for the clear liquid contained within an egg. In chickens it is formed from the layers of secretions of the section of the hens oviduct during the passage of the egg. It forms around fertilized or unfertilized egg yolks, the primary natural purpose of egg white is to protect the yolk and provide additional nutrition for the growth of the embryo. Egg white consists primarily of about 90% water into which is dissolved about 10% proteins, unlike the yolk, which is high in lipids, egg white contains almost no fat, and carbohydrate content is less than 1%. Egg whites contain just over 50% of the protein in the egg, Egg white has many uses in food and also many other uses. Egg white makes up around two-thirds of an egg by weight. Water constitutes about 90% of this, with protein, trace minerals, fatty material, vitamins, and glucose contributing the remainder. A raw U. S. large egg contains around 33 grams of egg white with 3.6 grams of protein,0.24 grams of carbohydrate and 55 milligrams of sodium and it contains no cholesterol and the energy content is about 17 Calories. Egg white is a solution and contains around 148 proteins. The table below lists the major proteins in egg whites by percentage, ovalbumin is the most abundant protein in albumen. Classed as phosphoglycoprotein, during storage, it converts into s-ovalbumin, Denaturation temperature is around 84°C, but it can be easily denatured by physical stresses. Conalbumin/ovotransferrin is a glycoprotein which has the capacity to bind the bi-, at its isoelectric pH, it can bind two cations and assume a red or yellow color. These metal complexes are more stable than the native state. Ovomucoid is the major allergen from egg white and is a heat-resistant glycoprotein found to be a trypsin inhibitor, ovomucin is a glycoprotein which may contribute to the gel-like structure of thick albumen. The amount of ovomucin in the thick albumen is four times greater than in the thin albumen, the physical stress of beating egg whites can create a foam. Two types of stress are caused by beating them with a whisk. The second stress comes from the mixing of air into the whites, when beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted, soft, firm, and stiff peaks. Overbeaten eggs take on a dry appearance, and eventually collapse, Egg whites do not beat up correctly if they are exposed to any form of fat, such as cooking oils or the fats contained in egg yolk
43.
Sponge cake
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Sponge cake is a cake based on flour, sugar, butter and eggs, and is sometimes leavened with baking powder. It has a firm, yet well aerated structure, similar to a sea sponge, in the United Kingdom a sponge cake is produced using the batter method, while in the US cakes made using the batter method are known as a butter or pound cake. Two common British batter method sponge cakes are the layered Victoria sponge cake, cake made using the foam method is not a classed as a sponge cake in the UK, it is a foam cake, which is quite different. These cakes are common in Europe, especially in Italian patisseries, derivatives of the basic sponge cake idea include the American chiffon cake and the Latin American tres leches cake. Weigh three eggs, and use an equivalent weight of fat, sugar, and flour, in the French version the yolks are beaten with the sugar first while the whites are beaten separately to a meringue-like foam, to be gently folded in later. The mixture is poured into a cake tin and baked. Both methods take care to incorporate air in the beating, whisking. This makes a very light product, but it is easy to lose the air by removing the cake from the oven before it has finished cooking, before the cooked cake has cooled, it is still flexible. This allows the creation of rolled cakes such as the Swiss roll and this basic recipe is also used for many treats and puddings, such as madeleines, ladyfingers, and trifles, as well as some versions of strawberry shortcake. In addition, the foam cake technique is used in angel food cake, the Victoria sponge, also known as the Victoria sandwich or Victorian cake, was named after Queen Victoria, who was known to enjoy a slice of the sponge cake with her afternoon tea. It is often referred to simply as sponge cake, though it contains additional fat, a typical Victoria sponge consists of raspberry jam and whipped double cream or vanilla cream. The jam and cream are sandwiched between two sponge cakes, the top of the cake is not iced or decorated apart from a dusting of icing sugar. The Womens Institute publishes a variation on the Victoria sandwich that has raspberry jam as the filling and is dusted with caster sugar, a Victoria sponge is made using one of two methods. The traditional method involves creaming caster sugar with fat, mixing thoroughly with beaten egg, then folding flour, the modern method, using an electric mixer or food processor, involves simply whisking all the ingredients together until creamy. Additionally, the method typically uses an extra raising agent. Both the traditional and modern methods are quick and simple, producing consistent results, making this type of mixture one of the most popular for children. This basic cake mixture has been made into a widevariety of treats and puddings, including cupcakes, chocolate cake, although simple to make, Victoria sponge recipes are notoriously sensitive to cooking times and temperatures. As such, oven manufacturers often use a Victoria sponge recipe to test their ovens, since sponge cakes are not leavened with yeast, they are popular dessert choices for the Passover feast
44.
Chorleywood Bread Process
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The Chorleywood bread process is a process of making dough in bread production. The process was developed in 1961 by the British Baking Industries Research Association based at Chorleywood, compared to the older bulk fermentation process, the CBP is able to use lower protein wheat, and produces bread in a shorter time. CBP is able to use lower-protein wheat because some protein is lost during bulk fermentation of traditional bread and this is achieved through the addition of ascorbic acid, fat, yeast, and intense mechanical working by high-speed mixers. The last requirement means that it is difficult to reproduce CBP in a small-scale kitchen, the CBP is only a method of producing quick-ripened bread dough. Large-scale bread-making with automated processes pre-dates the CBP by at least a century, Flour, water, yeast, salt, fat, and, where used, minor ingredients common to many bread-making techniques such as Vitamin C, emulsifiers and enzymes are mechanically mixed for about three minutes. The high-shear mixing generates high temperatures in the dough, which is cooled in some advanced mixers using a cooling jacket, chilled water or ice may also be used to counteract the temperature rise during high-speed mixing. Air pressure in the mixer headspace can be controlled to keep gas bubbles at the desired size, typical operating regimes are pressure followed by vacuum, and atmospheric followed by vacuum. The pressure control during mixing affects the fineness of crumb texture in the finished bread, in typical high-volume bread-production, the dough is cut into individual pieces and allowed to recover for 5–8 minutes. Each piece of dough is shaped, placed in a baking tin and moved to the humidity- and temperature-controlled proofing chamber. It is now ready to be baked, Baking takes 17–25 minutes at 450 °F. After baking, the loaves are removed from the tin and then go to the cooler. In UK-standard bread, the piece is cross-panned at the moulding stage. Cross-panned bread appears to have a finer and whiter crumb texture than the shape of the crumb bubble structure is seen from a different orientation. Cross-panned bread is easier to slice, CBP is used in over 80 percent of factory-produced bread in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and India. Many smaller bakers also use the CBP to mix their dough which they then process by hand, many speciality, crusty, and organic breads are produced this way. Since the introduction of the process, many UK domestic wheat varieties have been improved, Flour suitable for traditional high quality pan bread can now be sourced in the United Kingdom. Prior to the CBP, UK bread was hugely reliant on imported wheat, vienna bread, early innovative European bread process Flour treatment agent The Federation of Bakers
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Aerated Bread Company
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The Aerated Bread Company Ltd was a company founded and headquartered in the United Kingdom. The Aerated Bread Company Ltd was founded in 1862 by Dr. John Dauglish, the business was created as an incorporated company listed on the London Stock Exchange. When the company was floated, its failure was predicted and its public offering was poorly supported. However, its initial £1 shares eventually rose to £5 7s 8d by 1890, by 1898, shares had more than doubled from their 1890 value and were trading at £12 per share and declaring a dividend of 37½ percent. By 1899, A. B. C. shares had increased a further 16⅔ percent and were trading at £14 per share, Dauglish earned his medical degree at Edinburgh. Having been thoroughly unimpressed by the Scottish bread of the day, he began to make his own, when he applied his earlier studies in chemistry to the process of bread making, he determined that it would be possible to produce carbonic acid gas in bread without yeast. Dauglish sought to abolish manual kneading, which he believed was unclean, Richardson remarked, not “time-honoured system of kneading dough by the hands and feet of the workman. ”Such a system would also lend itself to a high degree of automation. This method thus leavens bread, without yeast, by forcing carbon dioxide into the dough under pressure, a patent for the new method of bread making was granted in 1856. In 1859 Dauglish presented a paper on his new method to the Royal Society of Arts, also, Dauglishs method received endorsements from various Victorian-era physicians and sanitarians helping to further cement the future success of his endeavour. Moreover, because it was considered a bread, it was introduced into many hospitals. In 1862 the Aerated Bread Company was set up to exploit Dauglishs newly patented method, the aeration method accrues to the bakery three production economies, material savings, time savings, and labour savings. The process is an automated one, and thus saves time. And since the dough is ready for the ovens so quickly. Finally, the lack of most additives to enhance the process reduces the cost of factor inputs while also producing a virtually unadulterated product. The technology so reduced the cost of production, that it meant that A. B. C. could sell its product for less than its competitors, the downward impact on prices of A. B. C. Moving into a market could be felt almost immediately, for example, in 1866 Australia, A. B. C. s lower prices forced other bakers to reduce theirs in turn, by between 8 and 17 percent. Competition from A. B. C. had more than just an effect on the traditional fermentation bakers. The traditional fermentation process produces alcohol within the dough, though all of it dissipates in the extreme heat of the ovens
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Chametz
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Chametz, also Chometz, Ḥametz, Ḥameṣ, Ḥameç and other spellings transliterated from Hebrew, חָמֵץ / חמץ, are leavened foods that are forbidden on the Jewish holiday of Passover. According to Jewish law, Jews may not own, eat or benefit from chametz during Passover and this law appears several times in the Torah, the punishment for eating chametz on Passover is the divine punishment of kareth, one of the severest levels of punishment in Judaism. For non-Jews, this punishment would be understood as the equivalent of eternal damnation, Chametz is a product that is both made from one of five types of grain and has been combined with water and left to stand raw for longer than eighteen minutes and becomes leaven. The word chametz is derived from the common Semitic root Ḥ-M-Ṣ, relating to bread, leavening and it is cognate to the Aramaic חמע, to ferment, leaven and the Arabic حمض ḥameḍ, to be sour, to become acidic. The Torah has several commandments governing chametz during Passover, The positive commandment to remove all chametz from ones home, not to possess chametz in ones domain. Not to eat chametz, or mixtures containing chametz, the prohibitions take effect around late morning on the eve of Passover, or the 14th of the month of Nisan, in the Jewish calendar. Chametz is permitted again from nightfall after the day of Passover, which is the 21st day of the month. Traditional Jewish homes spend the days leading up to Passover cleaning and removing all traces of chametz from the house, all fruits, grains, and grasses for example naturally adhere wild yeasts and other microorganisms. This is the basis of all historic fermentation processes in human culture that were utilized for the production of beer, wine, bread and silage, amongst others. Chametz from the five grains is the result of a natural microbial enzymatic activity which is caused by exposing grain starch—which has not been sterilized and this causes the dissolved starch to ferment and break down into sugars which then become nutrients to the naturally contained yeasts. According to the Talmud, chametz can only consist of grains of two varieties of wheat and three varieties of barley which begin to rise when exposed to water, after that the Talmud groups them into two varieties of wheat Triticum and three varieties of barley Hordeum. Note, the types of grain, oats and rye, normally are not cultivated in the hot, dry subtropical climate. They offer other translations to the 5 grains, however, just as before, this research has had no effect on normative Judaism, which continues to accept the traditional translation. According to the Talmud, when any other cultivated grain from the climate regions is exposed to water it begins to decay or rot. Leavening agents, such as yeast or baking soda, are not themselves chametz, rather, it is the fermented grains. Thus yeast may be used in making wine, similarly, baking soda may be used in Passover baked goods made with matzoh meal and in matzoh balls. Since the matzoh meal used in foods are already baked. Whether a chemical such as baking soda may be used with flour in making egg matzoh is disputed among contemporary Sephardic authorities
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Passover
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Passover or Pesach, is an important, biblically derived Jewish holiday. The Jewish people celebrate Passover as a commemoration of their liberation by God from slavery in Egypt and it commemorates the story of the Exodus as described in the Hebrew Bible especially in the Book of Exodus, in which the Israelites were freed from slavery in Egypt. According to standard biblical chronology, this event would have place at about 1300 BCE. Passover commences on the 15th of the Hebrew month of Nisan and lasts for seven days or eight days for Orthodox, Hasidic. The rituals unique to the Passover celebrations commence with the Passover Seder when the 15th of Nisan has begun, in the Northern Hemisphere Passover takes place in spring as the Torah prescribes it, in the month of spring. It is one of the most widely observed Jewish holidays, when the Pharaoh freed the Israelites, it is said that they left in such a hurry that they could not wait for bread dough to rise. In commemoration, for the duration of Passover no leavened bread is eaten, thus matzo is eaten during Passover and it is a tradition of the holiday. Samaritans still make this pilgrimage to Mount Gerizim, but only men participate in public worship, the Passover begins on the 15th day of the month of Nisan, which typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. Passover is a festival, so the 15th day of Nisan typically begins on the night of a full moon after the northern vernal equinox. However, due to months or leap months falling after the vernal equinox, Passover sometimes starts on the second full moon after vernal equinox. If the barley was not ripe, or various other phenomena indicated that spring was not yet imminent, however, since at least the 4th century, the date has been fixed mathematically. Diaspora Jews historically observed the festival for eight days, and most still do, reform and Reconstructionist Jews and Israeli Jews, wherever they are, usually observe the holiday over seven days. The reason for this day is due to enactment of the ancient Jewish sages. It is thought by scholars that Jews outside of Israel could not be certain if their local calendars fully conformed to practice of the Temple at Jerusalem. Karaites and Samaritans use different versions of the Jewish calendar, which are out of sync with the modern Jewish calendar by one or two days. In 2009, for example, Nisan 15 on the Jewish calendar used by Rabbinic Judaism corresponds to April 9, on the calendars used by Karaites and Samaritans, Abib or Aviv 15 corresponds to April 11 in 2009. The Karaite and Samaritan Passovers are each one day long, followed by the six-day Festival of Unleavened Bread – for a total of seven days, scholarly consensus dates the origin of the festival to a period earlier than the Exodus. Hyssop was employed to daub the blood of a sheep on the lintels
