1.
Engineer
–
Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
Engineer
–
An electrical engineer, circa 1950
Engineer
–
Engineers conferring on prototype design, 1954
Engineer
–
NASA Launch Control Center Firing Room 2 as it appeared in the Apollo era
Engineer
–
The
Challenger disaster is held as a case study of
engineering ethics.
2.
Mathematician
–
A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematics is concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, one of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, the number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was All is number. It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term mathematics, and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins, the first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria. She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote works on applied mathematics. Because of a dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked. Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and it was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences, an example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham, the Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. As time passed, many gravitated towards universities. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag productive thinking. ”Thus, seminars, overall, science became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. ”Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of an understanding of mathematics, the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their knowledge and professional methodology. With professional focus on a variety of problems, theoretical systems
Mathematician
–
Euclid (holding
calipers), Greek mathematician, known as the "Father of Geometry"
Mathematician
–
In 1938 in the United States, mathematicians were desired as teachers, calculating machine operators, mechanical engineers, accounting auditor bookkeepers, and actuary statisticians
Mathematician
–
Archimedes, c. 287 – 212 BC
Mathematician
–
Brahmagupta, c. 598 - 670
3.
Cantabria
–
Cantabria is a historic Spanish community and autonomous community with Santander as its capital city. It is bordered on the east by the Basque Autonomous Community, on the south by Castile and León, on the west by the Principality of Asturias, and on the north by the Cantabrian Sea. The most significant site for cave paintings is that in the cave of Altamira, dating from about 37,000 BC and declared, along with nine other Cantabrian caves, the modern Province of Cantabria was constituted on 28 July 1778 at Bárcena la Puente, Reocín. The Organic Law of the Autonomy Statute of Cantabria was approved on 30 December 1981, numerous authors, including Isidore of Seville, Julio Caro Baroja, Aureliano Fernández Guerra and Adolf Schulten, have explored the etymology of the name Cantabria, yet its origins remain uncertain. It is generally accepted that the root cant- comes from Celtic for rock or stone, thus, Cantabrian could mean people who live in the rocks or highlanders, a reference to the steep and mountainous territory of Cantabria. Cantabria is a mountainous and coastal region, with important natural resources and it has two distinct areas which are well differentiated morphologically, Coast. Santander Bay is the most prominent indentation in the coastline, to the south, the coastal strip rises to meet the mountains. This is a barrier made up of abruptly rising mountains parallel to the sea. The mountains are made of limestone with karst topography. They form deep valleys running north-south, the torrential rivers are short, fast flowing and of great eroding power, so the slopes are steep. The valleys define different natural regions, delimited physically by the mountain ranges, Liébana, Saja-Nansa, Besaya, Pas-Pisueña, Miera, Asón-Gándara. To the mountain region belongs the Escudo Range, a range of 600 to 1,000 metres high that covers 15 or 20 km in a parallel line to the coast in the West part of Cantabria. Towards the south are higher mountains, the tops of which form the watershed between the basins of the Rivers Ebro, Duero and the rivers that flow into the Bay of Biscay. The great limestone masses of Picos de Europa also stand out in the southwest of the region, most of their summits exceed 2,500 m, and their topography is shaped by the former presence of glaciers. Due to the stream, Cantabria, as well as the rest of Green Spain, has a much more temperate climate than might be expected for its latitude. The region has a oceanic climate, with warm summers. Annual precipitation is around 1,200 mm at the coasts, the mean temperature is about 14 °C. Snow is frequent in higher zones of Cantabria between the months of October and March, some zones of Picos de Europa, over 2,500 metres high, have an alpine climate with snow persisting year round
Cantabria
–
Panorama of the gateway to Alisas, in the
municipio of
Riotuerto, Cantabria
Cantabria
–
Flag
Cantabria
–
The
source of the Asón River
Cantabria
–
Grassland in
Valdáliga
4.
Bilbao
–
Bilbao is a city in northern Spain, the largest city in the province of Biscay and in the Basque Country as a whole. Bilbao is the tenth largest city in Spain, with a population of 345,141 As of 2015, Bilbao is also the main urban area in what is defined as the Greater Basque region. Bilbao is situated in the part of Spain, some 16 kilometres south of the Bay of Biscay, where the economic social development is located. Its main urban core is surrounded by two mountain ranges with an average elevation of 400 metres. This was due to its port activity based on the export of iron extracted from the Biscayan quarries, at the same time an extraordinary population explosion prompted the annexation of several adjacent municipalities. The official name of the town is Bilbao, as known in most languages of the world, there is no consensus among historians about the origin of the name. Generally accepted accounts state that prior to the 12th century the independent rulers of the territory, the symbols of their patrimony are the tower and church used in the shield of Bilbao to this day. One possible origin was suggested by the engineer Evaristo de Churruca and he said that it was a Basque custom to name a place after its location. For Bilbao this would be the result of the union of the Basque words for river and cove, the historian José Tussel Gómez argues that it is just a natural evolution of the Spanish words bello vado, beautiful river crossing. On the other hand, according to the writer Esteban Calle Iturrino, the first, where the present Casco Viejo is located, would be called billa, which means stacking in Basque, after the configuration of the buildings. The second, on the bank, where now Bilbao La Vieja is located, would be called vaho. From the union of these two derives the name Bilbao, which was written as Bilvao and Biluao, as documented in its municipal charter. An -ao ending is present in nearby Sestao and Ugao. Titles Bilbao holds the historic category of borough, with the titles of «Very noble and very loyal and it was the Catholic Monarchs who awarded the title «Noble borough» on 20 September 1475. Philip III of Spain, via a letter in 1603 awarded the borough the titles of «Very noble, after the Siege of Bilbao, during the First Carlist War, on 25 December 1836, the title of «Unbeaten» was added. Remains of an ancient settlement were found on the top of Mount Malmasín, burial sites were also found on Mounts Avril and Artxanda, dated 6,000 years old. Some authors identify the old settlement of Bilbao as Amanun Portus, cited by Pliny the Elder, or with Flaviobriga, ancient walls, which date from around the 11th century, have been discovered below the Church of San Antón. On 21 June 1511, Queen Joanna of Castile ordered the creation of the Consulate of Bilbao and this would become the most influential institution of the borough for centuries, and would claim jurisdiction over the estuary, improving its infrastructure
Bilbao
–
Clockwise from top: Panorama from mount
Artxanda,
Church of San Antón,
Bilbao Guggenheim Museum, a
fosterito, and the
Euskalduna Palace
Bilbao
–
First engraving of the city, made by
Franz Hohenberg in 1554 and first published in 1574. Many notable buildings can be seen, like the
Santiago Cathedral, and the
church of San Antón.
Bilbao
–
The
Battle of Luchana.
Bilbao
–
Bilbao in the 1950s.
5.
Madrid
–
Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile
Madrid
–
From upper left: view of business districts of
AZCA and
CTBA,
Gran Vía street and
Metropolis Building, the
Palace of Communication, view of
Royal Palace and
Almudena Cathedral.
Madrid
Madrid
–
Plaza Mayor
Madrid
–
Puerta de Alcalá
6.
Carlism
–
Carlism was a traditionalist and legitimist political movement in Spain seeking the establishment of a separate line of the Bourbon dynasty on the Spanish throne. This line descended from Don Carlos, Count of Molina, and was founded due to dispute over the succession laws, the semi-salic law would have allowed this given the fact that Maria Theresa was the last member of the house of Habsburg. Carlism was a significant force in Spanish politics from 1833 until the end of the Francoist regime in 1975, in this capacity, it was the cause of Carlist Wars during the 19th century, and an important factor in the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s. Today, Carlists are considered by some to be an entity, with Carlist claimants supported only by the most reactionary of the Spanish nobility. Traditionally, all but one of the Spanish kingdoms allowed the succession of daughters in the absence of sons, the most elaborate rules of succession formed part of the Siete Partidas of the late 13th century. On 1 November 1700 a French Bourbon prince, Philip V, in the French royal house, Salic law applied, which did not permit female succession. This change was forced by external pressure to avoid any possible personal union of the Crown of Spain with a foreign monarchy like France. He decided in 1830 to promulgate the 1789 decree, securing the crown for the child even if female. The law placed the child, Princess Isabel, ahead of Ferdinands brother Infante Carlos, many contemporaries saw the changed succession as illegal on various counts. They formed the basis for the dynastic Carlist party, which recognized the semi-Salic succession law that gave Infante Carlos precedence over Ferdinands daughter. 1789, During the reign of Charles IV, the Cortes approves a reversion of the system of succession to the traditional Siete Partidas order of succession. However, the law was not promulgated, due in part to protests from the branches of the House of Bourbon. A new Spanish constitution outlines the rules of succession in accordance with the Siete Partidas,10 October 1830, The future Isabella II is born to Ferdinand VII. After several court intrigues, the Pragmatic Sanction is definitively approved in 1832, Ferdinands brother, the Infante Don Carlos, up to that time the heir presumptive, feels robbed of his rights, and leaves for Portugal. Carlism confronted not only the question of who could sit on the Spanish throne. Should it remain Roman Catholic or embrace Enlightenment values, do governments derive their power from God or from human beings. The long war for Spains independence from the Napoleonic Empire left a supply of experienced guerrilla fighters. The reign of Ferdinand VII proved unable to overcome the political divide or to create stable institutions, while in power, both groups had divided themselves into moderate and radical branches
Carlism
–
Satire was used in attempts to discredit the opposition, whether Liberal or Royalist (Carlist)
Carlism
–
Don Carlos calling the Navarrese in 1833.
Carlism
–
Attack on the bridge of Luchana, near Bilbao during the first war.
7.
Third Carlist War
–
The Third Carlist War was the last Carlist War in Spain. It is very often referred to as the Second Carlist War, as the second had been small in scale, during this conflict, Carlist forces managed to occupy several towns in the interior of Spain, the most important ones being La Seu dUrgell and Estella in Navarre. Isabella II had abdicated the throne, and Amadeo I, a son of the King of Italy who had been proclaimed King of Spain in 1870, was not very popular. The Carlist pretender, Carlos VII, grandson of Carlos V tried to earn the support of those areas with more region-specific customs and former laws. The Carlists proclaimed the restoration of Catalonian, Valencian and Aragonese fueros, however, the call for rebellion made by the Carlists was echoed in Catalonia and especially the Basque region, where the Carlists managed to design a temporary state. The Carlists managed to lay siege to Bilbao and San Sebastián, after four years of war, on 27 February 1876, the Carlist pretender went into exile in France. On the same day, King Alfonso XII of Spain entered Pamplona, the war caused between 7,000 and 50,000 casualties. Mistrust and rivalry among members of the family also enlarged the conflict. The bell rings to the death across the town of Igualada. Horrible details. People death by bayonets, burned houses, factories attacked at dawn, robberies, rapings. About the Carlists entrance on Vendrell thousands atrocities are told, done by the followers of absolutism, if our brothers fell to the edge of the Carlist dagger, why we the liberals have to be considered with them. It is necessary to fight the war with war and to all kind of resources to exterminate the bandits that burn, steal and kill in the name of a religion. The Carlist party first formed in the last years of Fernando VIIs reign, Carlism is named after the infant Carlos Maria Isidro, count of Molina and Fernandos brother. The pragmatic sanction, published in 1830, abolished the Salic Law and this meant that Isabel, Fernandos daughter became the heir instead of Carlos, the kings brother. Carlos almost instantly became the leader of Spains more conservative sections, the anti-liberalism of authors such as Fernando de Zeballos, Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro and Francisco Alvarado during the 1820s was a precursor to the Carlist movement. The Carlists identified themselves with Spanish military traditions, adopting the Burgundian cross of the tercios in the 16th and 17th centuries and this nostalgia for Spains past was an important rallying point for Carlism. There was also a support for the feudal system displaced by the French occupation. The Carlists summarized this in a motto, For God, for the fatherland, Carlism found most of its supporters in rural areas particularly places which had previously enjoyed special status before 1813, i. e. Catalonia and especially the Basque Country. As Fernando died in 1833 without an heir the succession was disputed
Third Carlist War
–
The Battle of Treviño, 7 July 1875. Painting by
Francisco Oller
Third Carlist War
–
Carlos VII, Carlist pretender
Third Carlist War
–
Infant Carlos Maria Isidro
Third Carlist War
–
Tomas de Zumalacárregui commandant of the Carlist forces in the Basque Country
8.
Ateneo de Madrid
–
The Ateneo de Madrid is a private cultural institution located in the capital of Spain that was founded in 1820. Its full name is Ateneo Científico, Literario y Artístico de Madrid, the roots of the Athenæum trace to the ideals of Francophiles and liberals of the early 19th century. The restoration of Ferdinand VII in 1814 after the previous years Treaty of Valençay, however, brought a return to absolutism, much of the enlightened aristocracy that for one reason or another had been persecuted in Spain took refuge in France and England. The return of the exiles during the liberal triennium from 1820 to 1823 allowed the creation of the Spanish Athenæum, when King Ferdinand reasserted his absolutism in 1823, however, that institutions scholars went into London exile. In 1923 the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera suspended the activities of the Ateneo, in 2013, the severe reduction of the grants from the city of Madrid under the 2008–2012 Spanish financial crisis threatened bankruptcy for the Ateneo. The Ateneo council tried to cover the losses by auctioning works of art, the Regional Heritage Council of Madrid forbade the sale of an 1855 collection of engravings by Francisco de Goya. The Athenæums first home was in the Palacio de Abrantès, the building, designed by architects Enrique Fort and Luis de Landecho, is adorned with Greek Revival paintings by Arturo Mélida. It has an auditorium, work room, classrooms, exhibition hall, library, the Ateneo has 19 sections that are active in multiple cultural and scientific arenas. On May 28,2009 Carlos París Amador was elected president, members have included six Prime Ministers, all Spanish Nobel Prize winners, Spanish politicians of the Second Republic and the members of the Generations of 1898, of 1914 and 1927. Website of the Ateneo de Madrid
Ateneo de Madrid
–
Façade of the Athenæum of Madrid, on Prado Street.
9.
Cinematography
–
Typically, a lens is used to repeatedly focus the light reflected from objects into real images on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a questioned exposure, creating multiple images. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. The result with photographic emulsion is a series of invisible latent images on the film stock, the images on the film stock are played back at a rapid speed and projected onto a screen, creating the illusion of motion. Cinematography finds uses in fields of science and business as well as for entertainment purposes. The word cinematography was created from the Greek words κίνημα, meaning movement, motion and γράφειν meaning to record, the word used to refer to the art, process, or job of filming movies, but later its meaning was restricted to motion picture photography. In the 1830s, moving images were produced on revolving drums and disks, with independent invention by Simon von Stampfer in Austria, Joseph Plateau in Belgium, and William Horner in Britain. In 1845, Francis Ronalds invented the first successful camera able to make recordings of the varying indications of meteorological. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use well into the 20th century. William Lincoln patented a device, in 1867, that showed animated pictures called the wheel of life or zoopraxiscope, in it, moving drawings or photographs were watched through a slit. On 19 June 1873, Eadweard Muybridge successfully photographed a horse named Sallie Gardner in fast motion using a series of 24 stereoscopic cameras. The cameras were arranged along a parallel to the horses. They were 21 inches apart to cover the 20 feet taken by the horse stride, although it was never played back at speed to create motion, this was the first step towards motion pictures. The late nineteenth to the twentieth century brought rise to the use of film not only for entertainment purposes. The experimental film Roundhay Garden Scene, filmed by Louis Le Prince on 14 October 1888, in Roundhay, Leeds and this movie was shot on paper film. W. K. L. Dickson, working under the direction of Thomas Alva Edison, was the first to design a successful apparatus and this camera took a series of instantaneous photographs on standard Eastman Kodak photographic emulsion coated onto a transparent celluloid strip 35 mm wide. The results of work were first shown in public in 1893, using the viewing apparatus also designed by Dickson. Contained within a box, only one person at a time looking into it through a peephole could view the movie. The Lumière brothers were the first to present projected, moving, photographic, in 1896, movie theaters were open in France, Italy, Brussels, and London
Cinematography
–
Arri Alexa, a digital movie camera.
Cinematography
–
A
deep focus shot from
Citizen Kane (1941): everything, including the hat in the foreground and the boy (young
Charles Foster Kane) in the distance, is in sharp focus.
Cinematography
–
A camera crew from the
First Motion Picture Unit
10.
X-ray
–
X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz, X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Spelling of X-ray in the English language includes the variants x-ray, xray, X-rays with high photon energies are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e. g. in medical radiography. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to an image produced using this method. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air, the length of 600 eV X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays, one common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source, X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has problems, other processes also can generate these high-energy photons. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m and this criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to precedent, based on measurement technique. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds and this makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a period of time causes radiation sickness. In medical imaging this increased risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy, hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects, the most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry and research
X-ray
–
Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a
rhodium target, operated at 60
kV. The smooth, continuous curve is due to
bremsstrahlung, and the spikes are
characteristic K lines for rhodium atoms.
X-ray
–
X-rays are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths shorter than
visible light. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum.
X-ray
–
A
chest radiograph of a female, demonstrating a
hiatus hernia
X-ray
–
An arm radiograph, demonstrating broken
ulna and
radius with implanted
internal fixation.
11.
Spectrograph
–
A spectrograph is an instrument that separates light into a frequency spectrum and records the signal using a camera. There are several kinds of machines referred to as spectrographs, depending on the nature of the waves. The term was first used in July,1876 by Dr. Henry Draper when he invented the earliest version of this device, and this earliest version of the spectrograph was cumbersome to use and difficult to manage. One way to define a spectrograph is as a device that separates light by its wavelength, a spectrograph typically has a multi-channel detector system or imaging system that detects the spectrum of light. The first spectrographs used photographic paper as the detector, the star spectral classification and discovery of the main sequence, Hubbles law and the Hubble sequence were all made with spectrographs that used photographic paper. The plant pigment phytochrome was discovered using a spectrograph that used living plants as the detector, more recent spectrographs use electronic detectors, such as CCDs which can be used for both visible and UV light. The exact choice of detector depends on the wavelengths of light to be recorded, the forthcoming James Webb Space Telescope will contain both a near-infrared spectrograph and a mid-infrared spectrometer. An echelle spectrograph uses two diffraction gratings, rotated 90 degrees with respect to other and placed close to one another. Therefore, a point and not a slit is used. The small chip also means that the collimating optics need not to be optimized for coma or astigmatism, but the spherical aberration can be set to zero
Spectrograph
–
The KMOS spectrograph.
Spectrograph
–
Horizontal Solar Spectrograph at the Czech Astronomical Institute in Ondřejov, Czech Republic
12.
Esperanto
–
Esperanto is a constructed international auxiliary language. It is the most widely spoken constructed language in the world, the Polish-Jewish ophthalmologist L. L. Zamenhof published the first book detailing Esperanto, Unua Libro, on 26 July 1887. The name of Esperanto derives from Doktoro Esperanto, the pseudonym under which Zamenhof published Unua Libro, Zamenhof had three goals, as he wrote in Unua Libro, To render the study of the language so easy as to make its acquisition mere play to the learner. Up to two million worldwide, to varying degrees, speak Esperanto, including about 1,000 to 2,000 native speakers who learned Esperanto from birth. The World Esperanto Association has more than 5,500 members in 120 countries and its usage is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South America. The most popular online learning platform for Esperanto, reported 150,000 registered users in 2013, with about 238,000 articles, Esperanto Wikipedia is the 32nd-largest Wikipedia as measured by the number of articles, and is the largest Wikipedia in a constructed language. On 22 February 2012, Google Translate added Esperanto as its 64th language, on 28 May 2015, the language learning platform Duolingo launched an Esperanto course for English speakers. As of 5 April 2017, over 800,000 users had signed up, the first World Congress of Esperanto was organized in France in 1905. Since then, congresses have been held in various countries every year, although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, “Esperantujo” is the collective name given to places where it is spoken. Esperanto was recommended by the French Academy of Sciences in 1921 and recognized by UNESCO in 1954, Esperanto was the 32nd language accepted as adhering to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages in 2007. Esperanto is currently the language of instruction of the International Academy of Sciences in San Marino, Esperanto is seen by many of its speakers as an alternative or addition to the growing use of English throughout the world, offering a language that is easier to learn than English. Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s by L. L. Zamenhof, and all nations would be united in a common brotherhood. In Białystok the inhabitants were divided into four elements, Russians, Poles, Germans and Jews, each of these spoke their own language. I was brought up as an idealist, I was taught that all people were brothers, while outside in the street at every step I felt that there were no people, only Russians, Poles, Germans, Jews and so on. This was always a great torment to my infant mind, although people may smile at such an anguish for the world in a child. Since at that time I thought that grown-ups were omnipotent, so I often said to myself that when I grew up I would certainly destroy this evil. About his goals Zamenhof wrote that he wants mankind to learn and use, en masse, the proposed language as a living one. The number of speakers grew rapidly over the few decades, at first primarily in the Russian Empire and Central Europe, then in other parts of Europe, the Americas, China
Esperanto
–
The first Esperanto book by L. L. Zamenhof.
Esperanto
–
The
Esperanto flag
Esperanto
–
Map of Esperanto groups in Europe in 1905.
Esperanto
–
7th Esperanto congress, Antwerp August 1911.
13.
Alfonso XIII of Spain
–
Alfonso XIII was King of Spain from 1886 until the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931. Alfonso was monarch from birth as his father, Alfonso XII, had died the previous year, Alfonsos mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as regent until he assumed full powers on his sixteenth birthday in 1902. With the political failure of the dictatorship, Alfonso impelled a return to the democratic normality with the intention of regenerating the regime, nevertheless, it was abandoned by all political classes, as they felt betrayed by the kings support of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. He left Spain voluntarily after the elections of April 1931. In exile, he retained his claim to the throne until 1941. Buried in Rome, his remains were not transferred until 1980 to the Pantheon of the Kings in the monastery of El Escorial, Alfonso was born in Madrid on 17 May 1886. He was the son of Alfonso XII of Spain, who had died in November 1885. The French newspaper Le Figaro described the king in 1889 as the happiest. His mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as his regent until his 16th birthday, during the regency, in 1898, Spain lost its colonial rule over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States as a result of the Spanish–American War. When he came of age in May 1902, the week of his majority was marked by festivities, bullfights, balls, by 1905, Alfonso was looking for a suitable consort. On a state visit to the United Kingdom, he stayed at Buckingham Palace with King Edward VII, there he met Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, the Scottish-born daughter of Edwards youngest sister Princess Beatrice, and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. He found her attractive, and she returned his interest, there were obstacles to the marriage. Victoria was a Protestant, and would have to become a Catholic, Victorias brother Leopold was a haemophiliac, so there was a 50 percent chance that Victoria was a carrier of the trait. Victoria was willing to change her religion, and her being a carrier was only a possibility. Maria Christina was eventually persuaded to drop her opposition, in January 1906 she wrote an official letter to Princess Beatrice proposing the match. Victoria met Maria Christina and Alfonso in Biarritz, France, later that month, in May, diplomats of both kingdoms officially executed the agreement of marriage. Alfonso and Victoria were married at the Royal Monastery of San Jerónimo in Madrid on 31 May 1906, with British royalty in attendance, including Victorias cousins the Prince, the wedding was marred by an assassination attempt on Alfonso and Victoria by Catalan anarchist Mateu Morral. As the wedding procession returned to the palace, he threw a bomb from a window which killed or injured several bystanders and members of the procession, on 10 May 1907, the couples first child, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, was born
Alfonso XIII of Spain
–
Alfonso XIII
Alfonso XIII of Spain
–
As he was born King, early coins from Alfonso's reign, such as this 20 pesetas from 1889, featured his portrait as a baby.
Alfonso XIII of Spain
–
Photograph taken moments after the assassination attempt on Alfonso and
Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg on their wedding day.
Alfonso XIII of Spain
–
Alfonso (left) in 1930 with his dictatorial Prime Minister,
Miguel Primo de Rivera.
14.
Royal Spanish Academy
–
The Real Academia Española, generally abbreviated as RAE, is the official royal institution responsible for overseeing the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, Spain, but is affiliated with national language academies in twenty-one other hispanophone nations through the Association of Spanish Language Academies, the proposed language guidelines are shown in a number of works. The priorities are the Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española, edited periodically twenty-three times since 1780, the Academy has a formal procedure for admitting words to its publications. The headquarters, opened in 1894, is located at Calle Felipe IV,4, in the ward of Jerónimos, the Center for the Studies of the Royal Spanish Academy, opened in 2007, is located at Calle Serrano 187–189. King Philip V approved its constitution on 3 October 1714, placing it under the Crowns protection, the RAE began establishing rules for the orthography of Spanish beginning in 1741 with the first edition of the Ortographía. The proposals of the Academy became the norm in Spain by royal decree in 1844. The current rules and practical recommendations are presented in the latest edition of the Ortografía. In 1994, the RAE ruled that the Spanish consonants CH and LL would hence be alphabetized under C and under L, respectively, the Números are elected for life by the other academicians. Each academician holds a seat labeled with a letter from the Spanish alphabet, upper-, joint publications of the RAE and the Association of Spanish Language Academies Diccionario de la lengua española. The first edition is in public domain, the Diccionario esencial de la lengua española was published in 2006 as a shortened work to span between the 22nd and 23rd editions. The edition of 1999 was the first spelling book to cover the whole Hispanic world, the first edition is in public domain. Nueva gramática de la lengua española, the latest edition is the first grammar to cover the whole Hispanic world, replacing the prior Gramática de la lengua española and the Esbozo de una Nueva gramática de la lengua española. The first edition is in public domain, the Gramática básica is a 250-page pocket reference intended for school use, to be published in late 2010. The RAE has also published two works by individual editors, Gramática de la lengua española and Gramática descriptiva de la lengua española. Resolves doubts related to the use of the Spanish language, replaces the Diccionario escolar de la RAE. Diccionario práctico del estudiante is a version for Latin America
Royal Spanish Academy
–
Royal Spanish Academy
Royal Spanish Academy
–
Royal Spanish Academy Real Academia Española
Royal Spanish Academy
–
Title page of Fundación y estatútos de la Real Académia Españóla (Foundation and statutes of the Royal Spanish Academy) (1715)
15.
University of Paris
–
The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
University of Paris
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
The Sorbonne covered by snow.
16.
Spanish Civil War
–
Ultimately, the Nationalists won, and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from April 1939 until his death in November 1975. Sanjurjo was killed in an accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal. The coup was supported by units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba. However, rebelling units in some important cities—such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Málaga—did not gain control, Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country, the Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, operated a policy of non-intervention. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west and they also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists, with the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime. The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, organized purges occurred in territory captured by Francos forces to consolidate the future regime. A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, the extent to which Republican authorities took part in killings in Republican territory varied. The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain and those in favour of reforming Spains government vied for political power with conservatives, who tried to prevent reforms from taking place. Some liberals, in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812, sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain, the reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government. Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874, until the 1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture. There was little development of an industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy remained powerful, a number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions. In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon, two distinct factors led to the uprisings, a series of urban riots and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military concerned with the ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873 Isabellas replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated owing to increasing pressure. After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874, Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy, alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute
Spanish Civil War
–
Republican International Brigadiers at the
Battle of Belchite ride on a
T-26 tank
Spanish Civil War
–
King
Amadeo I of Spain
Spanish Civil War
–
Republican volunteers at
Teruel, 1936.
Spanish Civil War
–
Republican troops at
Guadalajara, 1937
17.
Google Doodle
–
A Google Doodle is a special, temporary alteration of the logo on Googles homepage that is intended to celebrate holidays, events, achievements and people. The first Google Doodle was in honor of the Burning Man Festival of 1998, subsequent Google Doodles were designed by an outside contractor, until Page and Brin asked public relations officer Dennis Hwang to design a logo for Bastille Day in 2000. From that point onward, Doodles have been organized and published by a team of employees termed Doodlers, initially, Doodles were neither animated nor hyperlinked. They were simply images linked to the theme, Doodles increased in both frequency and complexity by the beginning of the 2010s, and in January 2010 the first animated Doodle was posted honoring Isaac Newton. The first interactive Doodle appeared shortly thereafter celebrating Pac-Man, and hyperlinks also began to be added to Doodles, by 2014, Google had published over 2,000 regional and international Doodles throughout its homepages, often featuring guest artists, musicians and personalities. The featuring of Lowells logo design coincided with the launch of another Google product, Google doodles are also used to depict major events at Google, such as the companys own anniversary. The celebration of events is another common topic of Google Doodles including a Lego brick design in celebration of the interlocking Lego blocks 50th anniversary. Some Google Doodles are limited to Googles country-specific home pages while others appear globally, in May 2010, on the 30th anniversary of the arcade game Pac-Man, Google unveiled worldwide their first interactive logo, created in association with Namco. Anyone who visited Google could play Pac-Man on the logo, which featured the letters of the word Google on the Pac-Man maze, the logo also mimicked the sounds the original arcade game made. The Im Feeling Lucky button was replaced with an Insert Coin button, pressing this once enabled you to play the Pac-Man logo. Pressing it once more added a second player, Ms. Pac-Man, enabling two players to play at once, controlled using the W, A, S, D keys, pressing it for a third time performed an Im Feeling Lucky search. It was then removed on May 23,2010, initially replacing Pac-Man with the normal logo, later on that day, Google released a permanent Google Pac-Man site, due to the popular user demand for the playable logo. Similarly, Freddie Mercurys 65th birthday was celebrated on September 5,2011, on April 15,2011, Google sported the first video doodle, commemorating Charlie Chaplins 122nd birthday. This doodle was a black and white YouTube video that, when clicked upon, all parts in this short film were played by the Google doodle team, and special behind-the-scenes footage was to be found on the Google blog. Google displayed an electric guitar doodle starting June 9,2011. The doodle still maintained some resemblance to the Google logo, in the U. S, the doodle also allowed the user to record a 30-second clip, after which a URL is created and can be sent to others. The doodle remained on the site a day due to popularity in the US. It now has its own page linked to the Google Doodles archives, on June 23,2012, in commemoration of Alan Turings 100th birthday, Googles logo became an interactive Turing Machine
Google Doodle
–
Google conference room in
New York featuring 2005's Doodle for
Leonardo da Vinci
Google Doodle
–
Artist and "Doodler" Jennifer Hom has designed many Doodles throughout the years
18.
Arithmometer
–
The Arithmometer or Arithmomètre was the first digital mechanical calculator strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. This calculator could add and subtract two numbers directly and could perform long multiplications and divisions effectively by using a movable accumulator for the result, patented in France by Thomas de Colmar in 1820 and manufactured from 1851 to 1915, it became the first commercially successful mechanical calculator. Its production debut of 1851 launched the mechanical industry which ultimately built millions of machines well into the 1970s. For forty years, from 1851 to 1890, the arithmometer was the type of mechanical calculator in commercial production. During the later part of period two companies started manufacturing clones of the arithmometer, Burkhardt, from Germany, which started in 1878, and Layton of the UK. Eventually about twenty European companies built clones of the arithmometer until the beginning of World War I, the arithmometers of this period were four-operation machines, a multiplicand inscribed on the input sliders could be multiplied by a single-digit multiplier by simply pulling on a ribbon. It was a design and very few machines were built. Additionally, no machines were built between 1822 and 1844 and it could not be built with the technology of that time, however. He restarted the development of the machine in 1848, in 1850, as part of a marketing effort, Thomas built a few machines with exquisite Boulle marquetry boxes that he gave to the crown heads of Europe. He filed two patents and two patents of addition in between 1849 and 1851 and it was introduced in the UK at The Great Exhibition of 1851 and true industrial production started in 1851. Each machine was given a number and user manuals were printed. At first, Thomas differentiated machines by capacity and therefore gave the serial number to machines of different capacities. This was corrected in 1863 and each machine was given its own serial number starting with a serial number of 500. A patent covering all these innovations was filed in 1865, because of its reliability and accuracy, government offices, banks, observatories and businesses all over the world started using the arithmometer in their day-to-day operations. Around 1872, for the first time in calculating machine history, in 1880, twenty years before the competition, a mechanism to move the carriage automatically was patented and installed on some machines, but was not integrated into the production models. Many clone makers appeared during that period, mostly in Germany, eventually twenty independent companies manufactured clones of the arithmometer. All these companies were based in Europe but sold their machines worldwide, the fundamental design stayed the same, and after 50 years at the top, the arithmometer lost its supremacy in the mechanical calculator industry. Production of the arithmometer stopped in 1915, during World War I, alphonse Darras, who had bought the business in 1915, was unable to restart its manufacturing after the war because of the many shortages and a lack of qualified workers
Arithmometer
–
Arithmomètre built by Louis Payen around 1887
Arithmometer
–
Detail of an arithmometer built before 1851. The one-digit multiplier cursor (ivory top) is the leftmost cursor
Arithmometer
–
One of the first machines with a unique serial number (10-digit machines with serial numbers from 500 to 549) built around 1863
Arithmometer
–
Front panel of a Thomas arithmometer with its movable result carriage extended
19.
Airship
–
An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. In early dirigibles, the gas used was hydrogen, due to its high lifting capacity. Helium gas has almost the same lifting capacity and is not flammable, unlike hydrogen, significant amounts were first discovered in the United States and for a while helium was only used for airships by the United States. Most airships built since the 1960s have used helium, though some have used hot air, the envelope of an airship may form a single gas bag, or may contain a number of internal gas-filled cells. An airship also has engines, crew, and optionally also payload accommodation, the main types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid. Non-rigid airships, often called blimps, rely on internal pressure to maintain the shape of the airship, semi-rigid airships maintain the envelope shape by internal pressure, but have some form of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it. Rigid airships have a structural framework which maintains the shape and carries all structural loads. Rigid airships were first flown by Count Zeppelin and the vast majority of rigid airships built were manufactured by the firm he founded, as a result, rigid airships are called zeppelins. S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the USS Akron and USS Macon respectively, during the pioneer years of aeronautics, terms such as airship, air-ship, air ship and ship of the air meant any kind of navigable or dirigible flying machine. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. Nowadays the term airship is used only for powered, dirigible balloons, semirigid architecture is the more recent and the late appearance is caused by both advancements about deformable structures and exigiency of reducing weight and volume of the airships. They have a structure that ensure to keep the shape jointly with overpressure of the gas envelope. An aerostat is an aircraft which remain aloft using buoyancy or static lift, Airships are a type of aerostat. The term aerostat has also used to indicate a tethered or moored balloon as opposed to a free-floating balloon. A blimp is a non-rigid aerostat, in American usage it refers specifically to a non-rigid type of dirigible balloon or airship. In British usage it refers to any non-rigid aerostat, including balloons and other kite balloons, having a streamlined shape. The initials LZ, for Luftschiff Zeppelin, usually prefixed their crafts serial identifiers, streamlined Parsifal-shaped rigid airships are usually referred to as Zeppelin, because of the fame that this company has acquired due to the number of airships it produced
Airship
–
A modern airship,
Zeppelin NT D-LZZF in 2010
Airship
–
Dirigible airships compared with related aerostats, from a turn-of-the-20th-century encyclopedia
Airship
–
US Navy airships and balloons, 1931: in the background, ZR-3, in front of it, (l to r) J-3 or 4, K-1, ZMC-2, in front of them, "Caquot" observation balloon, and in foreground free balloons used for training.
Airship
–
A gondola fitted with twin propellers
20.
Guadalajara, Spain
–
Guadalajara is a city and municipality in the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha, Spain, and in the natural region of La Alcarria. It is the capital of the province of Guadalajara and it is located roughly 60 kilometres northeast of Madrid on the Henares River, and has a population of 84,803. A Roman town called Arriaca, possibly founded by a culture, is known to have been located in that region. There is however no proof of its existence, only references in texts such as the Ruta Antonina. The city, as Caracca, was incorporated into the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis, the city was on the high road from Emerita to Caesaraugusta,22 M. P. northeast of Complutum. The town of Guadalajara was founded by the Andalusians in the 8th century and they named it Wādī-al-Ḥajāra, meaning Valley of Stones, in theory the literal translation of the Iberian name, meaning Stony River. The history of the town during the Al-Andalus period was significant and they built monuments including the Moorish Bridge over the Henares River, the now ruined old Alcázar, and a mosque which later became the former Cathedral of St. Mary. In 1085, Guadalajara was taken by the Christian forces of Alfonso VI, the chronicles say that the Christian army was led by Alvar Fanez de Minaya, one of the lieutenants of El Cid. From 1085 until the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, the city suffered wars against the Almoravid, in 1219, the king Fernando III gave a new fuero to the city. During the reign of Alfonso X of Castile, the protection of the king allowed the city to develop its economy by protecting merchants, during the 14th century, the Mendoza family was prominent in Guadalajara. This family included Íñigo López de Mendoza, also known as Marqués de Santillana, the Mendoza family held the title of Dukes and Duchesses of El Infantado from 1475. In 1460, King Henry IV gave Guadalajara the title of City, Guadalajara was the birthplace of conquistador Nuño de Guzmán, who commissioned in 1542 the foundation of Guadalajara, Mexico. During the War of the Spanish Succession, Guadalajara was sacked, King Philip V ordered the establishment of the Real Fábrica de Paños which was situated in the Alcazar till the early 19th century. In this period, the Mendoza Family ordered the building of El Palacio del Infantado as their main residence and it was completed in the early 1480s and it is considered by many the oldest surviving building built in a pure Renaissance style outside Italy. The 19th century started with two setbacks, the damages caused by the Peninsular War and the closing of the Real Fábrica de Paños in 1822. In 1808, Guadalajara was taken by the French Army led by General Hugo, in 1840 Guadalajara was established as the capital of the province with the same name by the Plan de Burgos. The Academy of Military Engineers was brought to the city, Guadalajara was the scene of many actions during the Spanish Civil War. On 24 July 1936, during the phase after the revolt of 19 July
Guadalajara, Spain
–
Remains of the "Alcázar of Guadalajara", built in the 9th century
Guadalajara, Spain
–
Flag
Guadalajara, Spain
–
The
medieval 'Torreón de Álvar Fáñez'
Guadalajara, Spain
–
'Concatedral de Santa María de Guadalajara', was built in the 13th and 14th centuries
21.
Astra-Torres airship
–
The Astra-Torres airships were non-rigid airships built by Société Astra to a design by Spaniard Leonardo Torres Quevedo in France between about 1908 and 1922. They had a highly-characteristic tri-lobed cross-section rather than the usual circular cross-section. This was the result of moving most of the bracing wires inside the envelope in an attempt to minimise drag. Early Astra-Torres airships could be trimmed by moving the entire gondola fore-and-aft, Astra-Torres airships were used by the French Navy during World War I and for a few years before and after. A few of these were transferred to the American expeditionary forces in Europe, and AT-1, AT-13, Britains Royal Navy purchased AT-14, AT-17, and AT-19, these becoming HMA No. 8, and HMA No.16 respectively, all were taken out of service in May 1916, although the Astra-Torres design was imitated in Britains own Coastal class blimps that served through to the end of the War. After the war, AT-16 was operated by Transaérienne, carrying sightseeing passengers over Paris, France French Navy Japan Imperial Japanese Navy - The IJN purchased a Nieuport AT-2 from France in 1922, shortly after losing its first airship, a British SS class airship, in an explosion. It was assembled at Tokorozawa in 1923 and stationed at Kasumigaura Air Base later that year, United Kingdom Royal Navy 1911 in aviation Taylor, Michael J. H. Janes Encyclopedia of Aviation
Astra-Torres airship
–
Astra-Torres AT-1 at an air show in 1911
22.
John Alcock (aviator)
–
He died in a flying accident in France in 1919. John Alcock was born on 5 November 1892 at Basford House on Seymour Grove, Firswood, Manchester and he attended St Thomass Primary School in Heaton Chapel, Stockport and Heyhouses School in Lytham St Annes. He first became interested in flying at the age of 17 and his first job was at the Empress Motor Works in Manchester. In 1910 he became an assistant to Works Manager Charles Fletcher, an early Manchester aviator and Norman Crossland, a motor engineer and founder of Manchester Aero Club. It was during this period that Alcock met the Frenchman Maurice Ducrocq who was both a pilot and UK sales representative for aero engines made by the Italian Spirito Mario Viale. Ducrocq took Alcock on as a mechanic at the Brooklands aerodrome, Surrey, Alcock then joined the Sunbeam Motor Car Company as a racing pilot. By summer 1914 he was proficient enough to compete in a Hendon-Birmingham-Manchester and return air race and he landed at Trafford Park Aerodrome and flew back to Hendon the same day. At the outbreak of World War I, Alcock joined the Royal Naval Air Service as an instructor at the Royal Naval Flying School at Eastchurch in Kent. It was whilst at Eastchurch that Alcock received his commission as a flight sub-lieutenant in December 1915, in 1916 he was transferred to a squadron operating at Moudros, on the Greek island of Lemnos. While stationed at Moudros he conceived and built the Alcock Scout, on 30 September 1917, whilst piloting a Sopwith Camel Alcock attacked three enemy aircraft, forcing two to crash into the sea. For this action he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, after returning to base he then piloted a Handley Page bomber on a raid to Constantinople. He was forced to back to base after an engine failed near Gallipoli. After flying on an engine for more than 60 miles, that engine failed. Alcock and his crew of two were unable to attract nearby British destroyers, and when the plane began to sink they swam for an hour to reach the enemy-held shore. All three were taken prisoner next day by the Turkish forces, Alcock remained a prisoner of war until the Armistice and retired from the Royal Air Force in March 1919. After the war Alcock became a test pilot for Vickers and took up the challenge of attempting to be the first to fly directly across the Atlantic. The flight had been affected by bad weather, making accurate navigation difficult, the intrepid duo also had to cope with turbulence, instrument failure. The flight was made in a modified Vickers Vimy bomber and won a £10,000 prize offered by Londons Daily Mail newspaper for the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic
John Alcock (aviator)
–
Sir John William Alcock KBE DSC
John Alcock (aviator)
–
Alcock (right) with
Arthur Brown in 1919
23.
Arthur Whitten Brown
–
Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Arthur Whitten Brown, KBE was the navigator of the first successful non-stop transatlantic flight. Arthur Whitten Brown was born in Glasgow to American parents, his father had sent to Scotland to evaluate the feasibility of siting a Westinghouse factory in Clydeside. The factory was sited in Trafford Park in Stretford, Lancashire. Brown began his career in engineering before the outbreak of World War I, in 1914, he enlisted in the ranks of the University and Public Schools Brigade for which he had to take out British citizenship. The ranks of the UPS were full of officers and Brown was one of those who sought a commission to become a Second Lieutenant in the 3rd Battalion of the Manchester Regiment. After service in France, Brown was seconded to 2 Squadron Royal Flying Corps as an observer, browns aircraft was shot down by anti-aircraft fire over Vendin-le-Vieil in France while on artillery observation duties. He was sent back to England to recuperate but returned only to be shot down again, Brown and his pilot, 2nd Lt. H. W. Medlicott, were captured by the Germans. Later interned in Switzerland, Brown was repatriated in September 1917, after a period of leave he went to work with Major Kennedy RAF in the Ministry of Munitions. This led Brown to meet Kennedys daughters, one of whom he later married, after the war Brown sought various appointments that would give him the security to allow him to marry. The flight from St. Johns, Newfoundland to Clifden, Connemara and they departed St Johns at 1.45 pm local time, and landed in Derrygimla bog 16 hours and 12 minutes later after flying 1,980 miles. The flight was made in a modified Vickers Vimy bomber, later he worked for Metropolitan-Vickers, the company that had once been British Westinghouse. In 1923 he was appointed representative for Metropolitan-Vickers in the Swansea area. During World War II Brown served in the Home Guard as a Lieutenant-Colonel before resigning his commission in July 1941, rejoining the RAF and his health deteriorated and by mid-1943 he had to resign from the RAFVR and give up his Air Training Corps commitments on medical advice. Browns only son, Arthur, was killed on the night of 5/6 June 1944, aged 22 and his aircraft, a de Havilland Mosquito VI NT122, of 605 Squadron, crashed in the Netherlands. Buster was buried at the cemetery in Hoorn, the town closest to the crash. The death of his son affected Brown badly. By 1948 Brown’s health had deteriorated, although he was allowed to undertake restricted duties as general manager for Metropolitan-Vickers at the Wind Street offices. Brown died in his sleep on 4 October 1948 from an overdose of Veronal
Arthur Whitten Brown
–
Brown (left) with
John Alcock in 1919
24.
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the western coast of
Portugal
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean, not including
Arctic and
Antarctic regions
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from
Atlantic City, New Jersey.
Atlantic Ocean
–
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina view of the Atlantic Ocean.
25.
Dominion of Newfoundland
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Newfoundland was a British dominion from 1907 to 1949. The dominion was situated in northeastern North America along the Atlantic coast and comprised the island of Newfoundland, before attaining dominion status, Newfoundland was a British colony, self-governing from 1855. Newfoundland was one of the dominions within the meaning of the Statute of Westminster of 1931. In 1934, Newfoundland became the only dominion to give up its self-governing status and this episode was precipitated by a crisis in Newfoundlands public finances in 1932. Newfoundland had accumulated a significant amount of debt by building a railroad across the island, in November of that year, the government warned that Newfoundland would default on payments on the public debt. The United Kingdom government quickly established the Newfoundland Royal Commission to inquire, the Commissions report was published in October 1933. It recommended that Newfoundland give up its system of self-government temporarily, the dominion was never to be self-governing again. The system of a six-member Commission of Government continued to govern Newfoundland until it joined Canada in 1949 to become Canadas tenth province, the official name of the dominion was “Newfoundland” and not, as is sometimes reported, “Dominion of Newfoundland”. In 1854 the British government established Newfoundlands responsible government, in 1855, Philip Francis Little, a native of Prince Edward Island, won a parliamentary majority over Sir Hugh Hoyles and the Conservatives. Little formed the first administration from 1855 to 1858, Newfoundland rejected confederation with Canada in the 1869 general election. Prime Minister of Canada Sir John Thompson came very close to negotiating Newfoundlands entry into confederation in 1892 and it remained a colony until acquiring dominion status in 1907 after the 1907 Imperial Conference decided to confer dominion status on all self-governing colonies. The annual holiday of Dominion Day was celebrated each 26 September to commemorate the occasion, Newfoundlands own regiment, the 1st Newfoundland Regiment, fought in the First World War. On 1 July 1916, the German Army wiped out most of that regiment at Beaumont Hamel on the first day on the Somme, yet the regiment went on to serve with distinction in several subsequent battles, earning the prefix Royal. In the 1920s, political scandals wracked the dominion, in 1923, the attorney general arrested Newfoundlands prime minister Sir Richard Squires on charges of corruption. Despite his release soon after on bail, the British-led Hollis Walker commission reviewed the scandal, soon after, the Squires government fell. Squires returned to power in 1928 because of the unpopularity of his successors, Alderdice, but found himself governing a country suffering from the Great Depression. Prior to 1867, the Quebec North Shore portion of the Labrador coast had shuttled back, maps up to 1927 showed the coastal region as part of Newfoundland, with an undefined boundary. Quebec has long rejected the outcome, and Quebecs provincially issued maps do not mark the boundary in the way as boundaries with Ontario
Dominion of Newfoundland
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Colonial Building
Dominion of Newfoundland
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Flag
Dominion of Newfoundland
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The
Newfoundland dollar bill issued in 1920
Dominion of Newfoundland
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Newfoundland postage stamp
26.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
Ireland
–
Satellite image of Ireland on 11 October 2010
Ireland
–
The
Gowran Ogham Stone,
Christianised c.6th Century. On display in
St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran.
Ireland
–
The Uragh Stone Circle a
Neolithic stone circle in Gleninchaquin Park,
County Kerry
27.
Vickers Vimy
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The Vickers Vimy was a British heavy bomber aircraft developed and manufactured by Vickers Limited. Developed during the stages of the First World War to equip the Royal Air Force. Only a handful of aircraft had entered service by the time that the Armistice of 11 November 1918 came into effect, shortly thereafter, the Vimy became the core of the RAFs heavy bomber force throughout the 1920s. The Vimy achieved success as both a military and civil aircraft, the using the Vimy Commercial model of the type. A deciated transport derivative of the Vimy, the Vickers Vernon, other record-breaking flights were flown using the type from the United Kingdom to destinations such as South Africa and Australia. The Vimy continued to be operated after the conflict as late as the 1930s in both military and civil capacities. One key area of advancement during the conflict was in the use of fixed-wing aircraft, on 16 August 1917, Vickers was issued with a contract for an initial batch of three prototype aircraft. Pierson discussed the proposed aircraft with Major J. C, on 30 November 1917, the first prototype, flown by Captain Gordon Bell, conducted its maiden flight from Royal Flying Corps Station Joyce Green, Kent. In January 1918, the first prototype was dispatched to RAF Martlesham Heath, Suffolk, unfortunately, the engines proved to be frequently unreliable during these trials, leading to its return to Joyce Green on 12 April 1918. Following these modifications, the prototype was used for years, surviving the war. In August 1919, the prototype was flown from Brooklands to Amsterdam, during early 1918, the second prototype was completed. Unlike the first prototype, it had plain elevators and ailerons that had an inverse tamper, the defensive armament was increased, giving the rear gunner two separate guns to fire, these changes would be standardised on production aircraft. The second prototype was powered by a pair of Sunbeam Maori engine, on 26 April 1918, it was dispatched to RAF Matlesham Heath for official tests, however, testing was interrupted by the loss of the second prototype in a crash following an engine failure. During the first half of the 1918, the prototype was also completed. It was equipped with a pair of 400 hp Fiat A.12 engines, as well as a nose section. On 15 August 1918, the prototype was sent to RAF Martlesham Heath for performance tests. On 11 September 1918, this prototype was lost when its payload of bombs detonated due to a hard landing and it was decided to construct a fourth prototype to test the Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engine. On 11 October 1918, the prototype flew from Joyce Green to Martlesham to conduct official trials
Vickers Vimy
–
Vimy
Vickers Vimy
–
Vickers F.B.27 Vimy side view
Vickers Vimy
–
Alcock and Brown's crashed Vimy at
Clifden,
Ireland on 15 June 1919
Vickers Vimy
–
(L-R) Lt Col
van Ryneveld with First Lt
Quintin Brand, February 1920, in front of Vickers Vimy Silver Queen, before their England to South Africa flight
28.
El Ajedrecista
–
El Ajedrecista was an automaton built in 1912 by Leonardo Torres y Quevedo. It created great excitement when it made its debut, at the University of Paris in 1914 and it was first widely mentioned in Scientific American as Torres and His Remarkable Automatic Devices on November 6,1915. Using electromagnets under the board, it played an endgame with three chess pieces, moving a king and a rook to checkmate a king moved by a human opponent. The device is considered the first computer game in history, the automaton does not deliver checkmate in the minimum number of moves, nor always within the 50 moves allotted by the fifty-move rule, because of the simple algorithm that calculates the moves. It did, however, checkmate the opponent every time, if an illegal move was made by the opposite player, the automaton would signal it. Its internal construction was published by H. Vigneron, leonardos son Gonzalo made an improved chess automaton based on El Ajedrecista in 1920, which made its moves via magnets located under the board. Both are still working and are on display at the Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, as opposed to the human-operated The Turk and Ajeeb, El Ajedrecista was a true automaton built to play chess without human guidance. Automaton Chess by C. Gilmore Chessbase News, Automatons Quevedos biography
El Ajedrecista
–
Gonzalo, Quevedo's son, showing his automaton to
Norbert Wiener at the 1951 Paris Cybernetic Congress.
El Ajedrecista
–
El Ajedrecista front view
29.
Aerial tramway
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An aerial tramway, sky tram, cable car, ropeway or aerial tram is a type of aerial lift which uses one or two stationary ropes for support while a third moving rope provides propulsion. With this form of lift, the grip of an aerial tramway cabin is fixed onto the propulsion rope, as such, careful phrasing is necessary to prevent confusion. It is also called a ropeway or even incorrectly referred to as a gondola lift. A gondola lift has cabins suspended from a continuously circulating cable whereas aerial trams simply shuttle back, in Japan, the two are considered as the same category of vehicle and called ropeway, while the term cable car means Cable car and funicular. An aerial railway where the vehicles are suspended from a track is known as a suspension railway. An aerial tramway consists of one or two fixed cables, one loop of cable, and a number of passenger cabins, the fixed cables provide support for the cabins while the haulage rope, by means of a grip, is solidly connected to the truck. An electric motor drives the haulage rope which provides propulsion, Aerial tramways differ from gondola lifts in that gondola lifts are considered continuous systems. A similar system of cables is used in a funicular railway, the two passenger cabins, which carry from 4 to over 150 people, are situated at opposite ends of the loops of cable. Thus, while one is coming up, the other is going down the mountain, some aerial trams have only one cabin, which lends itself better for systems with small elevation changes along the cable run. The first operational aerial tram was built in 1644 by Adam Wiebe in Gdańsk and it was moved by horses and used to move soil over the river to build defences. It is called the first known cable lift in European history and it is not known how long this lift was used. In any case, it would be another 230 years before Germany would get the cable lift. Other mining systems were developed in the 1860s by Hodgson, Hallidie went on to perfect a line of mining and people tramways after 1867 in California and Nevada. Tramways are sometimes used in regions to carry ore from a mine located high on the mountain to an ore mill located at a lower elevation. Ore tramways were common in the early 20th century at the mines in North and South America, one can still be seen in the San Juan Mountains of the US state of Colorado. Over one thousand mining tramways were built around the world—Spitsbergen, Russia, Alaska, Argentina, New Zealand and this experience was replicated with the use of tramways in the First World War particularly on the Isonzo Front in Italy. The German firm of Bleichert built hundreds of freight and military tramways, strangely, Bleichert even built the first tourist tramway at Bolzano/Bozen, in then Tyrolian Austria in 1913. Other firms entered the mining tramway business- Otto, Leschen, Breco Ropeways Ltd, ceretti and Tanfani, and Riblet for instance
Aerial tramway
–
The
Portland Aerial Tram in Portland, Oregon
Aerial tramway
–
Aerial tramway in Engadine (Switzerland) suspended on two track cables with an additional haulage rope.
Aerial tramway
–
An
aerial tramway in
Barcelona,
Spain
Aerial tramway
–
Ore bucket on the aerial tramway leading from the Mayflower mine, near
Silverton, Colorado, USA
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