1.
Intramuscular injection
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Intramuscular injection is the injection of a substance directly into a muscle. In medicine, it is one of alternative methods for the administration of medications. Muscles have larger and more vessels than subcutaneous tissue and injections here usually have faster rates of absorption than subcutaneous injections or intradermal injections. Depending on the site, an administration is limited to between 2 and 5 milliliters of fluid. Platelet-rich plasma injections can be administered intramuscularly, certain substances are injected intramuscularly for recreational purposes. Possible sites for IM injection include, deltoid, dorsogluteal, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, sites that are bruised, tender, red, swollen, inflamed or scarred are avoided. The deltoid muscle site is recommended for use with injections of small volume, usually equal or less than 1 ml and this site is not recommended for repeated injections, due to its small area, it is difficult to rotate the injection site. To locate the site, palpate the lower edge of the acromion process, inject in the upside down triangle that forms with its base at the acromion process and its midpoint in line with the axilla. The ventrogluteal site is recommended for injections requiring a larger volume to be administered, greater than 1 ml and it is also given for narcotic, antibiotic, sedative and anti-emetic medications. To locate the site, place the palm of your hand over the greater trochanter. The right hand is used for the hip and left hand is used for the right hip. Place the index finger on the superior iliac spine and run the middle finger back along the iliac crest. The injection is given in the center of the triangle that is formed, the vastus lateralis site is the recommended site for infants less than 7 months old and those unable to walk, with loss of muscular tone. To locate the site, divide the front thigh into thirds vertically and horizontally to make nine squares and inject in the outer middle square. Use of this site is associated with skin and tissue trauma, muscle fibrosis and contracture, haematoma, nerve palsy and paralysis, as well as infectious processes such as abscess and gangrene. The injection site is located by dividing the buttock into four with a plus shaped cross, the selected site is cleansed with an antimicrobial and is allowed to dry. It is injected with the dominant hand using a quick, darting motion perpendicular to the body at an angle between 72 and 90 degrees, as a faster injection is less painful. The needle is then stabilized with the nondominant hand while the dominant hand slides to the plunger to slowly instill the medication, the CDC does not recommend the outdated practice of aspirating for blood to rule out injecting into a blood vessel
2.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D
3.
Injection (medicine)
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An injection follows a parenteral route of administration, that is, administration via a route other than through the digestive tract. Since the process involves a small puncture wound to the body. Rodents used for research are often administered intracerebral, intracerebroventricular, or intraportal injections as well, long-acting forms of subcutaneous/intramuscular injections are available for various drugs, and are called depot injections. Injections are among the most common health care procedures, with at least 16 billion administered in developing, 95% of injections are administered in curative care, 3% are for immunization, and the rest for other purposes, such as blood transfusions. In some instances the term injection is used synonymously with inoculation even by different workers in the same hospital and this should not cause confusion, the focus is on what is being injected/inoculated, not the terminology of the procedure. In an intramuscular injection, the medication is delivered directly into a muscle, many vaccines are administered intramuscularly, as are codeine, metoclopramide, and many other medications. Many drugs injected intramuscularly are absorbed into the muscle fairly quickly, injections to the buttocks are known to reach the bloodstream quickly due to the large amount of muscular tissue and corresponding blood supply. Such injection allows the compound to be released in a consistent way over a long period. Depot injections are usually either solid or oil-based, depot injections may be available as certain forms of a drug, such as decanoate salts or esters. Examples of depot injections include Depo Provera and haloperidol decanoate, prostate cancer patients receiving hormone therapy usually get depot injections as a treatment or therapy. Zoladex is an example of a medication delivered by depot for prostate cancer treatment or therapy, naltrexone may be administered in a monthly depot injection to control opiod abuse, in this case, the depot injection improves compliance by replacing daily pill administration. The advantages of using a long-acting depot injection include increased medication compliance due to reduction in the frequency of dosing, a significant disadvantage is that the drug is not immediately reversible, since it is slowly released. In psychiatric nursing, a short acting depot, zuclopenthixol acetate, the pharmaceutical injection type of infiltration involves loading a volume of tissue with the drug, filling the interstitial space. Local anesthetics are often infiltrated into the dermis and hypodermis, various animals, and some plants, have been injecting for various reasons long before humans began doing so in a process commonly called stinging. Some examples include, Snakes, wasps, scorpions, venom, to kill prey, some bees, venom, to defend themselves and their nests. Stinging nettles, venom, to try to avoid being eaten, stingrays, venom, defense mechanism when provoked. The pain of an injection may be lessened by prior application of ice or topical anesthetic, recent studies suggest that forced coughing during an injection stimulates a transient rise in blood pressure which inhibits the perception of pain. Sometimes, as with an amniocentesis, an anesthetic is given
4.
Androgen receptor
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The androgen receptor is most closely related to the progesterone receptor, and progestins in higher dosages can block the androgen receptor. The main function of the receptor is as a DNA-binding transcription factor that regulates gene expression, however. Androgen regulated genes are critical for the development and maintenance of the male sexual phenotype, hence, testosterone is responsible primarily for the development of male primary sexual characteristics, whereas dihydrotestosterone is responsible for secondary male characteristics. Androgens cause slow epiphysis, or maturation of the bones, steroid users of teen age may find that their growth had been stunted by androgen and/or estrogen excess. People with too little sex hormones can be short during puberty, via the Androgen receptor, androgens play a key role in the maintenance of male skeletal integrity. The regulation of this integrity by androgen receptor signaling can be attributed to both osteoblasts and osteocytes, the primary mechanism of action for androgen receptors is direct regulation of gene transcription. The androgen receptor dimer binds to a sequence of DNA known as a hormone response element. Androgen receptors interact with proteins in the nucleus, resulting in up- or down-regulation of specific gene transcription. Up-regulation or activation of transcription results in increased synthesis of messenger RNA, one of the known target genes of androgen receptor activation is the insulin-like growth factor I receptor. Thus, changes in levels of proteins in cells is one way that androgen receptors control cell behavior. One function of receptor that is independent of direct binding to its target DNA sequence, is facilitated by recruitment via other DNA-binding proteins. One example is serum response factor, a protein that activates several genes that cause muscle growth, AR acetylation is induced by androgens and determines recruitment into chromatin. The AR acetylation site is a key target of NAD-dependent and TSA-dependent histone deacetylases, more recently, androgen receptors have been shown to have a second mode of action. As has been found for other steroid hormone receptors such as estrogen receptors. Androgen receptors interact with certain signal transduction proteins in the cytoplasm, Androgen binding to cytoplasmic androgen receptors can cause rapid changes in cell function independent of changes in gene transcription, such as changes in ion transport. In humans, the receptor is encoded by the AR gene located on the X chromosome at Xq11-12. The androgen insensitivity syndrome, formerly known as testicular feminization, is caused by a mutation of the receptor gene located on the X chromosome. The androgen receptor seems to affect neuron physiology and is defective in Kennedys disease, in addition, point mutations and trinucleotide repeat polymorphisms has been linked to a number of additional disorders
5.
Nandrolone
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Nandrolone, also known as 19-nortestosterone or 19-norandrostenolone, is a synthetic anabolic-androgenic steroid derived from testosterone. The drug itself is inactive due to its lack of a 17α-alkyl group and is not actually employed in medicine. The positive effects of the drug include muscle growth, appetite stimulation and increased red cell production. Clinical studies have shown it to be effective in treating anemia, osteoporosis and some forms of neoplasia including breast cancer, the lack of alkylation on the 17α-carbon drastically reduces the hepatotoxic potential of nandrolone. Erectile dysfunction is attributed to the action of DHN in the penis since dihydrotestosterone is a known sexual modulator. In addition to its activity, unlike many other AAS. It binds to the receptor with approximately 22% of the affinity of progesterone. The progestogenic activity of nandrolone may serve to augment its antigonadotropic effects, Nandrolone has a very high ratio of anabolic to androgenic action. In fact, nandrolone-like AAS like nandrolone itself and trenbolone are said to have among the highest ratio of anabolic to androgenic effect of all AAS. This is attributed to the fact that, whereas testosterone is potentiated via conversion into dihydrotestosterone in androgenic tissues, Nandrolone is metabolized by the enzyme 5α-reductase, among others. Metabolites of nandrolone include 5α-dihydronandrolone, 19-norandrosterone, and 19-noretiocholanolone, Nandrolone is also known chemically as estra-4-en-17β-ol-3-one or 19-norandrost-4-en-17β-ol-3-one. It is the 19-demethylated analogue of testosterone, and for reason, is also known as 19-nortestosterone. A large number of nandrolone esters have been marketed and used clinically, the most commonly used esters are nandrolone decanoate and nandrolone phenylpropionate. Nandrolone is the parent compound of a group of AAS. Notable examples include the non-17α-alkylated trenbolone and the 17α-alkylated ethylestrenol and metribolone, Nandrolone is also the parent compound of a large group of progestins. They are subdivided into two groups, the estranes and the gonanes, initial reaction constituents of 1, 4-dimetalation of the most electron deficient positions of the aromatic ring–in the case of an estrogen, the 1 and 4-positions. Treatment of this product with weak acid, oxalic acid for e. g. leads to the hydrolysis of the ether, producing β. Hydrolysis under more sternuous conditions results in migration/conjugation of the olefin to yield nandrolone, treatment of 4 with decanoic anhydride and pyridine affords nandrolone decanoate
6.
Ester
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In chemistry, esters are chemical compounds derived from an acid in which at least one –OH group is replaced by an –O–alkyl group. Usually, esters are derived from an acid and an alcohol. Glycerides, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol, are important esters in biology, being one of the classes of lipids. Esters with low weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules, nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters are important plastics, with monomers linked by ester moieties. The word ester was coined in 1848 by German chemist Leopold Gmelin, probably as a contraction of the German Essigäther, ester names are derived from the parent alcohol and the parent acid, where the latter may be organic or inorganic. Esters derived from more complex carboxylic acids are, on the hand, more frequently named using the systematic IUPAC name. For example, the ester hexyl octanoate, also known under the trivial name hexyl caprylate, has the formula CH36CO25CH3, the chemical formulas of organic esters usually take the form RCO2R′, where R and R′ are the hydrocarbon parts of the carboxylic acid and the alcohol, respectively. For example, butyl acetate, derived from butanol and acetic acid would be written CH3CO2C4H9, alternative presentations are common including BuOAc and CH3COOC4H9. Cyclic esters are called lactones, regardless of whether they are derived from an organic or an inorganic acid, one example of a lactone is γ-valerolactone. An uncommon class of organic esters are the orthoesters, which have the formula RC3, triethylorthoformate is derived, in terms of its name from orthoformic acid and ethanol. Esters can also be derived from an acid and an alcohol. For example, triphenyl phosphate is the derived from phosphoric acid. Organic carbonates are derived from acid, for example, ethylene carbonate is derived from carbonic acid. So far an alcohol and inorganic acid are linked via oxygen atoms, in corollary, boron features borinic esters, boronic esters, and borates. As oxygen is a group 16 chemical element, sulfur atoms can replace some oxygen atoms in carbon–oxygen–central inorganic atom covalent bonds of an ester, esters contain a carbonyl center, which gives rise to 120 ° C–C–O and O–C–O angles. Unlike amides, esters are structurally flexible functional groups because rotation about the C–O–C bonds has a low barrier and their flexibility and low polarity is manifested in their physical properties, they tend to be less rigid and more volatile than the corresponding amides. The pKa of the alpha-hydrogens on esters is around 25, the preference for the Z conformation is influenced by the nature of the substituents and solvent, if present
7.
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
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The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules, the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since modified and extended. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed in the open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. The Environmental Protection Agency funded the project to develop SMILES. It has since modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, in July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is generally considered to have the advantage of being slightly more human-readable than InChI, the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should strictly be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is also used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings, the exact meaning is usually apparent from the context. The terms canonical and isomeric can lead to confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms describe different attributes of SMILES strings and are not mutually exclusive, typically, a number of equally valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol, algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule, of the many possible strings, these algorithms choose only one of them. This SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the algorithm used to generate it. These algorithms first convert the SMILES to a representation of the molecular structure. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database, there is currently no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, and these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES
