1.
Brotherhood of Man
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Brotherhood of Man are a British pop group who achieved success in the 1970s. They won the 1976 Eurovision Song Contest with Save Your Kisses for Me, created in 1969 by songwriter and record producer Tony Hiller, Brotherhood of Man was initially an umbrella title for a frequently-changing line-up of session singers. Early on, they scored a hit with the song United We Stand. By 1973 the concept had run its course and Hiller formed a definite four-member line-up consisting of Martin Lee, Lee Sheriden, Nicky Stevens and Sandra Stevens. This version of the went on to score many hits around the world in the mid to late 1970s including Kiss Me Kiss Your Baby, Angelo, Oh Boy. They achieved perhaps their biggest success in their native UK with three number one singles and four top twenty albums, the group under this line-up still continues today, performing shows throughout Europe. Altogether, they have released 16 studio albums, with sales topping 15 million records. Brotherhood of Man were formed by record producer/composer Tony Hiller in 1969, Burrows was a well-known session singer, performing in various line-ups on hit singles such as the No.1 hit Love Grows by Edison Lighthouse. The two female members, Glover and Leslie were an act in their own right, releasing singles as Sue, the group came together in 1969 and began recording some songs with Hiller. Their first single Love One Another failed to chart, but the follow-up United We Stand was a worldwide hit, United We Stand was heavily played on British radio, and broke the American market. The single became a Top 20 hit in the UK, Canada, the song has since been used as the closing theme for televisions Brady Bunch Hour and as an anthem for various causes. Burrows left the group soon after and as a four-piece, The Brotherhood of Man followed United We Stand with another hit, the song charted in the UK, Canada, and US and has since been covered by Olivia Newton-John and The Osmonds among others. A début album United We Stand followed soon after, over the next two years, the group continued in varied line-ups. Goodison left the group at the beginning of 1971 and was replaced by American singer Hal Atkinson and they had one more minor hit in the US, but experienced no further success in the UK and were eventually dropped by their record company. Keen to keep the name alive, Hiller set about putting a new line up together. In 1972 he got together a trio of singers, Martin Lee, Nicky Stevens. Sheriden was already known to Hiller as a songwriter and had a solo career, Lee had a solo single to his name and was a budding songwriter. Stevens had been trained, but had since adapted her vocals and was performing as a cabaret singer
2.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
3.
Liberty
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Liberty, in philosophy, involves free will as contrasted with determinism. In politics, liberty consists of the social and political freedoms to all community members are entitled. In theology, liberty is freedom from the effects of sin, spiritual servitude, as such, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Philosophers from earliest times have considered the question of liberty, according to Thomas Hobbes, a free man is he that in those things which by his strength and wit he is able to do is not hindered to do what he hath the will to do. John Locke rejected that definition of liberty, while not specifically mentioning Hobbes, he attacks Sir Robert Filmer who had the same definition. According to Locke, In the state of nature, liberty consists of being free from any power on Earth. People are not under the will or lawmaking authority of others but have only the law of nature for their rule, in political society, liberty consists of being under no other lawmaking power except that established by consent in the commonwealth. People are free from the dominion of any will or legal restraint apart from that enacted by their own constituted lawmaking power according to the trust put in it. Thus, freedom is not as Sir Robert Filmer defines it, A liberty for everyone to do what he likes, to live as he pleases, freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature is to be no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. John Stuart Mill, in his work, On Liberty, was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as the absence of coercion, the modern concept of political liberty has its origins in the Greek concepts of freedom and slavery. To be free, to the Greeks, was to not have a master and that was the original Greek concept of freedom. It is closely linked with the concept of democracy, as Aristotle put it, This, another is that a man should live as he likes. This, they say, is the privilege of a freeman, since, on the other hand and this applied only to free men. In Athens, for instance, women could not vote or hold office and were legally and socially dependent on a male relative, the populations of the Persian Empire enjoyed some degree of freedom. Citizens of all religions and ethnic groups were given the rights and had the same freedom of religion, women had the same rights as men
4.
National motto
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This page lists state and national mottos for the worlds nations. The mottos for some states lacking general international recognition, extinct states, non sovereign nations, and territories are listed, a state motto is used to describe the intent or motivation of the state in a short phrase. For example, it can be included on a flag, coat of arms. Some countries choose not to have a national motto, afghanistan, لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God. Formerly Advance Australia Austria, formerly AEIOU, with one possible meaning being Austriae est imperare orbi universo Austria-Hungary, Indivisibiliter ac Inseparabiliter Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, Bir kərə yüksələn bayraq bir daha enməz. Azores, Antes morrer livres que em paz sujeitos Bahamas, Forward, Upward, Onward Together Bahrain, nationalism, Secularism, Socialism, and Democracy Barbados, Pride and Industry Bavaria, formerly, In Treue fest Belarus, No official motto. Unofficial motto is, Long Live Belarus, byelorussian SSR, Пралетарыі ўсіх краін, яднайцеся. Belgium, Eendracht maakt macht, Lunion fait la force and Einigkeit gibt Stärke Belize, Sub umbra floreo Benin, Fraternité, Justice, Travail Bermuda, Quo fata ferunt Bhutan, No official motto. Republic of Biafra, Peace, Unity, Freedom Bolivia, La Unión es la Fuerza Bosnia and Herzegovina, botswana, Pula Brazil, Ordem e progresso Empire of Brazil, Independência ou Morte. Costa Rica, Vivan siempre el trabajo y la paz Croatia, equatorial Guinea, Unidad, Paz, Justicia Eritrea, دولة إرترݐا, Hagere Ertra Estonia, No official motto. Ethiopia, formerly ኢትዮጵያ ታበድ አደዊሃ ሃበ አግዚአብሐር, taken from Psalm 68,31, currently none. The Imperial motto, between 1930 and 1975, was ሞዓ አንበሰ ዘአምነባደ ይሁዳ. Falkland Islands, Desire the Right Faroe Islands, No official motto, fiji, Rerevaka na Kalou ka Doka na Tui Finland, No official motto. Åland, Islands of Peace Florentine Republic, Regna cadunt luxu surgunt virtutibus urbes, Germany, No official motto, commonly referred as Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit East Germany, Proletarier aller Länder, vereinigt Euch. Grenada, Ever Conscious of God We Aspire, and Advance as One People Guam, guatemala, Libre Crezca Fecundo Guernsey, No official motto. from the National anthem of Hungary. India, सत्यमेव जयते Indonesia, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Iran, de facto, استقلال، آزادى، جمهورى اسلامى de jure, الله اکبر Kingdom Of Iran, iraq, الله أكبر Iraqi Kurdistan, An azadî, an azadî Ireland, No official motto. Isle of Man, Quocunque Ieceris Stabit Israel, No official motto, Kingdom of Italy, Foedere et Religione Tenemur Italian Social Republic, Per lonore dItalia Jamaica, Out of many, One People Japan, No official motto. Ancient Japan, 養正之心ヲ弘ム, 積慶重暉, 掩ヒテ㆓八紘 ヲ㆒而為ス㆑宇 ト Empire of Japan, 開国進取 Charter Oath -> 大東亜新秩序建設 ja, 基本国策要綱 Jersey, jordan, الله، الوطن، الملك Kazakhstan, No official motto. Kenya, Harambee Kiribati, Te mauri, te raoi ao te tabomoa North Korea, 강성대국 South Korea, 홍익인간 Korean Empire, 광명천지 Let there be light across the land Kosovo, Atdheu, Nderi, Detyra
5.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
6.
Haiti
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Haiti, officially the Republic of Haiti and formerly called Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic, the region was originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno people. Spain discovered the island on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic, when Columbus initially landed in Haiti, he had thought he had found India or Asia. On Christmas Day 1492, Columbus flagship the Santa Maria ran aground north of what is now Limonade, the island was named La Española and claimed by Spain, which ruled until the early 17th century. Competing claims and settlements by the French led to the portion of the island being ceded to France. The development of plantations, worked by slaves brought from Africa. Upon his death in a prison in France, he was succeeded by his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the Haitian Revolution lasted just over a dozen years, and apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all the first leaders of government were former slaves. The Citadelle Laferrière is the largest fortress in the Americas, Henri Christophe – former slave and first king of Haiti, Henri I – built it to withstand a possible foreign attack. It has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas, most recently, in February 2004, a coup détat originating in the north of the country forced the resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. A provisional government took control with security provided by the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, the name Haïti comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, land of high mountains. The h is silent in French and the ï in Haïti, is a mark used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately. In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, the name Haïti was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. The Taíno name for the island was Haiti. The people had migrated over centuries into the Caribbean islands from South America, genetic studies show they were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. They also originated in Central and South America, after migrating to Caribbean islands, in the 15th century, the Taíno were pushed into the northeast Caribbean islands by the Caribs. In the Taíno societies of the Caribbean islands, the largest unit of organization was led by a cacique, or chief. The caciquedoms were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of harvests, Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions
7.
Hendiatris
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Hendiatris is a figure of speech used for emphasis, in which three words are used to express one idea. For example, the sex, drugs and rocknroll as used to capture the life of a rock star is of this form. A tripartite motto is the conventional English term for a motto, quamdiu etiam furor iste tuus nos eludet. Quem ad finem sese effrenata jactabit audacia, until when will you abuse our patience, Catiline. For how long will that madness of yours mock us, to what end will your unbridled boldness toss itself about. In ancient Greece and Rome, such abstractions as liberty and justice were theologized, hence the earliest tripartite mottoes are lists of the names of goddesses, Eunomia, Dike, and Eirene. These late Greek goddesses, respectively Good Order, Justice, the Romans had Concordia, Salus, and Pax, collectively called the Fortunae. The names of these mean Harmony, Health, and Peace, cry God for Harry, England and St. George Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears Be bloody, bold, and resolute Love all, trust a few. Serve God, love me, and mend, from the 18th century, the tripartite motto was primarily political. The initial Carlist motto was God, Country, King, the University of North Carolinas Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies maintain such tripartite mottos as well. A Canadian usage is Peace, order and good government, originally found in the 1867 Constitution of Canada and it has remained, to this day, an essential part of the Canadian identity. «Il nous faut de laudace, encore de laudace, toujours de laudace. » — We must be bold, and again bold, lenin and the Bolsheviks adopted a tripartite motto for the Russian Revolution, Russian, мир, земля, и хлеб, translit. During the New Deal, the projects of Franklin Delano Roosevelt were summed up as Relief, Recovery, later the form was used for strident fascist patter, such as Fascist Italys Credere. A famous Nazi slogan is also tripartite, Ein Volk, the modern motto of Germany, Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit is inscribed on the side of German euro coins, as it was on Deutsche Mark coins. During the German occupation of France, the Vichy regime replaced the motto of the Republic by Travail, Famille, the 1974 Carnation Revolution in Portugal aimed at three immediate goals, Descolonização, Democratização, Desenvolvimento. The US Federal Bureau of Investigation has a motto, Fidelity, Bravery, Integrity, while the United States Military Academy at West Point has Duty, Honor. This concept has been extended to the list of values of the U. S. armed services, such as the Navys Honor, Courage, Commitment. The University of Notre Dame has adopted God, Country, Notre Dame as an informal motto, the phrase first appeared on the First World War memorial located on the east portico of the basilica
8.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
9.
French Third Republic
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It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again
10.
Grand Orient de France
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The Grand Orient de France is the largest of several Masonic organizations in France and the oldest in Continental Europe. It was formed out of the older Grand Lodge of France in 1773 and it is generally considered to be the mother lodge of traditional Liberal, or Continental Freemasonry. In 1777, the Grand Orient de France recognised the antiquity of the Lodge of Perfect Equality, said to have been formed in 1688. This, if it existed at that time, was a military lodge attached to the Royal Irish Regiment, formed by Charles II of England in Saint-Germain in 1661. The regiment remained loyal to the Stuarts, and did not return to France until after the fall of Limerick in 1689 and they returned to barracks in Saint-Germain in 1698, surviving to become the 92nd Infantry Regiment after the revolution. With these dates in mind, modern scholars regard the 1688 lodge as a folk tale. An English Lodge is also said to have founded at Dunkirk in 1721. Another first Lodge was organised by exiled Jacobites under the Earl of Derwentwater in Paris about 1725, a lodge was documented at the Louis dArgent in the Rue des Boucheries, Paris, in 1732. These were English-speaking lodges that happened to be in France, there was also a French lodge listed in the 1723 minutes of the Premier Grand Lodge of England. Meeting at Solomons Temple, in Hemmings Row the Master was Jean Theophile Desaguliers, then Deputy Grand Master, in a list of members, mostly having French names, James Anderson, who compiled the first printed constitutions, is listed as Jaques Anderson maitre et arts. It was in 1743 that the English Grand Lodge of France became a French phenomenon, shortly after his death, a schism occurred, with the larger party becoming the Grand Orient de France in 1773. The ritual of the new Grand Lodge followed that of the Premier Grand Lodge of England, by the time of the French Revolution, there were some 1250 Masonic Lodges in the country. Benjamin Franklin was a member of this Lodge when he was serving as liaison in Paris, some notable French revolutionaries were Freemasons, including Voltaire, Marquis de Lafayette, Marquis de Condorcet, Mirabeau, Georges Danton, the Duke of Orléans, and Hébert. Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, a leader of the Liberal Aristocracy, was the Grand Master of the Grand Orient at the time of the French Revolution. However, the New Catholic Encyclopedia of 1967 says that modern historians see Freemasonrys role in the French Revolution as exaggerated, in 1804 it merged with the rival Grand Lodge, the Rite Ecossais. In 1877, at the instigation of the Protestant pastor Frédéric Desmons, the United Grand Lodge of England and related Lodges regarded belief in the Supreme Being as a Masonic Landmark. It was this decision that has been the cause of the schism between the Grand Orient, and the rest of Freemasonry. It is a schism in Freemasonry which continues to this day, the decision was not universally approved in France
11.
Biens nationaux
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The biens nationaux were properties confiscated during the French Revolution from the Catholic Church, the monarchy, émigrés, and suspected counter-revolutionaries for the good of the nation. Biens means goods, both in the sense of objects and in the sense of benefits, the phrase is in middle French form, and is in the nominative case, so it literally means both national things and benefits for the nation. This can be summarized as things for the good of the nation, the possessions of the Roman Catholic Church were declared national property by the decree of November 2,1789. These were sold to resolve the crisis that caused the Revolution. Later, the properties of the Crown were given the same treatment, a few months into the Revolution, the public purse was all but empty. To amend this problem, the deputy Talleyrand proposed nationalizing the goods of the clergy. This legacy, evaluated to just about 3 billion livres, constituted an improvement for public finance. The disposition of goods was entrusted to a special office, called la Caisse de lExtraordinaire. The difficulty was that the sale of so many biens would take time, at least a year, while the caisses of the State were empty and national bankruptcy appeared to be immediate. Therefore, it was decided to produce, the same day as the creation of la Caisse de lExtraordinaire. The value of these bills or bonds was based on the value of the clerical properties. The Assignats were issued by the National Constituent Assembly, initially meant as bonds, the assignats developed into a paper currency used as legal tender. As there was no control over the amount to be printed, in the beginning of 1792, they had lost most of their supposed value. This hyperinflation was inspired by continual food shortages, rather than solving the financial problems, the assignats became a cause for food riots. Insecurity continued after the abolition of the monarchy, and the situation got worse with the wars France faced and these circumstances interfered with the completion of good financial policies that would reduce debts. Bills were passed such as the Maximum Price Act of 1793, when the Directoire came into power in 1795 the Maximum Price Act was lifted. High monetary inflation reemerged and in the four years Paris was the scene of yet more riots. Frances financial problems were solved during the French Consulate when Napoleon, the First Consul, created the new currency
12.
Reign of Terror
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The Reign of Terror or The Terror, is the label given by some historians to a period of violence during the French Revolution. Different historians place the date at either 5 September 1793 or June 1793 or March 1793 or September 1792 or July 1789. Between June 1793 and the end of July 1794, there were 16,594 official death sentences in France, but the total number of deaths in France in 1793–96 in only the civil war in the Vendée is estimated at 250,000 counter-revolutionaries and 200,000 republicans. During 1794, revolutionary France was beset with conspiracies by internal, within France, the revolution was opposed by the French nobility, which had lost its inherited privileges. The Catholic Church opposed the revolution, which had turned the clergy into employees of the state, in addition, the French First Republic was engaged in a series of wars with neighboring powers, and parts of France were engaging in civil war against the loyalist regime. The latter were grouped in the parliamentary faction called the Mountain. Through the Revolutionary Tribunal, the Terrors leaders exercised broad powers, the Reign was a manifestation of the strong strain on centralized power. Many historians have debated the reasons the French Revolution took such a turn during the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. The public was frustrated that the equality and anti-poverty measures that the revolution originally promised were not materializing. Jacques Rouxs Manifesto of the Enraged on 25 June 1793, describes the extent to which, four years into the revolution, the foundation of the Terror is centered on the April 1793 creation of the Committee of Public Safety and its militant Jacobin delegates. Those in power believed the Committee of Public Safety was an unfortunate, according to Mathiez, they touched only with trepidation and reluctance the regime established by the Constituent Assembly so as not to interfere with the early accomplishments of the revolution. Similar to Mathiez, Richard Cobb introduced competing circumstances of revolt, counter-revolutionary rebellions taking place in Lyon, Brittany, Vendée, Nantes, and Marseille were threatening the revolution with royalist ideas. Cobb writes, the revolutionaries themselves, living as if in combat… were easily persuaded that only terror, Terror was used in these rebellions both to execute inciters and to provide a very visible example to those who might be considering rebellion. Cobb agrees with Mathiez that the Terror was simply a response to circumstances, at the same time, Cobb rejects Mathiezs Marxist interpretation that elites controlled the Reign of Terror to the significant benefit of the bourgeoisie. Instead, Cobb argues that social struggles between the classes were seldom the reason for actions and sentiments. Widespread terror and a consequent rise in executions came after external and internal threats were vastly reduced, with the backing of the national guard, they persuaded the convention to arrest 29 Girondist leaders, including Jacques Pierre Brissot. On 13 July the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat – a Jacobin leader, georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the king, was removed from the committee. The Jacobins identified themselves with the movement and the sans-culottes
13.
Maximilien Robespierre
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Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre was a French lawyer and politician. He was one of the best-known and most influential figures associated with the French Revolution, as a member of the Estates-General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobin Club, Robespierre was an outspoken advocate for the poor and for democratic institutions. He campaigned for universal suffrage in France, price controls on basic food commodities. But although he was an ardent opponent of the penalty, he played an important role in arranging the execution of King Louis XVI. He is perhaps best known for his role in the French Revolutions Reign of Terror and he was named as a member of the powerful Committee of Public Safety launched by his political ally Georges Danton and exerted his influence to suppress the left-wing Hébertists. The Terror ended a few later with Robespierres arrest and execution in July. Robespierres personal responsibility for the excesses of the Terror remains the subject of debate among historians of the French Revolution. Influenced by 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes such as Rousseau and Montesquieu, Robespierre was a capable articulator of the beliefs of the left-wing bourgeoisie and his steadfast adherence and defense of the views he expressed earned him the nickname lIncorruptible. Robespierres reputation has gone through cycles of re-appraisal. During the Soviet Era, Robespierre was used as an example of a Revolutionary figure and his reputation peaked in the 1920s with the influence of French historian Albert Mathiez. In more recent times, his reputation has suffered as historians have associated him with an attempt at a radical purification of politics through the killing of enemies, Maximilien Robespierre was born in Arras in the old French province of Artois. His family has been traced back to the 12th century in Picardy and it has been suggested that he was of Irish descent, his surname possibly a corruption of Robert Speirs. His paternal grandfather, also named Maximilien de Robespierre, established himself in Arras as a lawyer and his father, François Maximilien Barthélémy de Robespierre, was a lawyer at the Conseil dArtois. He married Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault, the daughter of a brewer, Maximilien was the oldest of four children and was conceived out of wedlock. His siblings were Charlotte, Henriette, and Augustin, on 7 July 1764, Madame de Robespierre gave birth to a stillborn son, she died nine days later. Devastated by his wifes death, François de Robespierre subsequently left Arras, the children would visit each other on Sundays. Already literate at age 8, Maximilien started attending the collège of Arras, in October 1769, on the recommendation of the bishop, he received a scholarship at the Collège Louis-le-Grand, University of Paris in Paris. Robespierre studied there until age 23, receiving his training as a lawyer, upon his graduation, he received a special prize of 600-livre for twelve years of exemplary academic success and personal good conduct
14.
Paris Commune (French Revolution)
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The Paris Commune during the French Revolution was the government of Paris from 1789 until 1795. Established in the Hôtel de Ville just after the storming of the Bastille, the Paris Commune became insurrectionary in the summer of 1792, essentially refusing to take orders from the central French government. It took charge of routine civic functions but is best known for mobilizing extreme views and actions among the people and for its campaign to dechristianize the churches and it lost much power in 1794 and was replaced in 1795. In 1792, the Commune was dominated by those Jacobins who were not in the Legislative Assembly due to the Self-Denying Ordinance, the all-powerful Commune demanded custody of the royal family, imprisoning them in the Temple fortress. A list of opponents of the Revolution was drawn up, the gates to the city were sealed, the government of the republic was succeeded by the French Directory in November 1795
15.
Jean-Paul Marat
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Jean-Paul Marat was a French political theorist, physician, and scientist who became best known for his role as a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution. He was one of the most radical voices of the French Revolution, Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, a Girondist sympathizer, while taking a medicinal bath for his debilitating skin condition. In his death, Marat became an icon to the Jacobins as a martyr, as portrayed in Jacques-Louis Davids famous painting. For this assassination, Corday was executed four days later, on 17 July 1793, Jean-Paul Marat was born in Boudry in the Prussian Principality of Neuchâtel, now part of Switzerland, on 24 May 1743. He was the second of nine born to Jean Mara, a native of Cagliari, Sardinia, and Louise Cabrol. His father was a Mercedarian commendator and religious refugee who converted to Calvinism in Geneva, at the age of sixteen, Marat left home in search of new opportunities, aware of the limited opportunities for outsiders. His highly educated father had turned down for several college teaching posts. His first stop was with the wealthy Nairac family in Bordeaux, after two years there he moved on to Paris where he studied medicine without gaining any formal qualifications. Highly ambitious, but without patronage or qualifications, he set about inserting himself into the scene with works on philosophy. Around 1770, Marat moved to Newcastle upon Tyne and he gave it the subtitle, A work in which the clandestine and villainous attempts of Princes to ruin Liberty are pointed out, and the dreadful scenes of Despotism disclosed. It earned him membership of the patriotic societies of Berwick-upon-Tweed. The Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society Library possesses a copy, and Tyne, a published essay on curing a friend of gleets probably helped to secure his medical referees for an MD from the University of St Andrews in June 1775. On his return to London, he published Enquiry into the Nature, Cause, in 1776, Marat moved to Paris following a brief stopover in Geneva to visit his family. The position paid 2,000 livres a year plus allowances, Marat was soon in great demand as a court doctor among the aristocracy and he used his new-found wealth to set up a laboratory in the marquise de lAubespines house. Soon he was publishing works on fire and heat, electricity and he published, first, a summary of his scientific views and discoveries in Découvertes de M. Marat sur le feu, lélectricité et la lumière in 1779. He then went on to publish three much more detailed and extensive works, expanding on each of his areas of research. His method was to describe in detail the meticulous series of experiments he had undertaken on a problem, seeking to explore and then all possible conclusions. This describes 166 experiments conducted to demonstrate that fire was not, as was widely held and he asked the Academy of Sciences to appraise his work, and it appointed a commission to do so, which reported in April 1779
16.
Pierre Leroux
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Pierre Henri Leroux, French philosopher, and political economist, was born at Bercy, now a part of Paris, the son of an artisan. His education was interrupted by the death of his father, which compelled him to support his mother, in 1834 he published an essay entitled Individualism and Socialism which, despite its message of scepticism towards both tendencies, introduced the term socialism in French political discourse. In 1838, with Jean Reynaud, who had seceded with him, amongst the articles which he inserted in it were De legalité and Refutation de léclectisme, which afterwards appeared as separate works. In 1840 he published his treatise De lhumanité, which contains the fullest exposition of his system, in 1841 he established the Revue indépendante, with the aid of George Sand, over whom he had great influence. Her Spiridion, which was dedicated to him, Sept cordes de la lyre, Consuelo, Leroux also became embroiled in the philosophical controversy between F. W. J. Schelling and the Young Hegelians in the early 1840s, a favourable comment about Schelling prompted a public reply from Hegels disciple Karl Rosenkranz. Leroux continued to take an interest in German philosophy and literature, in 1843 he established at Boussac a printing association organized according to his systematic ideas, and founded the Revue sociale. In 1848 he joined the Freemasons, at the outbreak of the Revolution of 1848 Leroux proclaimed the republic in the town of Boussac, becoming its mayor on February 25. He also published writings, including La Plutocratie, another term he seems to have coined. On the definitive amnesty of 1869 he returned to Paris and he supported the Paris Commune but died before its suppression. Leroux thought is a medley of doctrines borrowed from Saint-Simonian, German Idealist, Pythagorean. His religious doctrine is pantheistic, and, rejecting the belief in a life as commonly conceived. In social economy he preserves the family, country and property and he imagines certain combinations by which this triple tyranny can be abolished. His solution seems to require the creation of families without heads, countries without governments, in politics he advocates absolute equality — a democracy. Lerouxs significance in the history of lies in his attempt to resuscitate spirituality and community in France in the wake of the revolutionary decades of the 1790s. The span of his lifetime were years of the rise of capitalism and liberal trade policies, romantic socialism as a movement attempted to reconcile religious and material needs in society. Leroux most thorough exposition of this idea is found in his Doctrine de lHumanité, in this and other works he argues for a reciprocal notion of human need and identity, emphasizing humanitys interdependence in lieu of atomized individuality. Liberté, égalité, fraternité French demonstration of 15 May 1848 Circulus This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Leroux
17.
Olympe de Gouges
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Olympe de Gouges, born Marie Gouze, was a French playwright and political activist whose feminist and abolitionist writings reached a large audience. She began her career as a playwright in the early 1780s, as political tension rose in France, Olympe de Gouges became increasingly politically engaged. She became an advocate for improving the condition of slaves in the colonies of 1788. At the same time, she began writing political pamphlets, today she is perhaps best known as an early feminist who demanded that French women be given the same rights as French men. In her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen, she challenged the practice of male authority and she was executed by guillotine during the Reign of Terror for attacking the regime of the Revolutionary government and for her close relation with the Girondists. Marie Gouze was born into a bourgeois family in 1748 in Montauban, Quercy. In 1765 she married Louis Aubry, a caterer, who came from Paris with the new Intendant of the town and this was not a marriage of love. Gouze said in a novel, I was married to a man I did not love. I was sacrificed for no reason that could make up for the repugnance I felt for this man and her husband died a year later, and in 1770 she moved to Paris with her son, Pierre, and took the name of Olympe de Gouges. In 1773, according to her biographer Olivier Blanc, she met a man, Jacques Biétrix de Rozières. She was received in the artistic and philosophical salons, where she met many writers, including La Harpe, Mercier and she usually was invited to the salons of Madame de Montesson and the Comtesse de Beauharnais, who also were playwrights. She also was associated with Masonic Lodges among them, the Loge des Neuf Sœurs that was created by her friend Michel de Cubières, in 1784, she wrote the anti-slavery play Zamore and Mirza. For several reasons, the play was not performed until 1789, De Gouges published it, however, as Zamore et Mirza, ou lheureux naufrage in 1788. It was performed as LEsclavage des nègres in December 1789, subsequently, it was published in 1792 under the title LEsclavage des noirs. She also wrote on such gender-related topics as the right of divorce, as an epilogue to the 1788 version of her play Zamore et Mirza, she published Réflexions sur les hommes nègres. In 1790 she wrote a play, Le Marché des Noirs which was rejected by the Comédie Française, in 1808 the Abbé Grégoire included her on his list of the courageous people who pleaded the cause of les nègres. A passionate advocate of human rights, Olympe de Gouges greeted the outbreak of the Revolution with hope and joy, in 1791, she became part of the Society of the Friends of Truth, an association with the goal of equal political and legal rights for women. Also called the Social Club, members sometimes gathered at the home of the womens rights advocate
18.
Freemasonry
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The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
19.
Jacobin
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Initially founded by anti-Royalist deputies from Brittany, the Club grew into a nationwide republican movement, with a membership estimated at a half million or more. The Jacobin Club was heterogeneous and included both prominent parliamentary factions of the early 1790s, the radical Mountain and the more moderate Girondins, in 1792–93, the Girondins dominated the Jacobin Club and led the country. Believing that revolutionary France would not be accepted by its neighbours, they called for a foreign policy. The Girondins were the dominant faction when the Jacobins overthrew the monarchy, when the Republic failed to deliver the unrealistic gains that had been expected, they lost popularity. The Girondins sought to curb fanatical revolutionary violence, and were accused by the Mountain of being royalist sympathisers. The National Guard eventually switched its support from the Girondins to the Mountain, in May 1793, led by Maximilien de Robespierre, the leaders of the Mountain faction succeeded in sidelining the Girondin faction and controlled the government until July 1794. Their time in government was characterized by radically progressive legislation imposed with very high levels of political violence, in June 1793, they approved the Constitution of Year 1 which introduced universal male suffrage for the first time in history. In September 1793, twenty-one prominent Girondins were guillotined, beginning the Reign of Terror, in October, during the Terror, the new constitution was ratified in a referendum which most eligible voters avoided participating in. In 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction pushed the Mountain out of power, the Jacobin Club was closed and many of its leaders, including Robespierre, were executed. Today, Jacobin and Jacobinism are used in a variety of senses and it was so named because of the Dominican convent where they met, which had recently been located in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris. The club originated as the Club Breton, formed at Versailles from a group of Breton representatives attending the Estates-General of 1789, when the Estates-General was convened in 1789, at Versailles, the club was initially composed exclusively of deputies from Brittany. However, they were joined by deputies from other regions throughout France. At this time, meetings occurred in secret, and few traces remain concerning what took place or where the meetings were convened. By the March on Versailles in October 1789, the club, the group rented for its meetings the refectory of the monastery of the Jacobins in the Rue Saint-Honoré, adjacent to the seat of the Assembly. The name Jacobins, given in France to the Dominicans, was first applied to the club in ridicule by its enemies and it occupied successively the refectory, the library, and the chapel of the monastery. Once in Paris, the club underwent rapid modifications, the first great change was its extension of membership to others besides deputies. All citizens were allowed to enter and even foreigners were welcomed, Jacobin Club meetings soon became a place for radical and rousing oratory that pushed for republicanism, widespread education, universal suffrage, separation of church and state, and other reforms. At the same time the rules of order of election were settled, by the 7th article the club decided to admit as associates similar societies in other parts of France and to maintain with them a regular correspondence
20.
French Constitution
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The current Constitution of France was adopted on 4 October 1958. It is typically called the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, Charles de Gaulle was the main driving force in introducing the new constitution and inaugurating the Fifth Republic, while the text was drafted by Michel Debré. Since then the constitution has been amended twenty-four times, most recently in 2008 and it provides for the election of the President and the Parliament, the selection of the Government, and the powers of each and the relations between them. It ensures judicial authority and creates a High Court, a Constitutional Council, and it was designed to create a politically strong President. It enables the ratification of treaties and those associated with the European Union. It is unclear whether the wording is compatible with European Union law, the Constitution also sets out methods for its own amendment either by referendum or through a Parliamentary process with Presidential consent. However, president Charles de Gaulle bypassed the legislative procedure in 1962 and directly sent an amendment to a referendum. This was highly controversial at the time, however, the Constitutional Council ruled that since a referendum expressed the will of the sovereign people, on 21 July 2008, Parliament passed constitutional reforms championed by President Nicolas Sarkozy by a margin of two votes. Prior to 1971, though executive, administrative and judicial decisions had to comply with the principles of law. It was assumed that unelected judges and other appointees should not be able to overrule laws voted for by the directly elected French parliament, in practice, the political opposition sends all controversial laws before it. The Constitution defines in Article 89 the rules for amending itself, first, a constitutional bill must be approved by both houses of Parliament. Then, the bill must be approved by the Congress, a joint session of both houses, alternatively, the bill can be submitted to a referendum. This permitted the establishment of an elected presidency, that would otherwise have been vetoed by the Parliament. Article 11 was used for changes for the second and last time in 1969. France has had numerous past constitutions, the ancien régime was an absolute monarchy and lacked a formal constitution, the régime essentially relied on custom. Journal Officiel de la République Française, 9151–9173, lélaboration de la Constitution de la Ve République. Frédéric Monera, Lidée de République et la jurisprudence du Conseil constitutionnel – Paris, martin A. Rogoff, French Constitutional Law, Cases and Materials – Durham, North Carolina, Carolina Academic Press,2010. Texte intégral de la Constitution du 4 octobre 1958 en vigueur, Constitutional council of the French Republic
21.
Cordeliers
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The Society of the Friends of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, mainly known as Cordeliers Club, was a populist club during the French Revolution. The club had its origins in the Cordeliers district, a famously radical area of Paris called, by Camille Desmoulins, the only sanctuary where liberty has not been violated. In May and June 1790, the division of Paris into sixty districts was, by decree of the National Assembly. This restructuring abolished the Cordeliers district and this society held its meetings in the Cordeliers Convent, and quickly became known as the Club des Cordeliers. It took as its motto the phrase, Liberté, égalité, fraternité, the membership fees of this society were fixed low, and thus affordable to a more diverse range of citizens than those of many other political clubs at the time, including the Jacobin Club. There were no restrictions on membership. The Cordeliers presented themselves as exceptionally populist, they prided themselves on counting working men and women among their members, the Declaration of the Rights of Man was stuck on the wall, crowned by crossed daggers. Plaster busts of Brutus and William Tell were placed on each side, facing, behind the tribune, as supporters, there appeared busts of Mirabeau and Helvétius, with Jean-Jacques Rousseau in the middle. However, the preponderance of Cordeliers were members of the bourgeoisie, the Cordeliers actively moved against the majority interests in this case. Large demonstrations in support of this and similar petitions led to civil unrest, the National Guard, led by the Marquis de Lafayette, fired on the protestors, resulting in the deaths of at least dozen of them. Subsequent action taken against the Cordeliers included the closing of the Cordeliers Convent to them, despite these measures, the society remained a highly influential force in Parisian politics. The Cordeliers participated significantly in the planning and execution of the August 10,1792 insurrection, in the seven numbers of the journal, Desmoulins attacked the Hébertists and called for an end to the Terror, comparing revolutionary Paris to Rome under the tyrants. The papers emanating from the Cordeliers are enumerated in Jean Maurice Tourneux, Bibliographie de lhistoire de Paris pendant la Révolution, i. See also A. Bougeart Les Cordeliers, documents pour servir a lhistoire de la Révolution, G. Lenotre, Paris révolutionnaire, G. Tridon, Les Hébertistes, the last-named author was condemned to four months prison, his work was reprinted in 1871. The inventory of the found in 1790 in the Cordeliers Convent was published by J. Guiffrey in Nouvelles archives de l’art français. New York, Charles Scribners Sons,1899, le Grand Dictionnaire dHistoire de la France. Paris, Éditions Fayard,1979 Hammersley, Rachel, French Revolutionaries and English Republicans, The Cordeliers Club 1790–1794. Rochester, Boydell & Brewer Inc.2005
22.
Despotism
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Despotism is a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power. That entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group, the English dictionary defines despotism as the rule of a despot, the exercise of absolute authority. The root despot comes from the Greek word despotes, which means master or one with power, the term has been used to describe many rulers and governments throughout history. Due to its reflexive connotation throughout history, the word despot cannot be objectively defined, colloquially, the word despot applies pejoratively to those who abuse their power and authority to oppress their populace, subjects, or subordinates. More specifically, the term applies to a head of state or government. In this sense, it is similar to the connotations that are associated with the terms tyrant. Of all the ancient Greeks, Aristotle was perhaps the most influential promoter of the concept of oriental despotism. He passed this ideology to his student, Alexander the Great, who conquered Persia, which at the time was ruled by the despotic Darius III, Aristotle asserted that oriental despotism was not based on force, but on consent. Hence, fear could not be said to be its motivating force, but rather the nature of those enslaved. Within ancient Greek society, every Greek man was free and capable of holding office, in contrast, among the barbarians, all were slaves by nature. Another difference Aristotle espoused was based on climates, possessing both spirit and intelligence, the Greeks were free to govern all other peoples. The story of Croesus of Lydia exemplifies this, leading up to Alexanders expansion into Asia, most Greeks were repelled by the Oriental notion of a sun-king, and the divine law that Oriental societies accepted. Herodotuss version of history advocated a society where men became free when they consented lawfully to the contract of their respective city-state. His eyebrows were tinged with black, and his cheeks painted with an artificial red, in its classical form, despotism is a state in which a single individual holds all the power and authority embodying the state, and everyone else is a subsidiary person. This form of despotism was common in the first forms of statehood and civilization, the word itself seems to have been coined by the opponents of Louis XIV of France in the 1690s, who applied the term despotisme to describe their monarchs somewhat free exercise of power. The word is ultimately Greek in origin, and in ancient Greek usage, the term now implies tyrannical rule. This movement was probably triggered by the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu believed that despotism was a government for large states
23.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution, Rousseaus novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction and his Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club and he was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794,16 years after his death. Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state, since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Rousseau was proud that his family, of the order, had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he signed his books Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting citizens, the citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as inhabitants, whose descendants were called natives and continued to lack suffrage. There was much debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, in 1707, a democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being. He was shot by order of the Little Council, Jean-Jacques Rousseaus father, Isaac, was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacquess grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it. The trade of watchmaking had become a tradition by the time of Rousseaus father. Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. A Genevan watchmaker, Rousseau wrote, is a man who can be introduced anywhere, in 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, Rousseaus mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family. She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher and he cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques died in his early thirties. In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theater disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, after a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. She married Rousseaus father at the age of 31, isaacs sister had married Suzannes brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory
24.
The Social Contract
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The Social Contract helped inspire political reforms or revolutions in Europe, especially in France. The Social Contract argued against the idea that monarchs were divinely empowered to legislate, Rousseau asserts that only the people, who are sovereign, have that all-powerful right. The epigraph of the work is foederis aequas / Dicamus leges, a state has no right to enslave a conquered people. In this desired social contract, everyone will be free because they all forfeit the same amount of rights and impose the same duties on all. Rousseau argues that it is absurd for a man to surrender his freedom for slavery, thus, although the contract imposes new laws, including those safeguarding and regulating property, there are restrictions on how that property can be legitimately claimed. Rousseau posits that the aspects of a society should be divided into two parts. First, there must be a sovereign consisting of the population, women included. The second division is that of the government, being distinct from the sovereign and this division is necessary because the sovereign cannot deal with particular matters like applications of the law. Doing so would undermine its generality, and therefore damage its legitimacy, thus, government must remain a separate institution from the sovereign body. When the government exceeds the set in place by the people, it is the mission of the people to abolish such government. Rousseau claims that the size of the territory to be governed often decides the nature of the government. Since a government is only as strong as the people, and this strength is absolute, the larger the territory, the more strength the government must be able to exert over the populace. In his view, a government is able to wield the most power over the people since it has to devote less power to itself. In general, the larger the bureaucracy, the power required for government discipline. Normally, this requires the state to be an aristocracy or monarchy. When Rousseau uses the word democracy, he refers to a direct democracy rather than a representative democracy. In light of the relation between population size and governmental structure, Rousseau argues that, like his native Geneva, small city-states are the form of nation in which freedom can best flourish. The French philosopher Voltaire used his publications to criticise and mock Rousseau, in his Idées républicaines, he reacted to the news that The Social Contract had been burned in Geneva, saying The operation of burning it was perhaps as odious as that of writing it
25.
Equality of outcome
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It describes a state in which people have approximately the same material wealth and income, or in which the general economic conditions of their lives are similar. A related way of defining equality of outcome is to think of it as equality in the central, Equality of outcome is often compared to related concepts of equality, particularly with equality of opportunity. It entails the elimination of discrimination in the process of selection. The term is applied in workplace situations but has been applied in other areas as well such as housing, lending. The essence is that job seekers have a chance to compete within the framework of goals. It is generally seen as a value of fair treatment by the rules. Equality of opportunity provides in a sense that all start the race of life at the same time, Equality of outcome attempts to ensure that everyone finishes at the same time. It is a shot at empowerment or a chance to develop up to his or her potential rather than equal goods or equal chances. Sens approach requires active intervention of institutions like the state into peoples lives and this is an uncommonly used term meaning that person should be perceived as being of equal worth. In political philosophy, there are differing views whether equal outcomes are beneficial or not, one view is that there is a moral basis for equality of outcome, but that means to achieve such an outcome can be malevolent. One writer suggested greater socioeconomic equality was indispensable if we want to realise our shared values of societal fairness. Packer elaborated that inequality corrodes trust among fellow citizens and compared it to a gas which pervades every corner of the nation. And there is agreement that outcomes matter. Further, Rawls claims that all economically and socially privileged positions must be open to all people equally. Krugman favored a society in which hard-working and talented people can get rewarded for their efforts, Marx eschewed theorizing on moral concepts and refrained from advocating principles of justice. Marxs views on equality were informed by his analysis of the development of the forces in society. In Marxist theory, communism is based on a principle whereby access to goods and services is based on free and open access, Marx stressed free access to the articles of consumption. The equality in a communist society is not about total equality or equality of outcome
26.
Pierre Louis Roederer
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Comte Pierre Louis Roederer was a French politician, economist, and historian, politically active in the era of the French Revolution and First French Republic. Roederers son, Baron Antoine Marie Roederer, also became a political figure. During the period, he became an admirer of the economist Adam Smith, in 1788 he published the boldly liberal pamphlet Députation aux États généraux. Partly on the strength of this he was elected deputy to the Estates-General by the Third Estate of the bailliage of Metz, although not present at the event of June 1789, Roederer was sketched by Jacques-Louis David into his drawing of the Tennis Court Oath. After the close of the Constituent Assembly, he was elected, on 11 November 1791, for example, he took no share in signing their protest against the law against the non-juring clergy as a violation of religious liberty. But the directory did not long survive, with the growing opposition in the capital, many of its members resigned and fled. Seeing the perilous drift of things, he had tried to get into touch with King Louis XVI, Roederer himself fell under suspicion and went into hiding during the Reign of Terror, emerging again only after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the start of the Thermidorian Reaction. In 1796, he was made a member of the Académie française, was appointed to a professorship of political economy and he was appointed by Napoleon member of the council of state and senator. Roederer and Talleyrand contributed to Charles-François Lebruns rise past Sieyès, in 1800, Roederer was Minister Plenipotentiary to the Batavian and Helvetic Republics. He received the Legion of Honor in 1803, and was made a Grand Officier in December 1807, during the Hundred Days he was created a Peer of France. The Bourbon Restoration government stripped him of his offices and dignities and he recovered the title of Peer in 1832, following the July Revolution of 1830. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, in turn, cites, Pierre Louis Roederer, Œuvres, edited by his son Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, Works by Pierre Louis Roederer at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Pierre Louis Roederer at Internet Archive
27.
Alexis de Tocqueville
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Alexis Charles Henri Clérel, Viscount de Tocqueville was a French diplomat, political scientist, and historian. He was best known for his works Democracy in America and The Old Regime, in both he analyzed the improved living standards and social conditions of individuals, as well as their relationship to the market and state in Western societies. Democracy in America was published after Tocquevilles travels in the United States and is considered an early work of sociology. Tocqueville was active in French politics, first under the July Monarchy and he retired from political life after Louis Napoléon Bonapartes 2 December 1851 coup, and thereafter began work on The Old Regime and the Revolution. He argued the importance of the French Revolution was to continue the process of modernizing and centralizing the French state which had begun under King Louis XIV, the failure of the Revolution came from the inexperience of the deputies who were too wedded to abstract Enlightenment ideals. Tocqueville was a liberal who advocated parliamentary government, but he was skeptical of the extremes of democracy. Alexis de Tocqueville came from an old Norman aristocratic family with ancestors who participated in the Battle of Hastings in 1066, after an exile in England, they returned to France during the reign of Napoleon. Under the Bourbon Restoration, his became an noble peer. Tocqueville attended the Lycée Fabert in Metz, Tocqueville, who despised the July Monarchy, began his political career in 1839. From 1839 to 1851, he served as deputy of the Manche department, in parliament, he defended abolitionist views and upheld free trade, while supporting the colonisation of Algeria carried on by Louis-Philippes regime. Tocqueville was also elected general counsellor of the Manche in 1842, in 1831, he obtained from the July Monarchy a mission to examine prisons and penitentiaries in America, and proceeded there with his lifelong friend Gustave de Beaumont. While Tocqueville did visit some prisons, he traveled widely in America and he returned within nine months, and published a report, but the real result of his tour was De la démocratie en Amerique, which appeared in 1835. Beaumont also wrote an account of their travels in Jacksonian America, apart from America, Tocqueville also made an observational tour of England, producing Memoir on Pauperism. In 1841 and 1846, he traveled to Algeria and he went as far as openly advocating racial segregation between the European colonists and the Arabs through the implementation of two different legislative systems. In 1835, Tocqueville made a journey through Ireland and his observations provide one of the best pictures of how Ireland stood before the Great Famine. The observations chronicle the growing Catholic middle-class and the conditions in which most Catholic tenant farmers lived. Tocqueville made clear both his libertarian sympathies and his affinity for his Irish co-religionists and he defended bicameralism and the election of the President of the Republic by universal suffrage. As the countryside was thought to be more conservative than the population of Paris
28.
Jacques Necker
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Jacques Necker was a Swiss banker who became a French statesman and finance minister for Louis XVI. He was recalled to service just before the Revolution actually did start. His elder brother was the mathematician Louis Necker, Necker was born in Geneva, at that time an independent republic. His father, Karl Friedrich Necker, was a native of Küstrin in Neumark, after the publication of some works on international law, he was elected a professor of public law at Geneva, of which he became a citizen. Jacques Necker was sent to Paris in 1747 to become a clerk in the bank of Isaac Vernet, in 1762, he became a partner and by 1765, he had become very wealthy through successful financial speculations. Soon, he co-founded the bank of Thellusson, Necker et Compagnie with another Genevese, Thellusson superintended the bank in London, while Necker was managing partner in Paris. Both partners became very rich by means of loans to the French treasury, in 1763, Necker fell in love with Madame de Verménou, the widow of a French officer. But while on a visit to Geneva, Madame de Verménou met Suzanne Curchod, in 1764, Madame de Verménou brought Suzanne to Paris as her companion. There Necker, transferring his love from the widow to the poor Swiss girl. On 22 April 1766, they had a daughter, Anne Louise Germaine Necker, Madame Necker encouraged her husband to try to find himself a public position. After showing his ability in its management, Necker defended the companys autonomy in an able memoir against the attacks of Morellet in 1769. Meanwhile, he loans to the French government and was appointed resident at Paris by the republic of Geneva. In 1773, Necker won the prize of the Académie Française for a defense of state corporatism framed as a eulogy in honor of Louis XIVs minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert. In 1775, he published his Essai sur la législation et le commerce des grains and his wife now believed he could get into office as a great financier and made him give up his share in the bank, which he transferred to his brother Louis. In June 1777, Necker was made Director-General of Finance – he could not be named controller because of his Protestant faith and his greatest financial measures were his use of loans to help fund the French debt and his use of high interest rates rather than raising taxes. He also advocated loans to finance French involvement in the American Revolution, in 1781, France was suffering financially, and because Necker was Director-General, he was blamed for the rather high debt accrued from the American Revolution. While at court, Necker had made enemies because of his reforming policies. From 1777 to 1781, Necker was essentially in control of all of Frances wealth, near the end of this period, Necker published his most influential work, the Compte rendu au roi
29.
Tennis Court Oath
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It was a pivotal event in the early days of the French Revolution. On 17 June, the Third Estate, led by the comte de Mirabeau, on the morning of 20 June, the deputies were shocked to discover that the chamber door was locked and guarded by soldiers. There,576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate took an oath not to separate. The only person who did not join was Joseph Martin-Dauch from Castelnaudary and this oath would come to have major significance in the revolution as the Third Estate would constantly continue to protest to have more representation. The oath was both an act, and an assertion that political authority derived from the people and their representatives rather than from the monarch himself. Their solidarity forced Louis XVI to order the clergy and the nobility to join with the Third Estate in the National Assembly in order to give the illusion that he controlled the National Assembly. This oath would prove vital to the Third Estate as a step of protest that would lead to more power in the Estates General. The Oath signified for the first time that French citizens formally stood in opposition to Louis XVI, and it was foreshadowed by, and drew considerably from, the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, especially the preamble. The Oath also inspired a variety of revolutionary activity in the months afterwards. Likewise, it reinforced the Assemblys strength and forced the King to formally request that voting occur based on head, not power. The Tennis Court Oath, which was taken in June 1789, preceded the 4 August 1789 abolition of feudalism and the 26 August 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
30.
Louis XVI of France
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Louis XVI, born Louis-Auguste, was the last King of France and Navarre before the French Revolution, during which he was also known as Louis Capet. In 1765, at the death of his father, Louis, Dauphin of France, son and heir apparent of Louis XV of France, Louis XVI was guillotined on 21 January 1793. The first part of his reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideas and these included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the reforms with hostility. Louis implemented deregulation of the market, advocated by his liberal minister Turgot. In periods of bad harvests, it would lead to food scarcity which would prompt the masses to revolt, from 1776, Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the Ancien Régime and this led to the convening of the Estates-General of 1789. In 1789, the storming of the Bastille during riots in Paris marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Louiss indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to view him as a symbol of the tyranny of the Ancien Régime. The credibility of the king was deeply undermined, and the abolition of the monarchy, Louis XVI was the only King of France ever to be executed, and his death brought an end to more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy. Louis-Auguste de France, who was given the title Duc de Berry at birth, was born in the Palace of Versailles. Out of seven children, he was the son of Louis, the Dauphin of France. His mother was Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, the daughter of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. A strong and healthy boy, but very shy, Louis-Auguste excelled in his studies and had a taste for Latin, history, geography, and astronomy. He enjoyed physical activities such as hunting with his grandfather, and rough-playing with his brothers, Louis-Stanislas, comte de Provence. From an early age, Louis-Auguste had been encouraged in another of his hobbies, locksmithing, upon the death of his father, who died of tuberculosis on 20 December 1765, the eleven-year-old Louis-Auguste became the new Dauphin. His mother never recovered from the loss of her husband, and died on 13 March 1767, throughout his education, Louis-Auguste received a mixture of studies particular to religion, morality, and humanities. His instructors may have also had a hand in shaping Louis-Auguste into the indecisive king that he became
31.
National Assembly (French Revolution)
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The Estates-General had been called on Dec 4,1789 to deal with Frances financial crisis, but promptly fell to squabbling over its own structure. Its members had elected to represent the estates of the realm, the 1st Estate, the 2nd Estate. They refused this and proceeded to meet separately, on June 13, this group began to call itself the National Assembly. This newly created assembly immediately attached itself onto the capitalists — the sources of the credit needed to fund the national debt — and to the common people. They consolidated the public debt and declared all existing taxes to have been illegally imposed and this restored the confidence of the capitalists and gave them a strong interest in keeping the Assembly in session. As for the people, the Assembly established a committee of subsistence to deal with food shortages. Jacques Necker, finance minister to Louis XVI, had proposed that the king hold a Séance Royale in an attempt to reconcile the divided Estates. The king agreed, but none of the three orders were formally notified of the decision to hold a Royal Session, all debates were to be put on hold until the séance royale took place. Events soon overtook Neckers complex scheme of giving in to the Communes on some points while holding firm on others. On June 19, he ordered the Salle des États, the hall where the National Assembly met, closed, when, on June 23, in accord with his plan, the king finally addressed the representatives of all three estates, he encountered a stony silence. He concluded by ordering all to disperse, the nobles and clergy obeyed, the deputies of the common people remained seated in a silence finally broken by Mirabeau, whose short speech culminated, A military force surrounds the assembly. Where are the enemies of the nation, I demand, investing yourselves with your dignity, with your legislative power, you inclose yourselves within the religion of your oath. It does not permit you to separate till you have formed a constitution, Necker, conspicuous by his absence from the royal party on that day, found himself in disgrace with Louis, but back in the good graces of the National Assembly. The French military began to arrive in numbers around Paris. This move failed, soon part of the deputies of the nobles who still stood apart joined the National Assembly at the request of the king. Louis offered to move the assembly to Noyon or Soissons, that is to say, public outrage over this troop presence precipitated the Storming of the Bastille, beginning the Revolution. This article incorporates text from the public domain History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814, by François Mignet and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. French Revolution. Http, //www. assemblee-nationale. fr/english/8am. asp History of the National Assembly http, //www. saylor. org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/National-Assembly-French-Revolution. pdf National Assembly
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Individualism
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Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism, authoritarianism, communitarianism, Individualism makes the individual its focus and so starts with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation. Classical liberalism, existentialism, and anarchism are examples of movements that take the individual as a central unit of analysis. Individualism thus involves the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization and it has also been used as a term denoting The quality of being an individual, individuality related to possessing An individual characteristic, a quirk. A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith, who was a millenarian and a Christian Israelite. Although an early Owenite socialist, he rejected its collective idea of property. Without individualism, Smith argued, individuals cannot amass property to increase ones happiness, an individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. From the 17th century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism, individuality is the state or quality of being an individual, a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires. The individualist does not follow one particular philosophy, rather creates an amalgamation of elements of many, on a societal level, the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground. Independent thinking and opinion is a trait of an individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claims that his concept of general will in the contract is not the simple collection of individual wills. Societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly self-regarding behaviors, the principle of individuation, or principium individuationis, describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things. For Carl Jung, individuation is a process of transformation, whereby the personal and it is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place. Jung considered individuation to be the process of human development. Thus, the atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation. Individuation is an incomplete process, always leaving a pre-individual left-over. The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies the work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche, for Stiegler the I, as a psychic individual, can only be thought in relationship to we, which is a collective individual. The I is constituted in adopting a collective tradition, which it inherits, methodological individualism is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents
33.
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
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Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just was a military and political leader during the French Revolution. The youngest of the elected to the National Convention in 1792, Saint-Just rose quickly in their ranks. He spearheaded the movement to execute King Louis XVI and later drafted the radical French Constitution of 1793 and he became a close friend of Maximilien Robespierre, and served with him as one of the commissioners of the powerful Committee of Public Safety. Back in Paris, he supervised the consolidation of Robespierres power through a ruthless, in his relatively brief time on the historical stage, he became the enduring public face of the Reign of Terror and was dubbed the Angel of Death by later writers. Saint-Just organized the arrests and prosecutions of many of the most famous figures of the Revolution, Saint-Just was arrested in the violent episode of 9 Thermidor and executed the next day with Robespierre and their allies. In many histories of the Revolution, their deaths at the mark the end of the Reign of Terror. Louis Antoine de Saint-Just was born at Decize in the former Nivernais province of central France and he had two younger sisters, born in 1768 and 1769. A year after the move, Louis Antoines father died leaving his mother with the three children and she saved diligently for her only sons education, and in 1779 he was sent to the Oratorian school at Soissons. After a promising start, Saint-Just acquired a reputation as a troublemaker, augmented by infamous stories of how he led a students rebellion, nonetheless, he earned his graduation in 1786. His restive nature, however, did not diminish, as a young man, Saint-Just was wild, handsome, transgressive. Well-connected and popular, he showed a special affection toward a woman of Blérancourt. She was the daughter of another notary, a powerful and autocratic figure in the town. He is said to have proposed marriage to her, she is said to have desired it, though no hard evidence exists regarding their relationship, official records show that on 25 July 1786, Thérèse was married to Emmanuel Thorin, the scion of a prominent local family. Saint-Just was out of town and unaware of the event, and his venture turned short when his mother had him seized by police and sent to a reformatory where he stayed from September 1786 to March 1787. Chastened, Saint-Just attempted to begin anew, he enrolled as a student at the School of Law, after a year, however, he drifted away from law school and returned to his mothers home in Blérancourt penniless, without any occupational prospects. At a young age Saint-Just had shown a fascination with literature and he published it anonymously more than two years later, in May 1789, at the very outbreak of the Revolution. The 21-year-old Saint-Just thereby added his own touch to the tumult of the times with Organt. The poem, an epic fantasy, relates the quest of young Antoine Organt
34.
Anacharsis Cloots
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Jean-Baptiste du Val-de-Grâce, baron de Cloots, better known as Anacharsis Cloots, was a Prussian nobleman who was a significant figure in the French Revolution. He was nicknamed orator of mankind, citoyen de l’humanité and an enemy of God. Born near Kleve, at the castle of Gnadenthal, he belonged to a noble Prussian family of Dutch origin, on the breaking out of the Revolution, Cloots returned in 1789 to Paris, thinking the opportunity favorable for establishing his dream of a universal family of nations. In 1792 he placed 12,000 livres at the disposal of the French Republic for the arming of forty or fifty fighters in the cause of man against tyranny. After the riots of August 10, he became a more prominent supporter of new ideas. Excluded at the insistence of Maximilien Robespierre from the Jacobin Club, when the Committee of Public Safety levelled accusations of treason against the Hébertists, they also implicated Cloots to give substance to their charge of a foreign plot. Although his innocence was manifest, he was condemned and subsequently guillotined on 24 March 1794 and he incongruously followed Vincent, Ronsin, Momoro and the rest of the Hébertist leadership to the scaffold, in front of the largest crowd ever assembled for a public execution. Cloots was a political thinker who crafted his own interpretation of the meaning of the French Revolution. He was a proponent of the state, and he sought to promote a more broad-minded. He imagined the institutions of the state along the lines of those of the French Revolutionary Republic. Clootss thought was expressed in works, most importantly in his Bases constitutionnelles de la République du genre humain. Adresse dun Prussien à un Anglais,52 p. Bases constitutionnelles de la République du genre humain,48 p. Voltaire triomphant ou les prêtres déçus,30 p. Attributed to Cloots. Discours prononcé à la barre de lAssemblée nationale par M. de Cloots, à la séance du 19 juin 1790,4 p. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Cloots. In turn, it cites as references, Avenel, Georges, Anacharsis Cloots, Paris, reprint Editions Champ Libre,1976 - very eulogistic H. Bauligs articles in La Révolution française, tome 41 Labbé, François, Anarchasis Cloots, le Prussien francophile. Un philosophe au service de la Révolution française et universelle», in Annales historiques de la Révolution française, Numéro 324, mortier, Roland, Anacharsis Cloots ou Lutopie foudroyée, Paris, Stock,350 p
