1.
Jasper, Florida
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Jasper is a city in Hamilton County, Florida, United States. The population was 4,546 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Hamilton County. The Old Hamilton County Jail and the United Methodist Church in Jasper are on the National Register of Historic Places, one of the largest industries is phosphate mining. Jasper is located at 30°31′08″N 82°57′04″W, the 1823 Treaty of Moultrie bought the Indian lands and the population was required to move southeast of the Suwannee River. This allowed settlers to move into the area, a suspected Indian burial mound is located at Baisden Swamp just on the outskirts of Jasper. In 1840 inhabitants of our town were calling the settlement Pulaski, records tell us that Daniel Bell, living just outside the settlement in 1824, was County Judge in 1828, appointed under the authority of the Acting Territorial Governor McCarty in Tallahassee. In 1839 he was a member of the Territorial Legislative Council, there the name was/is registered and incorporated as documented in the Territorial Legislative Journal. In 1841 the “Jasper Post Office” was established ending any discussion on names for the town, the early history and specific makeup of Jasper is rather vague except for scant records that survived several courthouse fires in the late 1800s. What we do know is that the town was built about a mile south of its current location near the site of the present day Hamilton Correctional Institution. The original courthouse and a stockade stood where Evergreen Cemetery is located, the citizens fought Seminole Indian raiding parties throughout the early periods, the last Seminole War ending in 1858. In 1861 the War Between the States came to Jasper, the Jasper Blues was created from Jasper and county citizens. A school in Jasper was named in Lee’s honor and is occupied today as the County School Board Offices. In 1865 the Savannah, Florida, and Western railway was completed, businesses and homes migrated toward the railroad and eventually the current town was established along that line. The town grew in earnest between 1890 and 1930 with a trade in turpentine, tobacco, cotton, and pine lumber. Jasper reached its pinnacle in the 1920s with a population of over 2000. Most of Jasper’s current day buildings were built during this 40-year period, since the 1920s Jasper has seen many economic changes. The leading cotton industry gave way to the industry, turpentine to lumber, lumber to tobacco. The completion of Interstate 75 in the late 1950s has caused further decline as tourist, since that time several new businesses have moved into the area and the new high school has been built along the route
2.
Clayton, Georgia
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Clayton is a city in Rabun County, Georgia, United States. The population was 2,019 at the 2000 census, the city is the county seat of Rabun County and is located in the Blue Ridge Mountains. The area that would eventually become Clayton was called the Dividings because it sat at the intersection of three important Cherokee people trails, explorer and naturalist William Bartram came through the Dividings in May 1775 while exploring what would later be organized as Rabun County. Much later, after Clayton had grown to include the Dividings, two of the old Cherokee trails were improved as the roads for Clayton and the county, U. S. 23/441. Claytonsville was founded by European-American settlers in 1821 as the seat of Rabun County, in 1823, the town was incorporated and renamed Clayton. In 1824,67 acres were purchased from Solomon Beck for $150, and city representatives laid out a site for a courthouse, in 1904, the Tallulah Falls Railway was completed to Clayton from Cornelia, Georgia, it was extended to Franklin, North Carolina by 1907. Clayton has had water and sanitary sewer service since the 1920s. Initially, the supply was two springs on nearby Buzzard Roost Mountain, but today Clayton uses Lake Rabun as its water supply. In 1936, Clayton recorded 30.0 inches of total snowfall, the recorded snowfall in Clayton in 1936 is also a state record. Part of Disneys Old Yeller was shot here in 1957, much of William Gibsons 2014 novel The Peripheral is set in Clayton in the not too distant future. Clayton is located at 34°52′40″N 83°24′6″W and is situated at the base of 3. Immediately to the east of the city is 3, 000-foot Screamer Mountain, other Blue Ridge Mountain peaks between 2,500 and 3,500 feet surround the city. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 3.1 square miles. The elevation of Claytons downtown area is 1,925 feet, a number of hilltops within the city limits exceed 2,200 feet. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 2,047 people residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 74. 5% White,1. 4% Black,0. 5% Native American,0. 7% Asian,0. 3% from some other race and 1. 9% from two or more races. 20. 8% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,019 people,816 households, and 497 families residing in the city. The population density was 653.2 people per square mile, there were 1,006 housing units at an average density of 325.5 per square mile
3.
Piedmont College
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Piedmont College is a private, comprehensive, liberal arts institution located in Demorest and Athens, Georgia, United States. Founded in 1897, Piedmonts Demorest campus includes 300 acres in a traditional residential-college setting located in the foothills of the northeast Georgia Blue Ridge mountains, the campus includes ten dormitories housing more than 600 students. Academic and athletic facilities are all state-of-the-art, approximately 50 miles to the south, Piedmont’s Athens campus is located in the heart of Georgia’s Classic City. The Athens campus provides a variety of undergraduate and graduate programs designed for commuting students, Piedmont College offers more than 50 undergraduate academic programs in the Schools of Arts & Sciences, Business, Education, and Nursing & Health Sciences. Students may earn Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Fine Arts, Bachelor of Science, graduate programs include Master of Business Administration, Master of Arts and Master of Arts in Teaching, Education Specialist, and Doctor of Education. Enrollment is approximately 2,264 students, and the student-faculty ratio is 14,1, the college opened as the J. S. Green Collegiate Institute in 1897, founded by residents of the Habersham County, the first president was Rev. Charles C. The American Mission Board of the New England Congregational Churches operated the college from 1901 to 1948, congregationalists took over the school from the Methodists in the early 20th century. From the 1950s to the 1990s, Piedmont grew slowly and developed a reputation as a college with high academic standards. The college graduated a number of teachers who went on to distinguished careers in education across the state. In 1994 the college began to expand, adding schools for Business and Nursing & Health Sciences to its programs in the Arts and Sciences. The college also opened a campus in Athens, Georgia, the college also added five new dormitories and 48 apartment-style residences. Today Piedmont is one of the most dynamic small colleges in the Southeast, known equally for its programs in education, business, nursing and health sciences. As a member of the USA South Conference of the NCAA Division III, Piedmont has a history of more than 120 years of providing education to people from across the world. There have been eleven different presidents of the college who have each helped Piedmont get to where it is now, Piedmont has two campuses, the original one in Demorest and the newer expansion in Athens. Piedmonts Demorest campus is located on roughly 300 acres in Habersham County, the Athens campus is located on Prince Avenue near downtown Athens, on the site of the original Prince Avenue Baptist Church. The Piedmont Village houses an additional 180 students, the Academic buildings include Daniel Hall, which houses the R. H. Daniel School of Nursing, the humanities Department, and administrative offices. Stewart Hall houses the science and math departments, the School of Education is located in the Arrendale Library
4.
Peabody Institute
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The Peabody Institute was founded in 1857 by philanthropist George Peabody, and is the oldest conservatory in the United States. Its association with JHU allows students to do research across disciplines, George Peabody founded the Institute with a bequest of about $800,000 from his fortune made in Massachusetts and Baltimore. Completion of the Grecian-Italian west wing building housing the Institute, designed by Edmund George Lind, was delayed by the Civil War, the library was created and endowed by Peabodys friend and fellow Bay-Stater, Enoch Pratt. In 1978, the Institute began working with The Johns Hopkins University under an affiliation agreement, in 1985, the Institute became a division of the university. Peabody is one of 156 schools in the United States that offers a Doctorate of Musical Arts Degree, Peabody Preparatory offers instruction and enrichment programs for school-age children across various sites in Baltimore and its surrounding counties, Downtown, Towson, Annapolis and Howard County. The Peabody Childrens Chorus is for children ages 6 to 18 and it is divided into three groups, Training Choir, Choristers, and Cantate, grouped by age in ascending order. They practice weekly in Towson or Columbia, Maryland, and sing in concerts biannually under the instruction of Doreen Falby, Bradley Permenter, tori Amos, singer, songwriter, at age five, Amos was the youngest student ever admitted to the Institute
5.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
6.
Strange Fruit (novel)
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Strange Fruit is a 1944 bestselling novel debut by American author Lillian Smith that dealt with the then-forbidden and controversial theme of interracial romance. The title was originally Jordan is so Chilly, with Smith later changing the title to Strange Fruit, after the books release, the book was banned in Boston and Detroit for lewdness and crude language. Strange Fruit was also banned from being mailed through the U. S. Postal Service, with the ban against the book being lifted by President Roosevelt after his wife Eleanor Roosevelt requested it of him. The two had been holding a secret affair, with Nonnie becoming pregnant with Tracys child, only for Tracy to at one point plan for her to marry Big Henry, a man she despises. He instead goes to Nonnies house and tells her of his intent to have her wed to Big Henry. Despite this change of heart, Nonnies brother overhears Big Henry telling of Tracys payment and Big Henrys impending wedding to Nonnie and why. This prompts Nonnies brother to go after Tracy and when Tracys body is discovered later by Big Henry, Big Henry is accused of murdering a white man and is lynched. Strange Fruit was banned in Boston and Detroit for charges of lewdness and language on March 20,1944, only weeks after its release, making the book the first #1 Bestseller to be banned in Boston. Cambridge Police Chief Timothy J. OLeary and the Boston Booksellers Association both endorsed the banning, also asking for Smith to censor her work, removing three lines of sexual phraseology. The novel was temporarily banned for shipping from state to state via the United States Postal System in May 1944. The ban through the Postal System only lasted three days, as publisher Curtice Hitchcock successfully appealed to then First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt to urge her husband to lift the ban. The ban in Detroit was overturned after the United Auto Workers, an attempt was made to overturn the ban in Boston by the Massachusetts Civil Liberties Union and Bernard DeVoto. DeVoto made a purchase of Strange Fruit in the Harvard Law Book Exchange. The store owner was found guilty of selling the book, which was seen as obscene material, the judge presiding over the trial, District Court Judge Arthur P. Stone, remarked that the book was obscene, tending to corrupt the morals of youth. The case was appealed to the Superior Court, which was unsuccessful, the city did allow a stage production of Strange Fruit to tour the city in 1945, but only after a censored version of the play was approved by a city official. In 1945 Smith adapted Strange Fruit into a play, directed by José Ferrer with Jane White starring as Nonnie. Smith wrote the majority of the play over the course of 1945, a Baptist minister in Philadelphia initially sought to have the play banned in the city, citing the play would contribute towards a depraved society. For its run in Boston, the city required that the play have several parts omitted before it was allowed to open in the city, the play premiered in Montreal on October 13,1945, with the play moving to New York later that winter
7.
Liberalism in the United States
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Liberalism in the United States is a broad political philosophy centered on the unalienable rights of the individual. Modern liberalism in the United States includes issues such as marriage, voting rights for all adult citizens, civil rights, environmentalism. The origins of American liberalism lie in the ideals of the Enlightenment. The Constitution of the United States of 1787 set up the first modern republic, with sovereignty in the people, however, the Constitution limited liberty, in particular by accepting slavery. The Founding Fathers recognized the contradiction, and most expected slavery to wither away, indeed, it was abolished in all the Northern states by 1804, but due to the demand for raw cotton by the Industrial Revolution, plantation slavery continued to flourish in the Deep South. From the time of the American Revolution to the present day, the states abolished many restrictions on voting for white males in the early 19th century. The Constitution was amended in 1865 to abolish slavery, in 1870 to extend the vote to Black men, in 1920 to extend the vote to women, and in 1971 to lower the voting age to 18. The Jim Crow system of the South between the 1890s and 1960s relegated blacks to second class citizenship, until it was overthrown by the Civil Rights Movement, thomas Jefferson believed that America should remain a nation of small farmers. As the American economy began to shift to manufacturing and services, liberals began to fear threats to liberty from corruption and monopolies. The dominance of the Republican Party for most of the era 1860–1932, the Third Party System, during the Progressive Era of the early 20th century, laws were passed restricting monopolies and regulating railroad rates. According to James Reichley, it was during this era that the term took on its current meaning. Prior to the early 1900s, the term had usually described classical liberalism, which emphasizes limited government, and Theodore Roosevelt who came out of retirement to run again for president under a third party called Progressive Party. Later, political figures such as Franklin Roosevelt adopted the term liberal to describe an individual in favor of some government activism, after 1933, modern liberals used the New Deal to provide jobs during the Great Depression. The Social Security Act of 1935 provided retirement and disability income for Americans unable to work or unable to find jobs, in the Social Security Act of 1965, this was extended to provide benefits for Americans unable to work due to illness. A reaction against modern American liberalism began with Barry Goldwater, which led to the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. Deregulation began in the mid-1970s and had support from both liberals and conservatives. Clinton pushed to extend modern liberal ideals especially in the areas of health care, according to Louis Hartz, liberalism was the only significant political tradition in the United States. However, in the 1970s, Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, in the 1980s, J. David Green returned to Hartzs thesis, but saw two different types of liberalism in the tradition, which he called humanist and reform
8.
Racial segregation
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SMPTE color bars is a television test pattern used where the NTSC video standard is utilized, including countries in North America. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers refers to this test pattern as Engineering Guideline EG 1-1990, the components of this pattern are a known standard. The pattern is used for setting a television monitor or receiver to reproduce NTSC chrominance and luminance information correctly. The color bar test pattern was originally conceived by Norbert D. Larky of RCA Laboratories, U. S. patent 2,742,525 Color Test Pattern Generator was awarded on April 17,1956 to Norbert D. Larky and David D. Holmes. Previously categorized by SMPTE as ECR 1-1978, the development of this test pattern was awarded an Engineering Emmy in 2001-2002, the Color bar signal is generated with unconventionally slow rise and fall time value to facilitate video level control and monitor color adjustments of HDTV and SDTV equipment. In a survey of the top standards of the organizations first 100 years, in a SMPTE color bar image, the top two-thirds of the television picture contain seven vertical bars of 75% intensity. In order from left to right, the colors are white, yellow, cyan, green, magenta, red, and blue. The graticule of a vectorscope is etched with boxes showing the regions where the traces from these seven bars are supposed to fall if the signal is properly adjusted. Below the main set of seven bars is a strip of blue, magenta, cyan, the bottom section of the test pattern contains a square of 100% intensity white and a rectangle of 7. 5% intensity black, for use in setting the luminance range. More modern versions of the feature a pluge pulse. The white square lines up so that it is below the green and cyan bars, on a waveform monitor this will show up with the white bar overlapping the peak of the yellow, the pluge pulse is positioned within the black rectangle, below the red bar. It comprises three vertical bars, a rightmost one with intensity 4% above black level, a middle one with intensity exactly equal to black. When a monitor is properly adjusted, the rightmost pluge bar should be just barely visible, while the two should appear indistinuishable from each other and completely black. On a vectorscope, they appear as two short lines ninety degrees apart and these are used to ensure that the television receiver is properly demodulating the 3.58 MHz color subcarrier portion of the signal. The vectors for the -I and +Q blocks should fall exactly on the I and Q axes on the vectorscope if the signal is demodulated properly. These bars give rise to the portion of the casual term, bars. Likewise, producers of television programs typically record bars and tone at the beginning of a videotape or other recording medium so that the equipment can be calibrated. Often, the name or callsign of the TV station, other such as a real-time clock
9.
Jim Crow laws
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Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
10.
Turpentine
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Turpentine is a fluid obtained by the distillation of resin obtained from live trees, mainly pines. It is mainly used as a solvent and as a source of materials for organic synthesis, Turpentine is composed of terpenes, mainly the monoterpenes alpha-pinene and beta-pinene with lesser amounts of carene, camphene, dipentene, and terpinolene. The word turpentine derives from the Greek word τερεβινθίνη terebinthine, the name of a species of tree, mineral turpentine or other petroleum distillates are used to replace turpentine, but they are very different chemically. One of the earliest sources was the terebinth or turpentine tree, important pines for turpentine production include, maritime pine, Aleppo pine, Massons pine, Sumatran pine, longleaf pine, loblolly pine and ponderosa pine. Canada balsam, also called Canada turpentine or balsam of fir, is a turpentine which is made from the oleoresin of the balsam fir, venice turpentine is produced from the western larch Larix occidentalis. In order to tap into the sap producing layers of the tree, once debarked, pine trees secrete oleoresin onto the surface of the wound as a protective measure to seal the opening, resist exposure to micro-organisms and insects, and prevent vital sap loss. Turpentiners wounded trees in V-shaped streaks down the length of the trunks so as to channel the oleoresin into containers and it was then collected and processed into spirits of turpentine. Oleoresin yield may be increased by as much as 40% by applying herbicides to the exposed wood. The V-shaped cuts are called catfaces for their resemblance to a cat’s whiskers and these marks on a pine tree signify it was used to collect resin for turpentine production. Crude oleoresin collected from wounded trees may be evaporated by steam distillation in a copper still, molten rosin remains in the still bottoms after turpentine has been evaporated and recovered from a condenser. Turpentine may alternatively be condensed from destructive distillation of pine wood, oleoresin may also be extracted from shredded pine stumps, roots, and slash using the light end of the heavy naphtha fraction from a crude oil refinery. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for energy recovery, when producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferous trees, sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in Kraft process pulp digesters. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10 kg/t pulp, unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require additional treatment measures to remove traces of sulfur compounds. The two primary uses of turpentine in industry are as a solvent and as a source of materials for organic synthesis, as a solvent, turpentine is used for thinning oil-based paints, for producing varnishes, and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Its industrial use as a solvent in industrialized nations has largely replaced by the much cheaper turpentine substitutes distilled from crude oil. Turpentine has long used as a solvent, mixed with beeswax or with carnauba wax. Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds, commercially used camphor, linalool, alpha-terpineol, and geraniol are all usually produced from alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation, the mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as rosin
11.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
12.
Demorest, Georgia
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Demorest is a city in Habersham County, Georgia, United States. The population was 1,465 at the 2000 census, Demorest is located at 34°33′54″N 83°32′38″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.3 square miles. As of the 2000 census, there were 1,465 people,498 households, the population density was 644.4 people per square mile. There were 564 housing units at a density of 248.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 92. 70% White,3. 96% African American,0. 55% Native American,0. 61% Asian,0. 07% Pacific Islander,1. 77% from other races, and 0. 34% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 34% of the population,36. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the family size was 2.77. In the city, the population was out with 15. 1% under the age of 18,28. 6% from 18 to 24,21. 4% from 25 to 44,17. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 84.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.6 males, the median income for a household in the city was $31,382, and the median income for a family was $39,917. Males had an income of $29,485 versus $24,861 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,981, about 7. 8% of families and 12. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17. 2% of those under age 18 and 7. 2% of those age 65 or over. The land where Demorest is now located was given by the State of Georgia to W. Stripling in 1829, Stripling did little with the land aside from maintaining a family farm. In 1840, the land was transferred to Dr. Paul Rossignol who built a home on the west side of Lake Demorest. That house became significant to the history of Demorest, among other things, it was one of the first buildings used by Piedmont College, which was established in 1897. Demorest is one of the Temperance Towns, although Demorest is a small city, it has many notable landmarks. A few of these landmarks include Demorest Springs Park, Old Demorest Train Depot, Demorest Womens Club, one of Demorests most popular landmarks is the Johnny Mize Athletic Center and Museum
13.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
14.
Methodism
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Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
15.
Huzhou
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Huzhou is a prefecture-level city in northern Zhejiang province, China. Lying south of the Lake Tai, it borders Jiaxing to the east, Hangzhou to the south, and the provinces of Anhui and Jiangsu to the west and north respectively. At the 2010 census, its population was 2,893,542 inhabitants whom 757,165 lived in the area made of Wuxing District as Nanxun District is not being conurbated yet. Huzhou, in its aspect, is in the center of the Yangtze River Delta Economic Area. There are transportation links to the Provincial capital of Hangzhou 78 km away in the south, Jiangsu and Anhui province in the west, flowing quietly through the city is the Changxing-Huzhou-Shanghai Channel. It is also referred to as the Eastern Rhine River for the continuous barge transportation that goes on similarly to the internationally known Rhine River in Germany. The Express Xuancheng–Hangzhou Railway Station is located 8 km west of the city center and this railway line is part of the secondary tunnel in eastern China. 248 BC, Gucheng County was set up by the State of Chu.222 BC, Qin Dynasty,266, Kingdom of Wu, set Wuxing Shire, its administrative area including the modern Huzhou prefecture city and Hangzhou, Yixing. 602, Sui dynasty, changed the name of Wuxing to Huzhou, during the Tang Dynasty, Huzhou administered 5 counties, Wucheng, Wukang, Changxing, Anji, and Deqing. At the beginning of the Song Dynasty, Guian county was divided from the Wucheng county, during the Qing Dynasty, Huzhou administered 7 counties, Wucheng, Guoan, Wukang, Deqing, Changxing, Anji, and Xiaofeng. 1983, Huzhou prefecture level city was set up, the prefecture-level city of Huzhou administers six county-level divisions, including one economic development zone and two districts and threecounties. These are further divided into 66 township-level divisions, including 50 towns,10 townships, Huzhou Economic Development Zone Huzhou is known as the City of Silk, is one of the Four Capital-cities of Silk in China. Lotuses Garden The Lotus Garden is a garden located 20 minutes south on foot from the city center of Huzhou. The main attractions of the include the Lotus flowers that bloom seasonally in the three lake system, a large Koi pond near the north gate, a karaoke veranda. Also, barge-themed pedal boats are available for leisure boating, the garden was built in 1924 with stone foot paths and bridges bordering and crossing over the lake system. A variety of structures inhabit the 300 meter squared grounds including two halls, six pavilions, and two inlets, all following the design of traditional Chinese architecture. Sign posts describe local history and the halls maintain a Tea House where visitors may converse, a particular geological feature worth seeing are the ancient stones transferred from Lake Tai. Families pour into the garden on public vacation days while local people partake in Taiji exercise, or play card and Mahjong games every day, the garden is open during daytime hours and admission is free of charge
16.
Zhejiang
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Zhejiang, formerly romanized as Chekiang, is an eastern coastal province of China. The provinces name derives from the Zhe River, the name of the Qiantang River which flows past Hangzhou. Kuahuqiao culture was a neolithic culture that flourished in Hangzhou area in 6. Zhejiang was the site of the Neolithic cultures of the Hemudu, the area of modern Zhejiang was outside the major sphere of influence of the Shang civilization during the second millennium BC. Instead, this area was populated by peoples known as Dongyue. The kingdom of Yue began to appear in the chronicles and records written during the Spring, according to the chronicles, the kingdom of Yue was in northern Zhejiang. Shiji claims that its leaders were descended from the Shang founder Yu the Great, the Song of the Yue Boatman was transliterated into Chinese and recorded by authors in north China or inland China of Hebei and Henan around 528 BC. The song shows that the Yue people spoke a language that was mutually unintelligible with the dialects spoken in north, the Sword of Goujian bears bird-worm seal script. Yuenü was a swordswoman from the state of Yue, to check the growth of the kingdom of Wu, Chu pursued a policy of strengthening Yue. Under King Goujian, Yue recovered from its early reverses and fully annexed the lands of its rival in 473 BC, the Yue kings then moved their capital center from their original home around Mount Kuaiji in present-day Shaoxing to the former Wu capital at present-day Suzhou. With no southern power to turn against Yue, Chu opposed it directly and, in 333 BC, yues former lands were annexed by the Qin Empire in 222 BC and organized into a commandery named for Kuaiji in Zhejiang but initially headquartered in Wu in Jiangsu. Kuaiji Commandery was the power base for Xiang Liang and Xiang Yus rebellion against the Qin Empire which initially succeeded in restoring the kingdom of Chu. At the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era, Zhejiang was home to the warlords Yan Baihu and Wang Lang prior to their defeat by Sun Ce and Sun Quan, who eventually established the Kingdom of Wu. Despite the removal of their court from Kuaiji to Jianye, they continued development of the region, industrial kilns were established and trade reached as far as Manchuria and Funan. Zhejiang was part of the Wu during the Three Kingdoms, Wu, commonly known as Eastern Wu or Sun Wu, had been the economically most developed state among the Three Kingdoms. The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms records that Zhejiang had the best-equipped, the story depicts how the states of Wei and Shu, lack of material resources, avoided direct confrontation with the Wu. In armed military conflicts with Wu, the two states relied intensively on tactics of camouflage and deception to steal Wus military resources including arrows and bows, the other two centers in the south were Jiankang and Chengdu. In 589, Qiantang was raised in status and renamed Hangzhou, some may have lost social privilege, and took refugee in areas south to Yangtze River
17.
Pinehurst, Georgia
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Pinehurst is a city in Dooly County, Georgia, United States. The population was 455 at the 2010 census, up from 307 at the 2000 census, pinehurst is located northeast of the center of Dooly County at 32°11′40″N 83°45′40″W. U. S. Route 41 passes through the center of town as Pine Avenue, leading north 5 miles to Unadilla and south 8 miles to Vienna, the county seat. Interstate 75 passes just east of the limits, with access from Exit 117, I-75 leads north 48 miles to Macon. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.0 square mile. As of the census of 2000, there were 307 people,145 households, the population density was 301.2 people per square mile. There were 156 housing units at a density of 153.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 49. 84% White,49. 19% African American,0. 33% Native American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 95% of the population. 39. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.80. In the city, the population was out with 19. 9% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,23. 5% from 25 to 44,29. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.4 males, the median income for a household in the city was $25,000, and the median income for a family was $43,000. Males had an income of $23,750 versus $21,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,673. About 14. 4% of families and 16. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14. 0% of those under the age of eighteen and 21. 0% of those sixty five or over
18.
Billie Holiday
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Eleanora Fagan, professionally known as Billie Holiday, was an American jazz musician and singer-songwriter with a career spanning nearly thirty years. Nicknamed Lady Day by her friend and music partner Lester Young, Holiday had a influence on jazz music. Her vocal style, strongly inspired by jazz instrumentalists, pioneered a new way of manipulating phrasing and she was known for her vocal delivery and improvisational skills, which made up for her limited range and lack of formal music education. There were other singers with equal talent, but Holiday had a voice that captured the attention of her audience. After a turbulent childhood, Holiday began singing in nightclubs in Harlem, where she was heard by the producer John Hammond and she signed a recording contract with Brunswick Records in 1935. Collaborations with Teddy Wilson yielded the hit What a Little Moonlight Can Do, Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Holiday had mainstream success on labels such as Columbia Records and Decca Records. By the late 1940s, however, she was beset with legal troubles, after a short prison sentence, she performed a sold-out concert at Carnegie Hall, but her reputation deteriorated because of her drug and alcohol problems. Her final recordings were met with mixed reaction to her voice but were mild commercial successes. Her final album, Lady in Satin, was released in 1958, Holiday died of cirrhosis of the liver in 1959. A posthumous album, Last Recording, was released following her death, much of Holidays material has been rereleased since her death. She is considered a performer with an ongoing influence on American music. She is the recipient of four Grammy awards, all of them posthumous awards for Best Historical Album, Holiday herself was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1973. Lady Sings the Blues, a film about her life, starring Diana Ross, was released in 1972, Eleanora Fagan was born on April 7,1915, in Philadelphia, the daughter of Sarah Julia Sadie Fagan and Clarence Holiday, an unmarried teenaged couple. Her father did not live with her mother, not long after Eleanora was born, Clarence abandoned his family to pursue a career as a jazz banjo player and guitarist. Sarah moved to Philadelphia at age 19, after she was evicted from her parents home in the Sandtown-Winchester neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland, for becoming pregnant. With no support from her parents, she made arrangements with her older, married half-sister, Eva Miller, the child was of African-American ancestry and was also said to have had Irish ancestors through her mothers mixed heritage. Her mother often took what were known as transportation jobs. Holidays autobiography, Lady Sings the Blues, first published in 1956, is sketchy on details of her early life, some historians have disputed Holidays paternity, as a copy of her birth certificate in the Baltimore archives lists the father as a man named Frank DeViese
19.
Strange Fruit
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Strange Fruit is a song performed most famously by Billie Holiday, who first sang and recorded it in 1939. Written by teacher Abel Meeropol as a poem and published in 1937, it protested American racism, such lynchings had reached a peak in the South at the turn of the century, but continued there and in other regions of the United States. According to the Tuskegee Institute,1,953 Americans were murdered by lynching, the lyrics are an extended metaphor linking a tree’s fruit with lynching victims. Meeropol set it to music and, with his wife and the singer Laura Duncan, performed it as a protest song in New York City venues in the late 1930s, including Madison Square Garden. The song continues to be covered by artists, including Nina Simone, UB40 and Annie Lennox and has inspired novels, other poems. In 1978, Holidays version of the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame and it was also included in the list of Songs of the Century, by the Recording Industry of America and the National Endowment for the Arts. Lyricist E. Y. Harburg referred to the song as a historical document and it was also dubbed, a declaration of war. The beginning of the civil rights movement, Strange Fruit was originated as a poem written by American writer, teacher and songwriter Abel Meeropol, under his pseudonym Lewis Allan, as a protest against lynchings. In the poem, Meeropol expressed his horror at lynchings, inspired by Lawrence Beitlers photograph of the 1930 lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith in Marion and he published the poem under the title Bitter Fruit in 1937 in The New York Teacher, a union magazine. Though Meeropol had asked others to set his poems to music and his protest song gained a certain success in and around New York. Meeropol, his wife, and black vocalist Laura Duncan performed it at Madison Square Garden, the lyrics are under copyright but have been republished in full in an academic journal, with permission. Barney Josephson, the founder of Cafe Society in Greenwich Village, New Yorks first integrated nightclub, heard the song, other reports say that Robert Gordon, who was directing Billie Holidays show at Cafe Society, heard the song at Madison Square Garden and introduced it to her. Holiday first performed the song at Cafe Society in 1939 and she said that singing it made her fearful of retaliation but, because its imagery reminded her of her father, she continued to sing the piece, making it a regular part of her live performances. During the musical introduction, Holiday stood with her eyes closed, when Holidays producer John Hammond also refused to record it, she turned to her friend Milt Gabler, whose Commodore label produced alternative jazz. Holiday sang Strange Fruit for him a cappella, and moved him to tears, columbia gave Holiday a one-session release from her contract so she could record it, Frankie Newtons eight-piece Cafe Society Band was used for the session. Because Gabler worried the song was too short, he asked pianist Sonny White to improvise an introduction, on the recording, Holiday starts singing after 70 seconds. Gabler worked out an arrangement with Vocalion Records to record. Holiday recorded two sessions of the song at Commodore, one in 1939 and one in 1944
20.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
21.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
22.
Eleanor Roosevelt
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Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was an American politician, diplomat, and activist. President Harry S. Truman later called her the First Lady of the World in tribute to her human rights achievements, Roosevelt was a member of the prominent American Roosevelt and Livingston families and a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt. She had a childhood, having suffered the deaths of both parents and one of her brothers at a young age. At 15, she attended Allenwood Academy in London and was influenced by its feminist headmistress Marie Souvestre. Returning to the U. S. she married her fifth cousin once removed, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, though widely respected in her later years, Roosevelt was a controversial First Lady at the time for her outspokenness, particularly her stance on racial issues. On a few occasions, she disagreed with her husbands policies. She launched a community at Arthurdale, West Virginia, for the families of unemployed miners. She advocated for expanded roles for women in the workplace, the rights of African Americans and Asian Americans. Following her husbands death in 1945, Roosevelt remained active in politics for the remaining 17 years of her life and she pressed the United States to join and support the United Nations and became its first delegate. She served as the first chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights, later she chaired the John F. Kennedy administrations Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. By the time of her death, Roosevelt was regarded as one of the most esteemed women in the world, in 1999, she was ranked ninth in the top ten of Gallups List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born in 1884 at 56 West 37th Street in Manhattan, New York City, to socialites Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt, from an early age, she preferred to be called by her middle name, Eleanor. Through her father, she was a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt, through her mother, she was a niece of tennis champions Valentine Gill Vallie Hall III and Edward Ludlow Hall. Her mother nicknamed her Granny because she acted in such a manner as a child. Her mother was somewhat ashamed of Eleanors plainness. Eleanor had two brothers, Elliott Jr. and Gracie Hall Roosevelt, usually called Hall. She also had a brother, Elliott Roosevelt Mann, through her fathers affair with Katy Mann. Roosevelt was born into a world of wealth and privilege
23.
Montgomery bus boycott
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Gayle, took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional. Many important figures in the Civil Rights Movement took part in the boycott, including Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. the local background for the Montgomery bus boycott lies in growing abuse and humiliation of the black passengers by white bus drivers due to three main reasons. First, drivers increasingly abused passengers due to their own frustrations over labor disputes, third, the 1954 Brown decision also resulted in increased animosity of bus drivers towards blacks -- many of whom joined the White Citizens Councils. On February 25,1953, the Baton Rouge, Louisiana city-parish council passed Ordinance 222, however, the ordinance was largely unenforced by the city bus drivers. The drivers later went on strike after city authorities refused to arrest Rev. T. J, Jemison for sitting in a front row. Four days after the strike began, Louisiana Attorney General and former Baton Rouge mayor Fred S. LeBlanc declared the ordinance unconstitutional under Louisiana state law and this led Rev. Jemison to organize what historians believe to be the first bus boycott of the civil rights movement. The boycott ended after eight days when an agreement was reached to only retain the first two front and back rows as racially reserved seating areas. On March 2,1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested, at the time, Colvin was an active member in the NAACP Youth Council, a group to which Rosa Parks served as Advisor. Colvins legal case formed the core of Browder v. Gayle, but neither the Supreme Courts Morgan ruling nor the ICCs Keys ruling addressed the matter of Jim Crow travel within the individual states. Under the system of segregation used on Montgomery buses, the ten front seats were reserved for whites at all times, the ten back seats were supposed to be reserved for blacks at all times. The middle section of the bus consisted of sixteen unreserved seats for whites, whites filled the middle seats from the front to back, and blacks filled seats from the back to front until the bus was full. If other black people boarded the bus, they were required to stand, when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white person, she was sitting in the first line of the middle section. Often when boarding the buses, black people were required to pay at the front, get off, occasionally, bus drivers would drive away before black passengers were able to reboard. National City Lines owned the Montgomery Bus Line at the time of the Montgomery bus boycott, Rosa Parks was a seamstress by profession, she was also the secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. Twelve years before her history-making arrest, Parks was stopped from boarding a city bus by driver James F. Blake, Parks vowed never again to ride a bus driven by Blake. As a member of the NAACP, Parks was an investigator assigned to cases of sexual assault, in 1945, she was sent to Abbeville, Alabama, to investigate the gang rape of Recy Taylor. The protest that arose around the Taylor case was the first instance of a civil rights protest. In 1955, Parks completed a course in Race Relations at the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee where nonviolent civil disobedience had been discussed as a tactic, on December 1,1955, Parks was sitting in the frontmost row for black people
24.
Brown v. Board of Education
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The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on
25.
Magna Carta
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Magna Carta Libertatum, commonly called Magna Carta, is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, at the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta, until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, held by the British Library, there are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin, each was sealed with the royal great seal, very few of the seals have survived. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day,3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta. Magna Carta originated as an attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings, although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. Following the defeat of his allies at the Battle of Bouvines, John had to sue for peace, John was already personally unpopular with many of the barons, many of whom owed money to the Crown, and little trust existed between the two sides. John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms, both sides appealed to Pope Innocent III for assistance in the dispute. John also began recruiting mercenary forces from France, although some were sent back to avoid giving the impression that the King was escalating the conflict. Letters backing John arrived from the Pope in April, but by then the rebel barons had organised into a military faction and they congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, marching on London, Lincoln, and Exeter. Johns efforts to moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful. The King offered to submit the problem to a committee of arbitration with the Pope as the supreme arbiter, John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water-meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Here the rebels presented John with their demands for reform. By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June and it focused on the rights of free men—in particular the barons
26.
Charles S. Johnson
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He preferred to work collaboratively with liberal white groups in the South, quietly as a sideline activist, to get practical results. His position is contrasted with that of W. E. B. Du Bois, who was a powerful and militant advocate for blacks, Johnson was unwavering in personal terms in his opposition to this oppressive system, yet worked hard to change race relations in terms of short-term practical gains. His grandson Jeh Johnson served as the United States Secretary of Homeland Security beginning in 2013, Johnson was born in 1893 in Bristol, Virginia, to well-educated parents. His father was a respected Baptist minister, and his mother was educated in public school and he attended a boarding school in Richmond, Virginia, then earned a B. A. in sociology from Virginia Union University. Afterward, he began study of sociology at the University of Chicago. After returning to the US, he resumed work at the University of Chicago. In 1920 Johnson married Marie Antoinette Burgette, as he got appointed as director of research and investigation of the National Urban League the couple moved to New York City. During his time with the National Urban League, he founded the magazine Opportunity as an outlet for black expression in the arts. He was a researcher and author for the Chicago Commission on Race Relations for its report on the riot. His work was fundamental to The Negro in Chicago, A Study of Race Relations and it was considered a classic model for comprehensive commission reports. In the 1920s Johnson moved to New York City, where he became director for the National Urban League. He was an entrepreneur of the Harlem Renaissance, the movement by African-American writers. He edited two journals that published many writers of the period, and established prizes at the National Urban League to recognize young writers, in Harlem, he argued for black artists saying that they must use their own experiences as the basis for their creativity, rejecting European standards. His goal was to improve Negro self-image and character, and he felt that by writing they could achieve this, Johnson yearned to return to the South, not only to study race relations but to change them. In 1926 he moved to Nashville, taking a position as chair of the Department of Sociology at Fisk University, there he wrote or directed numerous studies of how combined legal, economic and social factors produced an oppressive racial structure. Two of his works have become classics, Shadow of the Plantation, in 1929 an American missionary in Liberia reported that Liberian officials were using soldiers to gather tribal people who were shipped to the island of Fernando Po as forced laborers. The Liberian government denied the charges and invited a League of Nations commission of inquiry, cuthbert Christy of Britain headed the commission
27.
Fisk University
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Fisk University is a private historically black university founded in 1866 in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. The 40-acre campus is a district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1930, Fisk was the first African-American institution to gain accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges, accreditations for specialized programs quickly followed. AMA support meant the organization tried to use its sources across the country to aid education for freedmen, enrollment jumped from 200 to 900 in the first several months of the school, indicating freedmens strong desire for education, with ages of students ranging from seven to seventy. The school was named in honor of General Clinton B, Fisk of the Tennessee Freedmens Bureau, who made unused barracks available to the school, as well as establishing the first free schools for white and black children in Tennessee. In addition, he endowed Fisk with a total of $30,000, the American Missionary Associations work was supported by the United Church of Christ, which retains an affiliation with the university. Fisk opened to classes on January 9,1866, James Dallas Burrus, John Houston Burrus, Virginia E. Walker, and America W. Robinson graduated as well and became a member of the Fisk Jubilee Singers. Walker became a missionary while the Burrus brothers were both prominent educators and, during their careers, professors at Fisk. Cravath organized the College Department and the Mozart Society, the first musical organization in Tennessee, rising enrollment added to the needs of the university. In 1870 Adam Knight Spence became principal of the Fisk Normal School, with a strong interest in religion and the arts, Adam Spence supported the start of a student choir. In 1871 the student choir went on a tour in Europe. They toured to raise funds to build the first building for the education of freedmen and they raised nearly $50,000 and funded construction of the renowned Jubilee Hall, now a designated National Historic Landmark. On April 12,1873, the Jubilee Singers sailed for England where they sang before an audience in the presence of the Queen. During the 1880s Fisk had a building program, as well as expanding its curriculum offerings. By the turn of the 20th century, it added black teachers and staff to the university, from 1915 to 1925, Fayette Avery McKenzie was President of Fisk. McKenzies tenure, before and after World War I, was during a turbulent period in American history, McKenzie was eventually forced to resign when his strict policies on dress code, extracurricular activities and other aspects of student life led to student protests. In 1947 Fisk heralded its first African-American president with the arrival of Charles Spurgeon Johnson, Johnson was a premier sociologist, a scholar who had been the editor of Opportunity magazine, a noted periodical of the Harlem Renaissance. In 1952, Fisk was the first predominantly black college to earn a Phi Beta Kappa charter, organized as the Delta of Tennessee Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa National Honor Society that December, the chapter inducted its first student members on April 4,1953
28.
Lillian Smith Book Award
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Since 1968, the awards have been presented annually, except for 2003 when the Southern Regional Council experienced funding shortfalls. It is the Souths oldest and best-known book award, and is presented in fiction and non-fiction categories, tindall for The Emergence of the New South, 1913-1945, Louisiana State University Press. Dan T. Carter for Scottsboro, A Tragedy of the American South, paul M. Gaston for The New South Creed, A Study in Southern Mythmaking, Alfred A. Knopf. Anthony Dunbar for Our Land, Too, Pantheon Books, Robert Coles for Children of Crisis, Vol. II, Migrants, Sharecroppers, Mountaineers, and Volume III, The South Goes North, Little, Brown and Company. Harold Martin for Ralph McGill, Reporter, Little Brown and Company, alice Walker for Revolutionary Petunias and Other Poems, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Vann Woodward for The Strange Career of Jim Crow, Oxford University Press, albert Murray for Train Whistle Guitar, McGraw-Hill. James Loewen and Charles Sallis for Mississippi, Conflict and Change, reynolds Price for The Surface of Earth, Atheneum. Richard Kluger for Simple Justice, The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black Americas Struggle for Equality, will D. Campbell for Brother to a Dragonfly, The Seabury Press. Garrett Epps for The Shad Treatment, Putnam, marion Wright and Arnold Shankman for Human Rights Odyssey, Moore Publishing. Ernest J. Gaines for In My Fathers House, Alfred A. Knopf, jacquelyn Dowd Hall for Revolt Against Chivalry, Jessie Daniel Ames and the Womens Campaign Against Lynching, Columbia University Press. Cormac McCarthy for Suttree, Random House, John Gaventa for Power and Powerlessness, Quiescence and Rebellion in an Appalachian Valley, University of Illinois Press. Pat Conroy for The Lords of Discipline, Houghton Mifflin, harry S. Ashmore for Hearts and Minds, The Anatomy of Racism from Roosevelt to Reagan, McGraw-Hill. John Ehle for The Winter People, Harper & Row, Fred Hobson for South-Watching, Selected Essays by Gerald W. Johnson, University of North Carolina Press. Roy Hoffman for Almost Family, Dial Press, John Egerton for Generations, An American Family, University of Kentucky Press. Alice Walker for In Search of Our Mothers Gardens, Womanist Prose, eudora Welty - Special Lifetime Award. James Farmer for Lay Bare the Heart, An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement, peter Taylor for The Old Forest and Other Stories, Dial Press. A. G. Mojtabai for Blessed Assurance, At Home with the Bomb in Amarillo, Texas, thomas L. Johnson, and Phillip C. Dunn for A True Likeness, The Black South of Richard Samuel Roberts, 1920–1936, pauli Murray for Song in a Weary Throat, An American Pilgrimage, Harper & Row
29.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
30.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
31.
McCarthyism
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McCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper regard for evidence. It originated with President Trumans Executive Order 9835 of March 21,1947, McCarthyism soon took on a broader meaning, describing the excesses of similar efforts. The term is now used more generally to describe reckless, unsubstantiated accusations. The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in the entertainment industry, educators, many people suffered loss of employment or destruction of their careers, some even suffered imprisonment. McCarthyism was a social and cultural phenomenon that affected all levels of society and was the source of a great deal of debate. The historical period that came to be known as the McCarthy era began well before Joseph McCarthys own involvement in it, many factors contributed to McCarthyism, some of them extending back to the years of the First Red Scare, inspired by Communisms emergence as a recognized political force. While the United States was engaged in World War II and allied with the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb in 1949, earlier than many analysts had expected. That same year, Mao Zedongs Communist army gained control of mainland China despite heavy American financial support of the opposing Kuomintang, in 1950, the Korean War began, pitting U. S. U. N. and South Korean forces against Communists from North Korea and China. The following year saw several significant developments regarding Soviet Cold War espionage activities. In January 1950, Alger Hiss, a high-level State Department official, was convicted of perjury, in Great Britain, Klaus Fuchs confessed to committing espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos National Laboratory during the War. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were arrested in 1950 on charges of stealing atomic bomb secrets for the Soviets and were executed in 1953, there were also more subtle forces encouraging the rise of McCarthyism. It had long been a practice of conservative politicians to refer to progressive reforms such as child labor laws. This tendency increased in the 1930s in reaction to the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in general, the vaguely defined danger of Communist influence was a more common theme in the rhetoric of anti-Communist politicians than was espionage or any other specific activity. He produced a piece of paper which he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the State Department and this speech resulted in a flood of press attention to McCarthy and established the path that made him one of the most recognized politicians in the United States. The first recorded use of the term McCarthyism was in a cartoon by Washington Post editorial cartoonist Herbert Block. The cartoon depicted four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant to stand on a platform atop a stack of ten tar buckets. Block later wrote that there was nothing particularly ingenious about the term, if anyone has a prior claim on it, hes welcome to the word and to the junior senator from Wisconsin along with it. I will also throw in a set of dishes and a case of soap
32.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
33.
Georgia Women of Achievement
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The Georgia Women of Achievement recognizes women natives or residents of the U. S. state of Georgia for their significant achievements or statewide contributions. The concept was first proposed by Rosalynn Carter in 1988, the first induction was in 1992 at Wesleyan College, and has continued annually. The induction ceremonies are held each year during March, designated as Womens History Month, the organization consists of a Board of Trustees and a Board of Selections. Nominees must have been no less than ten years. Georgians, or those associated with Georgia, are selected based on the impact on society. Nominations are proposed through documentation and a nomination form. GWA has traveling exhibits and speakers available upon request, remembering Americus, Georgia, Essays on Southern Life. What Virtue There Is in Fire, Ultural Memory and the Lynching of Sam Hose, athens, GA, University of Georgia Press – via Questia. Boyer, Paul S. James, Janet Wilson, James, notable American Women, 1607-1950, A Biographical Dictionary, Volume 1. Ann Short Chirhart & Betty Wood, ed, Georgia Women, Their Lives and Times. Athens, Georgia, University of Georgia Press, the Edible South, The Power of Food and the Making of an American Region. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press, goode-Walker, Vaughnette, Sheehy, Barry, Wallace, Cindy. A to Z of American Women Leaders and Activists, new York, NY, Facts on File. The Grove Encyclopedia of American Art, Volume 1, tufting Legacies, Cobble Brothers to Card-Monroe, The Story of the Men Who Revolutionized the Carpet Industry. A History of Midwifery in the United States, The Midwife Said Fear Not, new York, NY, Springer Publishing Company, LLC. Women Remembered, A Guide to Landmarks of Womens History in the United States, new York, NY, Greenwood Press – via Questia. All My Babies, A Midwifes Own Story, running a Thousand Miles for Freedom. Hazel Jane Raines, Pioneer Lady of Flight, white Columns in Hollywood, Reports from the Gone With the Wind Sets
34.
Martha Berry
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Martha McChesney Berry was an American educator and the founder of Berry College in Rome, Georgia. Martha McChesney Berry was the daughter of Capt. Thomas Berry, a veteran of the Mexican-American War and American Civil War, and Frances Margaret Rhea, a daughter of an Alabama planter. Berry was born on October 7,1865, in Berry Cove in Jackson County, Alabama, but her family relocated to Rome, Georgia, Thomas Berry was a partner in Berrys and Company, a wholesale grocery and cotton brokerage business in Rome. In 1871, he purchased Oak Hill, a 116-acre working farm on the Oostanaula River, approximately one, miss Berry grew up in this home along with her five sisters, two brothers, and three orphaned cousins. Her early education was conducted through private tutors, and she attended the Edgeworth School and this was the only formal education she received. Martha Berry lived at Oak Hill for the remainder of her life and she often came home from these trips with her father, with a loss of a pair of shoes or a hair ribbon. The founding of the Berry Schools was inspired by Berry’s desire to help the children of poor landowners, as a consequence of this desire, Martha Berry never married, and she devoted her life to developing the schools that would eventually become Berry College. In the late 1890s, she constructed a small, whitewashed school on eighty-three acres of land given to her by her father and she also taught in an abandoned Possum Trot Church, which still stands on the Berry College campus. The Sunday school classes eventually turned into day school activities, at the time, Berry had only five boarders, but the need was apparent and in 1909 she opened the Martha Berry School for Girls. Both schools offered high school-level education and were open to willing to study hard. Her teachings focused on the head, heart, and hands of her students, The ability to learn, work and the will to do both well. Her motto was and still is the motto of the college, “Not to be ministered unto but to minister. ”In 1926, she established Berry Junior College, Martha Berry died in 1942 and the schools were faced with several years of transition. The Martha Berry School for Girls closed at the end of the 1955–1956 academic year, the boys’ high school was renamed Mount Berry School for Boys, and in 1962 it became Berry Academy, which was closed in 1983 when Berry College incorporated. The college has been reducing the number of student work opportunities and increasing tuition, the reduced tuition still exceeds the state schools tuition by almost $1500 per semester for off-campus students, and $2500 more for on-campus students. Martha Berry had many supporters during her lifetime, such as Theodore Roosevelt, Andrew Carnegie, Ellen Louise Axson Wilson, Ford in particular was a generous benefactor to the schools and provided the funds necessary to build the “castle”-like dormitory complex found at the college. These dormitories are named after Fords wife and mother, Clara, Martha Berry is the subject of several biographies, Martha Berry the Sunday Lady of Possum Trot by Tracy Byers, and Miracle in the Mountains by Harnett Thomas Kane and Inez Henry. Also of note is Berry College, A History, The Legacy of Martha Berry by Ouida Dickey, another balanced biography of Berry is Evelyn Hoge Pendleys A Lady I Loved. Educators have written that Martha Berry was responsible for the creation of work-study programs grounded in Christian faith that are throughout the South
35.
Lucy Craft Laney
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Lucy Craft Laney was an early African-American educator who in 1883 founded the first school for black children in Augusta, Georgia. She was principal of the Haines Institute for Industrial and Normal Education for 50 years, Lucy Craft Laney was selected by Governor Jimmy Carter in 1974 to be one of the first African Americans to have their portraits hung in the Georgia State Capitol. Born April 13,1854 in Macon, Georgia, Lucy Craft Laney grew up in a society still by slavery, born eleven years before the end of slavery, Lucy was the seventh of ten children born to Louisa and David Laney. Her parents were former slaves, but her father had saved enough money to buy his freedom and that of his wife years before. Both of her parents were believers in education and were very giving to strangers. At the time of her birth it was illegal for blacks to read, however with the assistance of Ms. Campbell and she attended a mission school run by the AMA. In 1869 she entered Atlanta University, where she prepared to be a teacher, Laney worked as a teacher in Macon, Milledgeville and Savannah, Georgia for ten years before deciding to open a school of her own. Due to health reasons, she settled in Augusta, Georgia and her first class in 1883 was six children but Laney attracted interest in the community and, by the end of the second year, the school had 234 students. With the increase in students, she needed more funding for her operation and she attended the northern Presbyterian Church Convention in 1886 in Minneapolis and pleaded her case there, but was turned down initially. One of the attendees, Francine E. H, Haines, later declared an interest in and donated $10,000 to Laney for the school. With this money, Laney expanded her offerings and she changed the schools name to The Haines Normal and Industrial Institute in honor of her benefactor and to indicate its goals of industrial and teacher training. The school eventually grew to encompass an entire city block of buildings, by 1928, the schools enrollment was over 800 students. Laney also opened the first black kindergarten and the first black nursing school in Augusta, Lucy Craft Laney died on October 24,1933, and is buried at Cedar Grove Cemetery in Augusta. Lucy Laney Elementary School in Harris County was named for her, Lucy Craft Laney High School is also named for her. Lucy Laney Elementary School historical marker
36.
Juliette Gordon Low
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Juliette Gordon Low was the founder of Girl Scouts of the USA with help from Sir Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of the Scouting Movement. Low and Baden-Powell both shared a love of travel and support of the Girl Guides, Juliette Low joined the Girl Guide movement, forming a group of Girl Guides in Scotland in 1911. In 1912 she returned to the United States and established the first American Girl Guide troop in Savannah, in 1915 the United States Girl Guides became known as the Girl Scouts, and Juliette Gordon Low was the first president. She stayed active until the time of her death and her birthday, October 31, is commemorated by the Girl Scouts as Founders Day. Juliette Magill Kinzie Gordon was born on October 31,1860 in Savannah and she was named after her grandmother, Juliette Augusta Magill Kinzie, and nicknamed Daisy, a common nickname at the time, by her uncle. Six months after her birth, her father joined the Confederate States Army to fight in the American Civil War, in 1864, due to the close proximity of Union troops to Savannah, she moved with her mother and two sisters to Thunderbolt, Georgia. After the Union victory in Savannah the same year, her family received visits from General William T. Sherman. Sherman arranged an escort to take her family to Chicago in March 1865, upon arriving in Chicago, Gordon Low became sick with brain fever, although she recovered without severe complications. A few months later, after President Andrew Johnson issued the amnesty proclamation, as a child, Gordon Low was accident-prone, and she suffered numerous injuries and illnesses. In 1866, her mother mentioned in a letter that Daisy fell out of bed – on her head and that year, she broke two of her fingers so severely that her parents considered having them amputated. She also suffered frequent earaches and recurring bouts of malaria, Gordon Low spent more time pursuing art and poetry than she did working on school work. She wrote and performed plays, and she started a newspaper with her cousins called The Malbone Bouquet and she formed a club with her cousins with the goal of helping others. The Helpful Hands Club learned to sew and tried to make clothes for the children of Italian immigrants and she was dubbed Crazy Daisy by her family and friends due to her eccentricities. Her cousin Caroline described her by saying, While you never knew what she would do next, Gordon Low’s parents raised her with traditional Southern values, and they emphasized the importance of duty, obedience, loyalty, and respect. While studying at Edgehill, she joined the secret group Theta Tau, in 1880, after she had finished boarding school, Gordon Low took painting lessons in New York. Among her teachers was Robert Walter Weir, a prominent landscape painter, after the death of her sister Alice in 1880, Gordon Low relocated to Savannah to take over the household duties while her mother grieved. During this period she met William Mackay Low, the son of a family friend, William Low left Savannah to study at the University of Oxford, and they didnt meet again until almost three years later in 1884. Gordon Low traveled through Europe while they were separated, and she learned several new skills including shorthand, bareback riding, in late 1885, William Low proposed marriage
37.
Flannery O'Connor
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Mary Flannery OConnor was an American writer and essayist. An important voice in American literature, she wrote two novels and thirty-two short stories, as well as a number of reviews and commentaries and she was a Southern writer who often wrote in a Southern Gothic style and relied heavily on regional settings and grotesque characters. Her writing also reflected her Roman Catholic faith and frequently examined questions of morality and her posthumously compiled Complete Stories won the 1972 U. S. National Book Award for Fiction and has been the subject of enduring praise. OConnor was born on March 25,1925, in Savannah, Georgia, the child of Edward Francis OConnor, a real estate agent. As an adult, she remembered herself as a child with a receding chin. When she was six, living at a still standing. The Pathé News people filmed Little Mary OConnor with her trained chicken and she said, When I was six I had a chicken that walked backward and was in the Pathé News. I was in it too with the chicken, I was just there to assist the chicken but it was the high point in my life. Everything since has been an anticlimax, OConnor and her family moved to Milledgeville, Georgia in 1940 to live on Andalusia Farm, which is now a museum dedicated to OConnors work. In 1937, her father was diagnosed with lupus erythematosus, it led to his eventual death on February 1,1941. OConnor attended Peabody High School, where she worked as the newspapers art editor. She entered Georgia State College for Women in an accelerated three-year program, while at Georgia College, she produced a significant amount of cartoon work for the student newspaper. In 1946, she was accepted into the prestigious Iowa Writers Workshop at the University of Iowa, lytle, for many years editor of the Sewanee Review, was one of the earliest admirers of her fiction. He later published several of her stories in the Sewanee Review, Workshop director Paul Engle was the first to read and comment on the initial drafts of what would become Wise Blood. She received an M. A. from the University of Iowa in 1947, during the summer of 1948, OConnor continued to work on Wise Blood at Yaddo, an artists community in Saratoga Springs, New York, where she also completed several short stories. In 1949, OConnor met and eventually accepted an invitation to stay with Robert Fitzgerald and his wife, Sally, in Ridgefield and her texts usually take place in the South and revolve around morally flawed characters, while the issue of race often appears in the background. Most of her works feature disturbing elements, though she did not like to be characterized as cynical, I am mighty tired of reading reviews that call A Good Man brutal and sarcastic, she wrote. The stories are hard but they are hard because there is nothing harder or less sentimental than Christian realism, when I see these stories described as horror stories I am always amused because the reviewer always has hold of the wrong horror
38.
Mary Musgrove
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Mary Musgrove was of mixed Yamacraw and English ancestry. She facilitated in the development of Colonial Georgia and became an important intermediary between Muscogee Creek Indians and the English colonists and she bridged the gap between two distinctly different societies and became a surgical doctor who not only translated but counseled those who acknowledged her capabilities. She attempted to out a life that merged both cultures and fought for her own rights in both worlds. Later, she would attempt to recreate the worlds she had merged into her own image, by assaulting it with fire, born Coosaponakeesa, she was the daughter of a Yamacraw Native American woman and Edward Griffin, an English–Carolina trader from Charles Town, South Carolina. Her mother died when she was 3 years old, and soon after and she later became known by her Christian and married names, Mary Musgrove Matthews Bosomworth. She decided that she would be named Mary by having her read her a story of a woman who was royal from the Bible. Coosaponakeesa was born in the key Creek town of Coweta, and her mother was claimed to be the sister of Brims, an important headman of Coweta. Coweta was connected by a path to the Upper Creek town of Tuckabatchee. It is likely that Coosaponakeesa’s family traveled, traded, and lived in towns and had kin in each town, which may account for some historians considering her a Tuckabachee Creek. ”After being baptized her Christian name became Mary. Mary continued to live in Pon Pon until the Yamasee War of 1715 broke out, captain John Musgrove Sr. was a South Carolina trader and planter. He was employed by the Carolina Assembly to arrange peace between the Creeks and the English, Musgrove’s party was welcomed in Coweta by “Chieftainess Qua” who most probably was the elder sister of Brims, and if not her mother, at least the aunt of Mary. John Musgrove met the Coweta headman Brims, who the English had earlier designated as “Emperor” so that in the eyes of the English at least Brims could speak for the other Chiefs or headmen. Captain Musgrove was married to a Creek woman and therefore his son Johnny Musgrove, like Mary, was of “mixed blood. ”Mary, but in 1725 the couple moved to Pon Pon. By the 1730s they had four sons, but none of their children lived to adulthood. John and Mary owned land in Colleton County and in 1732 they were asked by the Carolina Governor and the Yamacraws and their trading post was well established by the time James Oglethorpe and his colonists landed near Georgia. James Oglethorpe and a group of trustees had been granted a Royal charter by King George II to start a settlement colony in Georgia, Oglethorpe, a pastor, a physician and 114 colonists arrived in Charles Town in January 1733 before embarking south to ascertain a suitable site. Tomochichi granted land to Oglethorpe which violated previous Creek Treaties with South Carolina that prohibited English settlements south of the Savannah River, John Musgrove traveled as the interpreter for Tomochichi, his wife and other Creeks who sailed with Oglethorpe to England to meet the King In 1734. Mary filed actions against Watson, who was fined, but in the end he had to be jailed for his own protection, on June 12,1735 John Musgrove died of a fever
39.
Ma Rainey
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Ma Rainey was one of the earliest African American professional blues singers and one of the first generation of blues singers to record. She was billed as the Mother of the Blues and she began performing as a young teenager and became known as Ma Rainey after her marriage to Will Rainey, in 1904. They toured with the Rabbit Foot Minstrels and later formed their own group, Rainey and Rainey and her first recording was made in 1923. In the next five years, she made over 100 recordings, including Bo-Weevil Blues, Moonshine Blues, See See Rider Blues, Black Bottom, Rainey was known for her powerful vocal abilities, energetic disposition, majestic phrasing, and a moaning style of singing. Her powerful voice was never captured on her records, because she recorded exclusively for Paramount. However, her other qualities are present and most evident in her early recordings Bo-Weevil Blues, Rainey recorded with Louis Armstrong, and she toured and recorded with the Georgia Jazz Band. She continued to tour until 1935, when she retired and went to live in her hometown, Pridgett claimed to have been born on April 26,1886, in Columbus, Georgia. However, the 1900 census indicates she was born in September 1882 in Alabama and she was the second of five children of Thomas and Ella Pridgett, from Alabama. She had at least two brothers and a sister, Malissa, with whom Gertrude was later confused by some writers and she began her career as a performer at a talent show in Columbus, Georgia, when she was about 12 to 14 years old. A member of the First African Baptist Church, she began performing in minstrel shows. She later claimed that she was first exposed to music around 1902. In 1910, she was described as Mrs. Gertrude Rainey and she continued with the Rabbits Foot Company after it was taken over by a new owner, F. S. Wolcott, in 1912. Beginning in 1914, the Raineys were billed as Rainey and Rainey, wintering in New Orleans, she met numerous musicians, including Joe King Oliver, Louis Armstrong, Sidney Bechet and Pops Foster. As the popularity of blues music increased, she became well known, around this time, she met Bessie Smith, a young blues singer who was also making a name for herself. A story later developed that Rainey kidnapped Smith, forced her join the Rabbits Foot Minstrels, and taught her to sing the blues, from the late 1910s, there was an increasing demand for recordings by black musicians. In 1920, Mamie Smith was the first black woman to be recorded, in 1923, Rainey was discovered by Paramount Records producer J. Mayo Williams. She signed a contract with Paramount, and in December she made her first eight recordings in Chicago, including Bad Luck Blues, Bo-Weevil Blues. She made more than 100 other recordings over the five years
40.
Carson McCullers
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Carson McCullers was an American novelist, short story writer, playwright, essayist, and poet. Her first novel, The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, explores the isolation of misfits and outcasts in a small town of the U. S. South. Her other novels have themes and most are set in the deep South. McCullers’ oeuvre is often described as Southern Gothic and indicative of her southern roots, however, McCullers penned all of her work after leaving the South, and critics also describe her writing and eccentric characters as universal in scope. Her stories have been adapted to stage and film, a stagework of her novel The Member of the Wedding, which captures a young girls feelings at her brothers wedding, made a successful Broadway run in 1950–51. She was born Lula Carson Smith in Columbus, Georgia in 1917 and her mother’s grandfather was a planter and Confederate war hero. Her father was a watchmaker and jeweler of French Huguenot descent, from the age of ten she took piano lessons, when she was fifteen her father gave her a typewriter to encourage her story writing. Smith graduated from Columbus High School, in September 1934, at age 17, she left home on a steamship bound for New York City, planning to study piano at the Juilliard School of Music. After falling ill with rheumatic fever she returned to Columbus to recuperate, in 1936 she published her first work. Wunderkind, a piece that Bates admired, depicted a music prodigys adolescent insecurity. It first appeared in Story magazine and is collected in The Ballad of the Sad Cafe, from 1935 to 1937, as her studies and health dictated, she divided her time between Columbus and New York. In September 1937, aged 20, she married an ex-soldier and aspiring writer and they began their married life in Charlotte, North Carolina, where Reeves had found work. Maxim Lieber was her agent in 1938 and intermittently thereafter. In 1940, at the age of 23, writing in the Southern Gothic or perhaps Southern realist traditions, McCullers completed her first novel, at the time the novel was thought to suggest an anti-Fascist message. McCullers published eight books, the best known are The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, Reflections in a Golden Eye and The Member of the Wedding. The novella The Ballad of the Sad Café depicts loneliness and the pain of unrequited love, at the time of its writing, McCullers was a resident at Yaddo, in The Member of the Wedding, McCullers describes the feelings of a young girl at her brothers wedding. The Broadway stage adaptation of the novel had a run in 1950–51 and was produced by the Young Vic in London in September 2007. Many know her works largely by their film adaptations, the Heart Is a Lonely Hunter was adapted as a film with the same title in 1968, with Alan Arkin in the lead role
41.
Margaret Mitchell
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Margaret Munnerlyn Mitchell was an American author and journalist. In more recent years, a collection of Mitchells girlhood writings, a collection of articles written by Mitchell for The Atlanta Journal was republished in book form. Margaret Mitchell was a Southerner and a resident and native of Atlanta. She was born in 1900 into a wealthy and politically prominent family and her father, Eugene Muse Mitchell, was an attorney, and her mother, Mary Isabel May Belle Stephens, was a suffragist. She had two brothers, Russell Stephens Mitchell, who died in infancy in 1894, and Alexander Stephens Mitchell and her grandfather, Russell Crawford Mitchell, of Atlanta, enlisted in the Confederate States Army on June 24,1861 and served in Hoods Texas Brigade. He was severely wounded at the Battle of Sharpsburg, demoted for inefficiency, after the Civil War, he made a large fortune supplying lumber for the rapid rebuilding of Atlanta. Russell Mitchell had thirteen children from two wives, the eldest was Eugene, who graduated from the University of Georgia Law School. Mitchells grandparents, married in 1863, were Annie Fitzgerald and John Stephens, John Stephens was a prosperous real estate developer after the Civil War and one of the founders of the Gate City Street Railroad, a mule-drawn Atlanta trolley system. John and Annie Stephens had twelve children together, the child was May Belle Stephens. May Belle Stephens had studied at the Bellevue Convent in Quebec and her family lived near her maternal grandmother, Annie Stephens, in a Victorian house painted bright red with yellow trim. Mrs. Stephens had been a widow for years prior to Margarets birth. After his death, she inherited property on Jackson Street where Margarets family lived, grandmother Annie Stephens was quite a character, both vulgar and a tyrant. After gaining control of her father Philip Fitzgeralds money after he died, she splurged on her daughters, including Margarets mother. There they learned that Irish Americans were not treated as equal to other immigrants, Margarets relationship with her grandmother would become quarrelsome in later years as she entered adulthood. However, for Margaret, her grandmother was a source of eye-witness information about the Civil War. In an accident that was traumatic for her mother although she was unharmed, fearing it would happen again, her mother began dressing her in boys pants, and she was nicknamed Jimmy, the name of a character in the comic strip, Little Jimmy. Her brother insisted she would have to be a boy named Jimmy to play with him, having no sisters to play with, Margaret said she was a boy named Jimmy until she was fourteen. Stephens Mitchell said his sister was a tomboy who would play with dolls occasionally
42.
Selena Sloan Butler
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Selena Sloan Butler is the founder and first president of the National Congress of Colored Parents and Teachers Association. President Herbert Hoover appointed her to the White House Conference on Child Health, during World War II, she organized the Red Cross first black womens chapter of Gray Ladies. When Congress merged the NCCPT with the National PTA in 1970, today, Butler is considered a co-founder of the National Parent-Teacher Association. Butler was born in Thomasville, Georgia to William Sloan and Winnie Williams on January 4, around 1872 and her father was white, and her mother was of mixed descent, half Indian and half African-American. She started life with her mother and sister but without her fathers presence and she attended a missionary-operated elementary school in Thomas County and studied at Spelman Seminary. At the age of sixteen Butler graduated from Spelman in 1888 and she later became a member of the Eta Sigma chapter of Sigma Gamma Rho sorority. She married Henry Rutherford Butler, a prominent African American doctor in Atlanta who had studied medicine at Harvard University in Cambridge, the couple had one son, Henry Jr. As their son, Henry, Jr. approached school age, finding none in her neighborhood or in any black neighborhood in the city, she decided to start a kindergarten in her home. When Henry entered the Yonge Street Elementary School, Selena began seeking ways to help parents get involved in their children’s education, in 1919, she formed a statewide parent-teacher association in Georgia. What began as a local venture grew into a recognized organization. Butlers dedication to children and families stirred her to out to parents on a national level. She wrote several letters encouraging parents and teachers of color to form a union with the purpose of uniting home. Her letters stimulated interest in the movement and her own state Georgia became the first to organize. By 1926, Mrs. Butler aroused sufficient interest and issued the first call for a national convention, to this call, four states responded and sent delegates. During that same year, the once statewide parent-teacher association became the National Congress of Colored Parents, the NCCPT was modeled closely after its white only counterpart, the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. Butler dedicated her life to forming an organization which would have the objectives as the National Congress of Parents. The NCCPT and the Congress of Mothers worked closely with other to improve the conditions in schools for all children, regardless of race. Between 1929 and 1930, she served on the presidents Committee, Butler was active in her community not only as an educator but also as an organizer
