1.
Paul W. Jones
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Paul Wayne Jones is the current United States Ambassador to Poland. He arrived in Warsaw, Poland, and began serving as Ambassador on September 24,2015 and he is widely regarded as one of the Foreign Services only senior experts on both Europe and East Asia. Jones was born and raised in Yorktown Heights, New York and he earned his B. A. from Cornell University. His post-graduate work includes a Masters of Arts in Public Administration from University of Virginia, Jones joined the United States Foreign Service in 1987. For the next two years, he served as consular and political officer in Bogota, Colombia, during a period when narco-traffickers threatened the country, Jones next assignment was in Moscow, from 1992 to 1994. Jones returned to Washington as desk officer for the Benelux countries, Jones was then selected by Ambassador Christopher R. Hill to be the first Deputy Chief of Mission to Macedonia, where he served from the summer of 1996 to 1999. He then became Director of the Balkans office in the Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, Jones graduated from the State Department’s Senior Seminar in 2004, and then was assigned as Deputy Chief of Mission to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe in Vienna until 2005. Jones career began to focus on Asia in 2005, when he was assigned as Chargé dAffaires and Deputy Chief of Mission at the U. S. Embassy in Manila, in January 2009, Richard Holbrooke asked Jones to serve as his Deputy Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan. Jones worked intensively with Holbrooke on Afghanistan and Pakistan until assuming his new role as the U. S. Ambassador to Malaysia in September 2010, Jones was nominated by President Barack Obama for the position of Ambassador to Malaysia on July 12,2010. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on August 5,2010, Jones arrived in Malaysia on September 13 and presented his Letter of Credence from President Obama to the then King of Malaysia, Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin, at the Palace on October 18,2010. During Jones tenure, both Secretary of State Clinton and United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates separately made their first ever visits to Malaysia in November 2010. After serving as ambassador, Jones returned to the United States joining the US Department of State in the Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs and he served as the Principle Deputy Assistant Secretary from 2013-2015. He was responsible for all aspects of U. S. policy and operations in Europe, particularly Russia, in this role, he was particularly well known for his interest in cooperation among the Arctic nations. On June 8,2015, Jones was nominated to serve as the United States Ambassador to Poland, Ambassador Jones had his hearing before the U. S. Senate on July 24,2015 during which he said, Poland has become one of our closest allies in NATO. He also stated, Our partnership is based on values and engagement in politics aimed at peace. U. S. Secretary of State John Kerry swore in Ambassador Jones on September 11,2015 and he arrived in Warsaw, Poland, and began serving as Ambassador on September 24,2015. Frasure Memorial Award for peace building in the southern Philippines in 2008 and he is the recipient of the Presidential Meritorious Service Award and several Superior Honor Awards. Jones mother, Evelyn Hale White Jones, was born in Mumbai, India and his father, John Wayne Jones, was born and raised in Missouri and was a veteran of World War II in the Pacific
2.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
3.
Hugh S. Gibson
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Hugh Simons Gibson was an American diplomat. Gibson was actively involved in disarmament talks from 1925 to 1932, throughout his career, together with such colleagues, ambassadors Joseph C. He was active in relief work in Europe during and after World War I and continued to pursue these efforts during. His close friendship with Herbert Hoover began in this context and his reporting on this highly sensitive matter was surrounded by controversy, but ultimately won the approval of significant figures in the American Jewish community. Gibson retired from the Foreign Service in 1938, worked in London for the Commission for Relief in Belgium during the first two years of the war, in his final years he ran the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration in Geneva. Hugh Simons Gibson was born in Los Angeles, California, on August 16,1883 and he died in Genthod, Geneva, Switzerland, on December 12,1954. He graduated from the prestigious École libre des sciences politiques in Paris in 1907, Gibson was appointed as secretary to the American embassy in London on May 16,1916. He was assigned to the U. S. Gibson obtained a diplomatic post with his appointment as U. S. Minister Plenipotentiary to Poland on April 16,1919, and remained at that post until May 1924, Gibson was made Ambassador to Belgium and minister to Luxembourg in 1927, positions he filled until 1933 and again in 1937–1938. In the intervening years he served as U. S. Ambassador to Brazil. S, Delegation to the Preparatory Commission for the General Disarmament Conference, 1926–1932, chair of the U. S. S. Delegation at the General Disarmament Conference, Geneva, 1932–1933, in 1938 Roosevelt wanted to appoint Gibson Ambassador to Berlin. Gibson felt that the situation in Germany was beyond the competence of diplomacy and he also served as Assistant to the Honorary Chairman of the President’s emergency famine committee. Eisenhower to reorganize the executive departments in 1953, and director of the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration, Hugh S. Gibson’s grandfather, a Methodist minister of Scottish descent, had been sent to California as an Indian Agent. Hugh S. Gibson’s father, Francis Ashbury Gibson, was a business man and his wife, Mary Simons, trained as a schoolteacher, was also a woman ahead of her time, says Diane C. Wood, a political and educational activist, who believed in birth control, three of the Gibsons children died in infancy and Hugh was also a delicate child. He caught polio at the age of four but suffered no lasting aftereffects, as a result of his childhood health problems, however, he was largely educated by his remarkable mother and by private tutors until he went to Pomona College for two years in 1900. The Gibson family was not wealthy, Mary was nonetheless determined to give her son the best possible education. She sold the home and with the proceeds took the eighteen-year-old boy on a tour of Europe in the course of which they visited Italy in a buggy
4.
Ambassadors of the United States
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This is a list of ambassadors of the United States to individual nations of the world, to international organizations, and to past nations, as well as ambassadors-at-large. Ambassadors are nominated by the President and confirmed by the U. S. Senate, an ambassador can be appointed during a recess, but he or she can only serve as ambassador until the end of the next session of Congress unless subsequently confirmed. Ambassadors serve at the pleasure of the President, meaning they can be dismissed at any time, an ambassador may be a career Foreign Service Officer or a political appointee. As embassies fall under the State Departments jurisdiction, ambassadors answer directly to the Secretary of State, unlike other consulates, these persons report directly to the Secretary of State. These diplomatic officials report directly to the Secretary of State, many oversee a portfolio not restricted to one nation, often an overall goal, and are not usually subject to Senate confirmation. Informal contact with the nation of Bhutan is maintained through the U. S. Embassy in New Delhi, Iran, On April 7,1980, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Iran after the 1979 Iranian Revolution. On April 24,1981, the Swiss government assumed representation of U. S. interests in Tehran, currently, Iranian interests in the United States are represented by the government of Pakistan. The U. S. Department of State named Iran a State Sponsor of Terrorism on January 19,1984. North Korea, The Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea is not on terms with the United States. Sweden functions as Protective Power for the United States in Pyongyang, Taiwan, With the normalization of relations with the Peoples Republic of China in 1979, the United States has not maintained official diplomatic relations with Taiwan. C. and twelve other U. S. cities. Well-known past ambassadors from the United States, Eight United States Ambassadors have been killed in office – six of them by armed attack, embassies and Consulates Principal Officers and Chiefs of Mission United States Mission to the United Nations US ambassadors killed in the line of duty
5.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
6.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
7.
Second Polish Republic
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The Second Polish Republic, also known as the Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland, refers to the country of Poland between the First and Second World Wars. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland and it had access to the Baltic Sea via a short strip of coastline either side of the city of Gdynia. Between March and August 1939, Poland also shared a border with the then-Hungarian governorate of Subcarpathia, the Second Republic was significantly different in territory to the current Polish state. It included substantially more territory in the east and less in the west, the Second Republics land area was 388,634 km2, making it, in October 1938, the sixth largest country in Europe. After the annexation of Zaolzie, this grew to 389,720 km2, according to the 1921 census, the number of inhabitants was 27.2 million. By 1939, just before the outbreak of World War II, almost a third of population came from minority groups,13. 9% Ukrainians, 10% Jews,3. 1% Belarusians,2. 3% Germans and 3. 4% Czechs, Lithuanians and Russians. At the same time, a significant number of ethnic Poles lived outside the country borders, Poland maintained a slow but steady level of economic development. By 1939, the Republic had become one of Europes major powers, the victorious Allies of World War I confirmed the rebirth of Poland in the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919. It was one of the stories of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Poland solidified its independence in a series of wars fought by the newly formed Polish Army from 1918 to 1921. The extent of the half of the interwar territory of Poland was settled diplomatically in 1922. In the course of World War I, Germany gradually gained overall dominance on the Eastern Front as the Imperial Russian Army fell back, German and Austro-Hungarian armies seized the Russian-ruled part of what became Poland. In a failed attempt to resolve the Polish question as quickly as possible, Berlin set up a German puppet state on 5 November 1916, with a governing Provisional Council of State, the Council administered the country under German auspices, pending the election of a king. A month before Germany surrendered on 11 November 1918 and the war ended, the Regency Council had dissolved the Council of State, with the notable exception of the Marxist-oriented Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania, most Polish political parties supported this move. On 23 October the Regency Council appointed a new government under Józef Świeżyński, in 1918–1919, over 100 workers councils sprang up on Polish territories, on 5 November 1918, in Lublin, the first Soviet of Delegates was established. On 6 November socialists proclaimed the Republic of Tarnobrzeg at Tarnobrzeg in Austrian Galicia, the same day the Socialist, Ignacy Daszyński, set up a Provisional Peoples Government of the Republic of Poland in Lublin. On Sunday,10 November at 7 a. m, Józef Piłsudski, newly freed from 16 months in a German prison in Magdeburg, returned by train to Warsaw. Piłsudski, together with Colonel Kazimierz Sosnkowski, was greeted at Warsaws railway station by Regent Zdzisław Lubomirski, next day, due to his popularity and support from most political parties, the Regency Council appointed Piłsudski as Commander in Chief of the Polish Armed Forces
8.
Warsaw
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Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It stands on the Vistula River in east-central Poland, roughly 260 kilometres from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population is estimated at 1.750 million residents within a metropolitan area of 3.101 million residents. The city limits cover 516.9 square kilometres, while the area covers 6,100.43 square kilometres. Once described as Paris of the East, Warsaw was believed to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world until World War II. On 9 November 1939, the city was awarded Polands highest military decoration for heroism, Warsaw is one of Europe’s most dynamic metropolitan cities. In 2012 the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Warsaw as the 32nd most liveable city in the world, in 2017 the city came 4th in the “Business-friendly” category and 8th in the “Human capital and life style”. It was also ranked as one of the most liveable cities in Central, Warsaw is considered an Alpha– global city, a major international tourist destination and a significant cultural, political and economic hub. The city is a significant centre of research and development, BPO, ITO, the Warsaw Stock Exchange is the largest and most important in Central and Eastern Europe. Frontex, the European Union agency for external security, has its headquarters in Warsaw. Together with Frankfurt, London and Paris, Warsaw is also one of the cities with the highest number of skyscrapers in the European Union, the city is the seat of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra and the University of Warsaw. The historic city-centre of Warsaw with its picturesque Old Town in 1980 was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, buildings represent examples of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Warsaw provides many examples of architecture from the gothic, renaissance, baroque, neoclassical and modern periods, furthermore, the city is positioning itself as Europes chic cultural capital with thriving art and club scenes and renowned restaurants. Folk etymology attributes the city name to a fisherman, Wars, according to legend, Sawa was a mermaid living in the Vistula River with whom Wars fell in love. In actuality, Warsz was a 12th/13th-century nobleman who owned a village located at the site of Mariensztat neighbourhood. See also the Vršovci family which had escaped to Poland, the official city name in full is miasto stołeczne Warszawa. A native or resident of Warsaw is known as a Varsovian – in Polish warszawiak, warszawianin, warszawianka, warszawiacy, other names for Warsaw include Varsovia and Varsóvia, Varsovie, Varsavia, Warschau, װאַרשע /Varshe, Варшава /Varšava /Varshava, Varšuva, Varsó. The first fortified settlements on the site of todays Warsaw were located in Bródno, after Jazdów was raided by nearby clans and dukes, a new similar settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called Warszowa
9.
United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States
10.
United States Foreign Service
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The United States Foreign Service is the diplomatic service of the United States federal government under the aegis of the United States Department of State. It consists of approximately 15,000 professionals carrying out the policy of the United States. Created in 1924 by the Rogers Act, the Foreign Service combined all consular, in addition to the units function, the Rogers Act defined a personnel system under which the United States Secretary of State is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. Members of the Foreign Service are selected through a series of written and they serve at any of the 265 United States diplomatic missions around the world, including embassies, consulates, and other facilities. C. The Department of Agriculture, the Department of Commerce, and the United States Agency for International Development. The United States Foreign Service is managed by a Director General, the Director General is traditionally a current or former Foreign Service Officer. Starting in November 23,1975 until October, 2nd,2016 under a Departmental administrative action, the two positions are now separate. As the head of the bureau, the Director General held an equivalent to an Assistant Secretary of State. The current Director General is Arnold A. Chacón, who was sworn in on December 22,2014. On September 15,1789, the 1st United States Congress passed an Act creating the Department of State and appointing duties to it, initially there were two services devoted to diplomatic and consular activity. Throughout the 19th century, ambassadors, or ministers, as they were prior to the 1890s, and consuls were appointed by the president. Many had commercial ties to the countries in which they would serve, in 1856, Congress provided a salary for consuls serving at certain posts, those who received a salary could not engage in private business, but could continue to collect fees for services performed. Lucile Atcherson Curtis was the first woman in what became the U. S, specifically, she was the first woman appointed as a United States Diplomatic Officer or Consular Officer, in 1923. The Rogers Act of 1924 merged the diplomatic and consular services of the government into the Foreign Service, an extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to recruit the most outstanding Americans, along with a merit-based system of promotions. In 1927 Congress passed legislation according diplomatic status to representatives abroad of the Department of Commerce, in 1930 Congress passed similar legislation for the Department of Agriculture, creating the Foreign Agricultural Service. Though formally accorded diplomatic status, however, commercial and agricultural attachés were civil servants, in addition, the agricultural legislation stipulated that agricultural attachés would not be construed as public ministers. On July 1,1939, however, both the commercial and agricultural attachés were transferred to the Department of State under Reorganization Plan No, the agricultural attachés remained in the Department of State until 1954, when they were returned by Act of Congress to the Department of Agriculture. Commercial attachés remained with State until 1980, when Reorganization Plan Number 3 of 1979 was implemented under terms of the Foreign Service Act of 1980, Officers were expected to spend the bulk of their careers abroad and were commissioned officers of the United States, available for worldwide service
11.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
12.
Diplomatic correspondence
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Diplomatic correspondence is correspondence between one state and another, usually – though not exclusively – of a formal character. It follows several widely observed customs and style in composition, substance, presentation, a letter of credence or credentials is the instrument by which a head of state exercises his or her power to appoint ambassadors and ministers to foreign countries. The letter of credence is signed by the head of state and is addressed to the receiving head of state. Letters of credence date to the thirteenth century, an envoy typically receives both a sealed letter of credence and an unsealed copy. Once the envoy reaches his destination, A letter of recall is formal correspondence from one head-of-state notifying a second head-of-state that he or she is recalling his states ambassador. Their use at the present day is a recognition of the necessity of absolute confidence in the authority. Exequatur A note verbale is the most formal form of note and is so-named as it represented a formal record of information delivered orally. Notes verbale are written in the person and printed on official letterhead, they are typically sealed with an embosser or, in some cases. A collective note is a letter delivered from multiple states to a single recipient state and it is always written in the third person. The collective note has been a rarely used form of communication due to the difficulty in obtaining agreements among multiple states to the exact wording of a letter. An identic note is a letter delivered from a state to multiple recipient states. Examples include the note sent by Thomas Jefferson regarding action against the Barbary Pirates and that from the United States to China. In it, the United States called on the two powers to resolve their differences over the Eastern China Railway peacefully. A bout de papier may be presented by an official when meeting with an official from another state at the conclusion of the meeting. Prepared in advance, it contains a summary of the main points addressed by the visiting official during the meeting and, firstly. It, secondly, removes ambiguity about the subject of the meeting occasioned by verbal miscues by the visiting official, bouts de papier are always presented without credit or attribution so as to preserve the confidentiality of the meeting in case the document is later disclosed. A démarche is considered less formal than the already informal bout de papier and it has no identified source, title, or attribution and no standing in the relationship involved. The earliest forms of correspondence were, out of necessity
13.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
14.
Ad interim
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The Latin phrase ad interim means in the meantime or temporarily. A diplomatic officer who acts in place of an ambassador is called chargé daffaires ad interim, examples from classic literature, The abbreviation a. i. is used in job titles
15.
Alexander Pollock Moore
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Alexander Pollock Moore was an American diplomat, editor and publisher. Born in Pittsburgh on November 10,1867, he was the publisher/owner of the Pittsburgh Leader when he married the stage actress Lillian Russell, becoming her fourth husband. After she died on June 6,1922, he served as an ambassador twice, to Spain from 1923 to 1925, as the Ambassador to Peru he played a significant role in negotiating the Tacna-Arica boundary agreement, settling a border dispute between Peru and Chile. He died on February 17,1930 in Los Angeles, California shortly after he was appointed Ambassador to Poland by President Hoover
16.
John Willys
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John North Willys was an American automotive pioneer and statesman. Born in Canandaigua, New York, as a man he began selling bicycles in his hometown. In 1897 he married Isabel Van Wie and a few years later entered the retailing business in Elmira. His very successful car dealership sold the Overland brand of automobiles, however, in 1907 supply problems with the Indianapolis, Indiana Overland factory led to John Willys acquiring the company. He proved an astute operator and quickly turned the companys sagging fortunes around. In 1909 he acquired the Marion Motor Car Co. of Indianapolis, Indiana, success saw his car company become the second largest carmaker in the United States and in 1915 he built a seven-story headquarters in Toledo, Ohio that was the most modern of its day. Before the end of the decade, one-third of the city of Toledos workforce was employed either at Willys-Overland or at one of the small businesses providing parts. His automobile empire offered the consumer the choice of an Overland, Willys or Willys-Knight vehicle, through his holding company, in 1918 John Willys acquired the Moline Plow Company of Moline, Illinois, which manufactured the Universal brand of farm tractor and a line of Stephens cars. The following year he acquired control of the Duesenberg company primarily to get his hands on Duesenberg brothers factory in Elizabeth, labor difficulties began to emerge at the Willys-Overland Toledo plant that resulted in a violent strike in 1919, shutting down the plant for several months. Willys hired General Motors vice-president Walter Chrysler to run the Willys-Overland operation at the then astonishing salary of $1 million a year. However, Chrysler tried to oust John Willys with a takeover bid that backfired when the shareholders resisted his move. Although very profitable, John Willys businesses were highly leveraged, expanded and/or acquired through massive borrowings, in 1921, Willys nervous bankers forced him to consolidate in order to limit their exposure. To raise cash for debt reduction, the Willys-Overland plant in New Jersey was sold at auction to William C. Durant as was Willys New Process Gear Company, in Syracuse, New York. With debt under control, Willys once again expanding and in 1925 bought the F. J. Stearns Co. of Cleveland. In 1926 Willys introduced the Whippet model line that sold in the U. S. Canada, well respected in the business community, John Willys was a strong supporter of the United States Republican Party who had been an Ohio delegate to the 1916 Republican National Convention. Following the election of Herbert Hoover to the Presidency of the United States, in March 1930 Willys was appointed the first United States Ambassador to Poland, the Great Depression of the 1930s saw numerous carmakers go out of business and the Willys enterprises went into bankruptcy reorganization in 1933. The following year, John Willys and his wife of thirty-seven years divorced and he died on August 26,1935 of a stroke after recovering completely from a previous heart attack that he had in May, at his home in The Bronx, New York City. He was interred in the Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York, how John Willys Built up a $200,000 Business on a Start of $50
17.
James Michael Curley
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James Michael Curley was an American Democratic Party politician from Boston, Massachusetts. He also served a term as Governor of Massachusetts, characterized by one biographer as a disaster mitigated only by moments of farce, for its free spending. Curley was immensely popular with working-class Roman Catholic Irish Americans in Boston, among whom he grew up and he served two terms in the United States Congress, and was regularly a candidate for a variety of local and state offices for half a century. He was twice convicted of crimes, and notably served time for a felony conviction related to corruption during his last term as mayor. James Michael Curley was born in Bostons Roxbury neighborhood in 1874, Curleys father Michael left Oughterard, County Galway, Ireland, at the age of 14, and settled in Roxbury, where he met Curleys mother, Sarah Clancy, also from County Galway. Roxbury, originally an independent city, was annexed to Boston in 1868, Michael Curley died in 1884, when James was ten. James and his brother John worked to supplement the family income. His mother is responsible for instilling in him the strain of generosity that would make up a significant part of his public personality. He left school at fifteen, beginning a series of jobs, including work and delivery jobs. He sought to pass the civil service exam to become a fire fighter, Curleys mother continually intervened to turn him away from his fathers unsavory associates while working at a job scrubbing floors in offices and churches all over Boston. As Curley came of age, Bostons politics was one of growing Irish power and his entrance into politics included the traditional practice of ward politics such as knocking on doors, drumming up votes, and taking complaints. He first ran for the city council in 1897 and 1898. Curley claimed because he was at the time outside the political machine, Curley was successful in 1899, by joining the machine faction controlled by Charles I. He won election to the legislature in 1901, and rose in the Democratic organization of Ward 17 to become its chairman. He established the Tammanny Club as a platform for his political activities. Curley would recount stories of the poor and needy lining up outside the club to ask for assistance in securing work or assistance. In his first two years on the council, Curley placed roughly 700 people into what were essentially patronage positions. His reputation as an urban populist earned him the unofficial title, according to the Harvard Crimson, In his debut, Curley swept the city with a wave of reform that left his critics gasping
18.
Anthony Joseph Drexel Biddle Jr.
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Biddle was the son of millionaire Anthony Joseph Drexel Biddle, Sr. and Cordelia Rundell Bradley. He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on December 17,1897 and his father, grandson of banker Anthony Joseph Drexel and great-grandson of banker Nicholas Biddle, was an eccentric boxing fan. When he was ten years old, the younger Biddle was in a match with Bob Fitzsimmons. He graduated from St. Pauls School in Concord, New Hampshire, Biddle married Mary Lillian Duke, a tobacco heiress, on June 16,1915. In World War I he first enlisted as a private, and was promoted to rank of captain, in the 1920s he engaged in several business ventures, which were known as social successes but financial failures. For example, he managed Belgian boxer René deVos, and invested in the St. Regis Hotel, a party he held for the boxer at the hotel was marked by the loss of many bottles of fine champagne. Guests even tried to out the piano before it was retrieved. Biddle also made a deal to rent part of Central Park in New York City, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 many of his investments failed. The Casino was raided and shut down, in 1931 he and other directors of the bankrupt Sonora Products Corporation of America were sued by the Irving Trust Company. The directors were accused of diverting profits from stock sales into their own accounts, a district court dismissed the claims against the defendants, but the dismissal of Biddle and several others was reversed on appeal. He presented his credentials on September 7,1935 and it was widely suspected he was a political appointee resulting from his support of the Democratic Party and George Howard Earle III, its 1934 successful candidate for Governor of Pennsylvania. However, his social skills made him and his wife ideally suited to being a diplomat, on May 4,1937, he was promoted to Ambassador to Poland and presented his credentials in Warsaw, Poland on June 2,1937. In September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, which was a cause of World War II. After Biddles house was hit with bomb fragments, his family, after the escape, he joined the Polish government in exile in France until June 1940, when he returned to the US after France was invaded. On February 11,1941, he commissioned to the governments-in-exile of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway. Biddle arrived in London on March 14,1941, and continued as ambassador through 1943, in January 1944 Biddle resigned from the state department and joined the Army as lieutenant colonel to serve on the staff of Dwight Eisenhower. His contacts with underground movements and free military units in occupied nations provided intelligence for the planning of operation Overlord and he continued on Eisenhowers staff supervising European reconstruction after the war ended. In 1955 he resigned from the Army to become Adjutant General of the Pennsylvania National Guard, Biddle was known for being elegantly dressed
19.
Invasion of Poland
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The campaign ended on 6 October with Germany and the Soviet Union dividing and annexing the whole of Poland under the terms of the German-Soviet Frontier Treaty. German forces invaded Poland from the north, south, and west the morning after the Gleiwitz incident, as the Wehrmacht advanced, Polish forces withdrew from their forward bases of operation close to the Polish–German border to more established lines of defence to the east. After the mid-September Polish defeat in the Battle of the Bzura, Polish forces then withdrew to the southeast where they prepared for a long defence of the Romanian Bridgehead and awaited expected support and relief from France and the United Kingdom. While those two countries had pacts with Poland and had declared war on Germany on 3 September, in the end their aid to Poland was very limited. The Soviet Red Armys invasion of Eastern Poland on 17 September, in accordance with a protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Facing a second front, the Polish government concluded the defence of the Romanian Bridgehead was no longer feasible, on 6 October, following the Polish defeat at the Battle of Kock, German and Soviet forces gained full control over Poland. The success of the invasion marked the end of the Second Polish Republic, the Soviet Union incorporated its newly acquired areas into its constituent Belarusian and Ukrainian republics, and immediately started a campaign of sovietization. In the aftermath of the invasion, a collective of underground resistance formed the Polish Underground State within the territory of the former Polish state. Many of the exiles that managed to escape Poland subsequently joined the Polish Armed Forces in the West. On 30 January 1933, the Nazi Party, under its leader Adolf Hitler, as part of this long-term policy, Hitler at first pursued a policy of rapprochement with Poland, trying to improve opinion in Germany, culminating in the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact of 1934. Earlier, Hitlers foreign policy worked to weaken ties between Poland and France, and attempted to manoeuvre Poland into the Anti-Comintern Pact, forming a front against the Soviet Union. The Poles feared that their independence would eventually be threatened altogether, the so-called Polish Corridor constituted land long disputed by Poland and Germany, and inhabited by a Polish majority. The Corridor had become a part of Poland after the Treaty of Versailles, many Germans also wanted the city of Danzig and its environs to be reincorporated into Germany. Danzig was a city with a German majority. It had been separated from Germany after Versailles and made into the nominally independent Free City of Danzig, the series of border violations, which are unbearable to a great power, prove that the Poles no longer are willing to respect the German frontier. Poland participated with Germany in the partition of Czechoslovakia that followed the Munich Agreement and it coerced Czechoslovakia to surrender the region of Český Těšín by issuing an ultimatum to that effect on 30 September 1938, which was accepted by Czechoslovakia on 1 October. This region had a Polish majority and had been disputed between Czechoslovakia and Poland in the aftermath of World War I, the Polish annexation of Slovak territory later served as the justification for the Slovak state to join the German invasion. Poland rejected this proposal, fearing that after accepting these demands, it would become subject to the will of Germany
20.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
21.
Polish government-in-exile
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Only after the end of Communist rule in Poland did the government-in-exile formally pass on its responsibilities to the new government of the Third Polish Republic in December 1990. The government-in-exile was based in France during 1939 and 1940, first in Paris, from 1940, following the Fall of France, the government moved to London, and remained in the United Kingdom until its dissolution in 1990. Should the Presidents successor assume office, the term of his office shall expire at the end of three months after the conclusion of peace and it was not until 29th or 30th September 1939 that Mościcki resigned. Raczkiewicz, who was already in Paris, immediately took his constitutional oath at the Polish Embassy and he then appointed General Władysław Sikorski to be Prime Minister and, following Edward Rydz-Śmigłys stepping down, made Sikorski Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. Most of the Polish Navy escaped to Britain, and tens of thousands of Polish soldiers and airmen escaped through Hungary, Polish citizens held captive in Soviet camps were released under the Sikorski–Mayski Agreement to form military units that would fight Nazi Germany under Allied command. Berlings Army formed in the Soviet Union in 1944 fought alongside, even after the fall of Poland, Poland remained the third strongest Allied belligerent, after France and Britain. The Polish government in exile, based first in Paris, then in Angers, France, escaping from France the government relocated to London, it was recognized by all the Allied governments. The amnesty allowed the Poles to create eight military divisions known as the Anders Army and they were evacuated to Iran and the Middle East, where they were desperately needed by the British, hard pressed by Rommels Afrika Korps. These Polish units formed the basis for the Polish II Corps, led by General Władysław Anders and it was also the first official document singling out the sufferings of European Jews as Jews and not only as citizens of their respective countries of origin. The note of 10 december 1942 and the Polish Governmnent efforts triggered the Declaration of the Allied Nations of 17 December 1942, the Soviet government said that the Germans had fabricated the discovery. The other Allied governments, for reasons, formally accepted this. Stalin then severed relations with the Polish government in exile, since it was clear that it would be the Soviet Union, not the western Allies, who would liberate Poland from the Germans, this breach had fateful consequences for Poland. In an unfortunate coincidence, Sikorski, widely regarded as the most capable of the Polish exile leaders, was killed in an air crash at Gibraltar in July 1943 and he was succeeded as head of the Polish government in exile by Stanisław Mikołajczyk. During 1943 and 1944, the Allied leaders, particularly Winston Churchill, but these efforts broke down over several matters. Mikołajczyk, however, refused to compromise on the question of Polands sovereignty over her prewar eastern territories, a third matter was Mikołajczyks insistence that Stalin not set up a Communist government in postwar Poland. Mikołajczyk and his colleagues in the Polish government-in-exile insisted on making a stand in the defense of Polands pre-1939 eastern border as a basis for the future Polish-Soviet border. However, this was a position that could not be defended in practice – Stalin was in occupation of the territory in question, many Polish exiles opposed this action, believing that this government was a façade for the establishment of Communist rule in Poland. This view was proven correct in 1947, when the Communist-dominated Democratic Bloc won a blatantly rigged election
22.
United States Ambassador to Belgium
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In 1832, shortly after the creation of the Kingdom of Belgium, the United States established diplomatic relations. Since that time, a line of distinguished envoys have represented American interests in Belgium. These diplomats included men and women whose career paths would lead them to become Secretary of State, Secretary of Commerce, future envoys found themselves working through the Marshall Plan, the foundation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and joint efforts with the European Union. In 1944, when Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Charles W. Sawyer to Ambassador to Belgium he remarked What could be more interesting, than the carrefour of Europe in the closing days of the war. And during the nineteen sixties another well respected envoy John Eisenhower. Fair 1858–1861 Henry Shelton Sanford 1861–1869 Joseph Russell Jones 1869–1875 Ayres Phillips Merrill 1876–1877 William C, korologos 2004–2007 Sam Fox 2007–2009 Wayne Bush 2009 Howard W. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm. United States Department of State, Chiefs of Mission for Belgium United States Department of State, Belgium United States Embassy in Brussels
23.
United States Ambassador to Czechoslovakia
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Following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1918 at the end of World War I, the Czechs, and Slovaks united to form the new nation of Czechoslovakia. The United States recognized Czechoslovakia and commissioned its first ambassador on April 23,1919, Germany invaded Czechoslovakia in March 1939, establishing a German “protectorate. ”By this time, Slovakia had already declared independence and had become a puppet state of Germany. German forces occupied Prague on March 15,1939, the U. S. embassy was closed on March 21,1939 and the ambassador left his post on April 6,1939. During World War II the U. S. maintained diplomatic relations with the government-in-exile of Czechoslovakia in London, Ambassador Anthony J. Biddle, Jr. established an embassy in London on September 17,1941 and the embassy was maintained until the end of the war. Following the war the embassy in Prague was reopened on May 29,1945, in June 1992, the Slovak parliament voted to declare sovereignty and the Czech-Slovak federation dissolved peacefully on January 1,1993. The United States recognized the Czech Republic and Slovakia as independent nations, the previous ambassador to Czechoslovakia, Adrian A. Basora, continued as the ambassador to the Czech Republic. Paul Hacker, the incumbent U. S. consul general, served as the first chargé daffaires of the U. S. Embassy in Slovakia, followed by Eleanor Sutter. In November 1993, Theodore E. Russell, former deputy chief of mission in Prague, the U. S. opened an embassy in London and maintained diplomatic relations with the government-in-exile of Czechoslovakia during the war. This required a new commission for the ambassador, Anthony J. Biddle, Jr. Rudolph E. Schoenfeld was serving as chargé daffaires ad interim when the embassy was closed. Note, The embassy in Prague was re-established on May 29,1945, for later ambassadors, see United States Ambassador to the Czech Republic and United States Ambassador to Slovakia. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm
24.
United States Ambassador to Greece
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List of ambassadors from the United States to Greece. The United States maintained diplomatic relations with the government-in-exile of Greece in London, Ambassador MacVeagh reopened the embassy on October 27,1944. Legation was raised to Embassy status on September 29,1942 and this action also would promote Minister Biddle to the rank of Ambassador, which required a new appointment. The appointment was made by President Roosevelt and confirmed by the Senate. Ambassador Biddle presented his credentials to the government of Greece on October 30,1942. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm, United States Department of State, Chiefs of Mission for Greece United States Department of State, Greece United States Embassy in Athens
25.
United States Ambassador to Luxembourg
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The United States Ambassador to Luxembourg oversees the U. S. Embassy in that country. Under the ambassadors direction, the embassy staff provides services, including visas for visitors to the United States. The United States has maintained relations with Luxembourg since 1903. From 1903 to 1923 the Ambassador to the Netherlands served concurrently as Ambassador to Luxembourg, from 1923 until World War II the Ambassador to Belgium also served as Ambassador to Luxembourg. During World War II the United States maintained diplomatic relations with the Luxembourg government in exile, after World War II, the United States returned to appointing the Ambassador to Belgium concurrently as the Ambassador to Luxembourg. Since 1956 the United States Ambassador to Luxembourg has been appointed separately from the Ambassador to the Netherlands, Luxembourg – United States relations Foreign relations of Luxembourg Ambassadors of the United States The Political Graveyard, Luxembourg. United States Department of State, Chiefs of Mission for Luxembourg United States Department of State, Luxembourg United States Embassy in Luxembourg
26.
United States Ambassador to the Netherlands
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The United States diplomatic mission to the Netherlands consists of the embassy located in The Hague and a consular office located in Amsterdam. In 1782, John Adams was appointed Americas first Minister Plenipotentiary to Holland and these loans from the United Provinces, which have been called the Marshall Plan in reverse, were the first the new government received. The American Embassy building in The Hague opened on July 4,1959 and it was designed by architect Marcel Breuer. Notable Americans such as former Presidents Adams and John Quincy Adams, General Hugh Ewing, besides the embassy, a U. S. consulate-general is located on Curaçao which is responsible for the territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Caribbean. This consulate is not part of the U. S. diplomatic mission to the Netherlands. On July 18,2013, President Obama nominated Timothy M. Broas to become the next U. S. ambassador to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, succeeding Fay Hartog-Levin, Broas, an attorney and philanthropist, was a major donor to President Obamas campaigns. He was first nominated in April 2012, but withdrew his name in June after being arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol and he subsequently plead guilty to the reduced charge of driving while impaired and was placed on probation. Broas was finally appointed in March 2014. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm, United States Department of State, Chiefs of Mission for the Netherlands United States Department of State, Netherlands United States Embassy in The Hague
27.
United States Ambassador to Norway
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The United States Ambassador to Norway is the official representative of the President and the Government of the United States of America to the King and Government of Norway. From 1814 to 1905, Sweden and Norway were in a personal union, although each country was fully sovereign, they had a common foreign policy and diplomatic service. The United States Ambassador to Sweden thus was the US representative to Norway as well as Sweden, in 1905 Sweden and Norway peacefully separated and Norway continued to be an independent constitutional monarchy. On June 22,1906, Herbert H. D. Peirce was appointed to be the first ambassador of the US appointed specifically solely for Norway, on August 6,1906, the embassy in Stockholm ceased all functions related to Norway. Peirce presented his credentials to the minister of Norway on August 13,1906. Jim DeHart assumed duties as Chargé d’Affaires ad interim on January 12,2017 at the Embassy. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm, United States Department of State, Chiefs of Mission for Norway United States Department of State, Norway United States Embassy in Oslo
28.
United States Ambassador to Yugoslavia
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The nation of Yugoslavia was formed on December 1,1918 as a result of the realignment of nations and national boundaries in Europe in the aftermath of World War I. The nation was first named the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, the kingdom occupied the area in the Balkans comprising the present-day states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Republic of Macedonia, and most of present-day Slovenia and Croatia. The United States recognized the newly formed nation and commissioned its first envoy to the kingdom on July 17,1919, previously the USA had had an envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary who was commissioned to Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia while resident in Bucharest, Romania. Towards the end of the 1930s, the relations between Belgrade and Washington were raised from ministerial to the ambassadorial level. At the beginning of World War II, the government of Yugoslavia fled Belgrade and formed a government in exile in London, during that time the U. S. ambassadors continued to represent the United States in London and Cairo. The embassy was transferred back to Belgrade in 1945, on May 21,1992, the United States announced that it did not recognize the Federal Republic. The ambassador had left Belgrade one week earlier, a series of chargés d’affaires represented the U. S. government until 1999, when the embassy was closed. In 2001 the United States recognized the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the U. S. ambassador continued in his post as the ambassador to Serbia and Montenegro. For ambassadors to Serbia before and after Yugoslavia, see United States Ambassador to Serbia, the embassy was closed March 23,1999. Miles and the last Embassy personnel left March 24, and NATO armed forces began military action against Serbia-Montenegro that evening, note, The United States again recognized the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 2001 and posted an ambassador to that nation. Hereafter ambassadors in Belgrade were commissioned to Serbia and Montenegro and then to Serbia, for subsequent ambassadors in Belgrade, see United States Ambassador to Serbia. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm
29.
Provisional Government of National Unity
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The Provisional Government of National Unity was a government formed by a decree of the State National Council on 28 June 1945. It was created as a government between the Polish Communists and Stanisław Mikołajczyks faction. It followed the understandings reached by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union during the Yalta Conference, the TRJN was a result of the negotiations held in Moscow between the Polish Communists, the Soviet Union, and Stanisław Mikołajczyks faction from 17 June to 21 June. The Polish government-in-exile did not recognize the TRJN, a few of its members, including the former Prime Minister of Poland Stanisław Mikołajczyk, decided to trust the Soviets and enter into negotiations with them, only to be betrayed later. Mikołajczyks main power base was the Polish Peoples Party, a centrist organization and continuation of the prewar Polish agrarian movement, the Communists had no intention of giving the opposition any real power, or carrying out the promised free and fair elections. The members of the opposition that received government positions were kept in check by their deputies and staff, loyal to the Communists, so they had little real power. On 21 June, General Leopold Okulicki, former Commander of the Polish Home Army was sentenced to 10 years of imprisonment in Moscow for the sabotage against the Soviet Army. Ten other Poles were given similar sentences in the staged Trial of the Sixteen, on 24 December 1946, Okulicki died in Butyrka prison. The TRJN was already bound by the Treaty of Friendship, Mutual Help and Cooperation signed by its predecessor and this treaty formed the basis for Soviet interference in Polands internal politics for the next 40 years. It was soon recognized by the other Allies, France. It was not recognized by the Vatican, on 6 July, while the Polish government-in-exile maintained its existence, both the United States and the United Kingdom formally withdrew the recognition of it. On 10 July, Osóbka-Morawski announced the expulsion of all Germans from Poland, from 17 July to 2 August, a delegation from the TRJN attended the 1945 Potsdam Conference. On 16 August, a Soviet-Polish border agreement was signed in Moscow, before the end of August, Poland agreed to cede the eastern provinces to the Soviet Union and officially recognized the eastern border based on a slightly modified Curzon line. On 16 October, delegates of the TRJN signed the United Nations Charter, the free and fair elections promised by the TRJN were postponed until the Communists were sure they could control the election process. In the meantime, they increased repressions of opposition members, who were bribed, threatened, delegalised or even murdered, in the words of Gomułka, the goal of the communists was to be the hegemon of the nation and nothing would stop them. On 30 June 1946, they tested their control during the 3xTAK referendum, the results of which were falsified, two great reforms carried out by TRJN were the nationalization decree and Three-Year Plan, both created in 1946. The nationalization decree gave the government control over every enterprise which employed more than 50 people, by the end of the year, cyrankiewiczs government was nominated by the new parliament, Sejm Ustawodawczy, which replaced the previously existing Krajowa Rada Narodowa
30.
Arthur Bliss Lane
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Arthur Bliss Lane was a United States diplomat who served in Latin America and Europe. Lane was born in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, New York on June 16,1894, after graduating in 1916, he became private secretary to the U. S. Ambassador to Italy in Rome. In 1919-1920 he was 2nd secretary in the U. S. embassy to Poland, in 1921-1922, he was 2nd secretary in London. During this time he was secretary to the U. S. delegation to the 1921 Conference of Ambassadors in Paris and he then went to Berne, Switzerland in 1922. From 1923 to 1925 he worked at the U. S. State Department in Washington, while serving there he met with General Somoza while the President of Nicaragua Sacasa held talks with rebel leader Augusto César Sandino. Sandino called for the National Guard run by Somoza to be disbanded, Sandino was murdered by Guardsmen after the talks. The U. S. claimed that Lane had counseled Somoza to be patient, Lane spent the next two years trying to reconcile Somoza and Sacasa, leaving the country before the next election as the U. S. adopted a more non-interventionist policy. He was next U. S. minister to Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania from 1936 to 1937, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and Costa Rica in 1941–1942. He was then appointed Ambassador to Colombia, and subsequently to Poland from 1944 to 1947, first to the Polish government in exile in London and later in Warsaw to the post-war government. In that book he described what he considered the betrayal of Poland by the Western Allies, hence the title, the book was translated into Polish and published in the United States, and later disseminated by an underground samizdat publishing house in Poland in the 1980s. According to Lane, the U. S. and Britain at the Tehran Conference agreed to the dismemberment of eastern Poland and he considered this act a treacherous breach of the United States Constitution, since Roosevelt never reported his decision to the Senate. The Yalta Conference was the death blow to Polands hopes for independence and for a democratic form of government. He would also campaign for Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower in the 1952 presidential election, in opposition to his former boss. After his death, Lanes papers were archived in Yale Universitys Sterling Memorial Library, a film clip Longines Chronoscope with Arthur Bliss Lane is available at the Internet Archive
31.
Jacob D. Beam
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Jacob Dyneley Beam was an American diplomat. Beam was born in Princeton, New Jersey and his father was a German professor at Princeton University, and the younger Beam earned a bachelors degree in 1929 from Princeton. He then joined the United States Foreign Service and his first assignment was in Geneva, where he monitored the League of Nations and served as vice counsel in Geneva from 1931 to 1934. He then moved to Berlin and served as secretary to the United States Embassy from 1934 to 1940. During World War II, he served as secretary of the embassy in London. Beam was counselor to the U. S. Embassy in Indonesia from 1949 to 1951 and he became United States Ambassador to Poland from 1957-61. From 1966 to 1969 he served as Ambassador to Czechoslovakia and he was present at the Prague Spring there, then to the Soviet Union from 1969 to 1973. Beam died in Rockville, Maryland of a stroke and his son is journalist Alex Beam. Beam paper at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University Oral History Interview with Jacob D
32.
John A. Gronouski
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Gronouski was born in Dunbar, Wisconsin, the son of Mary and John Austin Gronouski. He was of Polish and Irish descent and he graduated from the University of Wisconsin in 1942, and he joined the military during World War II. Gronouski served as a navigator in the Air Force until October 1945, Gronouski married the former Mary Louise Metz on January 24,1948. They had two daughters, Stacy Ann Jennings and Julia Kay Glieberman and he earned an M. A. in 1947 and a Ph. D. in 1955, both from the University of Wisconsin. In 1952, he ran for the United States Senate against Joseph McCarthy, in 1959, Gronouski joined the Wisconsin Department of Revenue and was named the executive director of the Revenue Survey Commission. In 1960, he became the Wisconsin state commissioner of taxation, in 1963 Gronouski was appointed Postmaster General, the first Polish-American Cabinet officer. As Postmaster General, Gronouski promoted the original five-digit zip code system, after he left the Cabinet on November 2,1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed him to be Ambassador to Poland. After President Richard M. Nixon took office in 1969, Gronouski became founding dean of the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas at Austin, Gronouski served as dean until 1974. He served as a member of Eisenhower Commission and as the Chairman of the Board for International Broadcasting during the Carter administration, in retirement, Gronouski lived in Green Bay, Wisconsin, where he died on January 7,1996. He is interred in Allouez Catholic Cemetery and Chapel Mausoleum in Green Bay, Wisconsin
33.
Walter J. Stoessel Jr.
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Walter John Stoessel Jr. was an American diplomat. Born in Manhattan, Kansas, Stoessel was the son of Katherine and Walter John Stoessel Sr. paternal side of his family had migrated to US from Western Germany in the middle of 19th century. He graduated from Stanford University in 1941 and later undertook studies at Columbia University. In 1981, while ambassador to West Germany, he joined the delegation, with Walter Mondale, in 1982, President Ronald Reagan appointed Stoessel as the United States Deputy Secretary of State. During his term he served briefly as acting Secretary of State between the tenures of Alexander M. Haig and George P. Shultz and he died in Washington, D. C. of leukemia and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery. The U. S. Department of State awards a Walter J. Stoessel Award for Distinguished Diplomatic Service in his honor, Walter J. Stoessel Jr. at Find a Grave Walter Stoessel, NNDB
34.
William E. Schaufele Jr.
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William E. Schaufele, Jr. was an American diplomat and official at the United States Department of State. Schaufele was born in Lakewood, Ohio, the son of William Elias Schaufele and he briefly attended Yale University in 1942-43, before enlisting in the United States Army in March 1943. During World War II, he served in the 10th Armored Division, a part of the Third United States Army and he participated in the Siege of Bastogne, a part of the larger Battle of the Bulge. Following the war, Schaufele resumed his studies at Yale, graduating in 1948 with a degree in Government. He then enrolled in the Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs, Schaufele returned to the field in 1959, serving as a political/labor officer in Casablanca until 1963. On September 29,1969, President Richard Nixon appointed Schaufele as United States Ambassador to Upper Volta, Nixon then named Ambassador Schaufele as the U. S. s representative to the United Nations Security Council. On December 19,1975, President Gerald Ford appointed Schaufele as Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, President Jimmy Carter appointed Schaufele United States Ambassador to Poland on February 3,1978. In that capacity, he was present in Poland for the election of Carol Cardinal Wojtila, Archbishop of Kraków, as Pope John Paul II, Schaufele retired in 1980 with the rank of career minister. In retirement, he served as president of the Foreign Policy Association until 1985
35.
Daniel Fried
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Daniel Fried is a former senior career diplomat of the United States who carried the rank of Ambassador and last served as Coordinator for Sanctions Policy. He served as a Special Envoy to facilitate the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp located in Cuba until January 2013, Frieds Guantanamo office was shut down on January 28,2013. Previously, he was the top U. S. diplomat in Europe, Fried received a B. A. magna cum laude from Cornell University in 1974. After earning a degree from the School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University in 1977. He was employed in the Economic Bureau of the State Department from 1977 to 1979, Ambassador Fried was Polish Desk Officer at the State Department from 1987 to 1989 as democracy returned to Poland and Central Europe. He served as Political Counselor in the U. S. Embassy in Warsaw from 1990 to 1993, between 1993 and 1997 he was on the staff of the National Security Council, ultimately serving as Special Assistant to President Bill Clinton. While working at the White House, Fried was active in designing U. S. policy on Euro-Atlantic security, including NATO enlargement, Fried served as Special Envoy for Closure of the Guantanamo Detainee Facility starting on May 15,2009. As Special Envoy, Fried sat on a committee chaired by Attorney General Eric Holder that was to review the remaining captives cases. His particular mandate was to persuade European countries as well as Yemen to accept for resettlement some of the more than 200 detainees, however, in June 2009, Fried expressed confidence that the facility could be closed by January 23,2010. However, he conceded in November 2009 that the deadline would be pushed back, according to Michelle Shephard, writing in the Toronto Star, Fried has a staff of just four, Tony Ricci, Mike Williams, Karen Sasahara and Brock Johnson. Ricci, his deputy, is a retired Colonel, Williams is a lawyer, Sasahara is another diplomat, and Johnson was an Obama campaign worker. During a trip to Europe in September 2009, Fried described the remaining Guantanamo in this way, Some qualify as the worst of the worst, during his tenure as the Guantanamo envoy approximately fifty captives were repatriated or sent to safe third countries. On January 28,2013 Charlie Savage, writing in the New York Times reported that Fried would be reassigned, No senior official in President Obama’s second term will succeed Mr. Fried. His duties would be added to those of the counsel in the State Department. Savage speculated that the termination of Frieds office was a sign that the Obama administration did not see closure of the prison as realistic. In that post, Fried helped build and maintain relationships with European nations and international organizations such as the European Union. From January 2001 to May 2005, Fried served in a capacity to U. S. President George W. Bush as Special Assistant to President. Between May 2000 and January 2001, Fried was Principal Deputy Special Adviser to the Secretary of State for the New Independent States and he was Ambassador to Poland from November 1997 until May 2000
36.
Christopher R. Hill
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Christopher Robert Hill is an American diplomat who served as the U. S. Ambassador to Iraq from 2009–2010. He succeeded Ryan Crocker and preceded James Jeffrey, and is an advisor with Albright Stonebridge Group, a strategic advisory firm. Hills father was a diplomat in the Foreign Service and as a child Hill traveled with the family to many countries. After American diplomats were expelled from Haiti, Hills family moved to Little Compton, Rhode Island where Hill attended Moses Brown School in Providence, Rhode Island and he then went on to study at Bowdoin College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics in 1974. Hill was a Peace Corps volunteer in Cameroon from 1974 to 1976, Hill credits his work with the Peace Corps for teaching him his first lessons in diplomacy. Hill said the lesson was that When somethings happened, its happened for a reason, but dont necessarily think you can change it. Hill took the Foreign Service exam while he was serving as a Peace Corps volunteer in Cameroon, Hill received a masters degree from the Naval War College in 1994. He speaks Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, and Albanian, Hill joined the State Department in 1977. Hill served as Secretary for Economic Affairs at the Embassy of the United States in Seoul from 1983 to 1985. When he returned to Korea in 2004 as Ambassador, he began by saying I was here for three years in the 1980s, one has to be a little careful about drawing on too much experience from so long ago. So, even though Ill certainly draw on my experience from the 1980s, while on a fellowship with the American Political Science Association, Hill served as a member of the staff of Congressman Stephen Solarz. In November 2006 President George W. Bush nominated Hill for the grade of career minister, the elite title is one step below career ambassador. Hill was part of the team negotiated the Bosnia peace settlement. While working on Balkan issues, Hill worked closely with Richard Holbrooke, Holbrooke described Hill as brilliant, fearless and argumentative in his book on the Dayton negotiations and said that Hill manages to be both very cool and very passionate. The combination, Holbrooke said, enhances Hills extremely good negotiating skills, Hill said the negotiations with the Bosnians, Serbs and Croats were successful because all the parties were all ready to settle. Hill had a failure as special envoy to Kosovo because the Serbs were not ready to relinquish their stranglehold on Kosovo. Like a lot of things in life, you’ve got to do everything you can do Hill said, to ensure that you have left no stone unturned, that you have really tried. On February 14,2005, Hill was named as the Head of the U. S. delegation to the six-party talks aimed at resolving the North Korean nuclear crisis and we want to get the six-party process moving, Mr. Hill said
37.
Victor Ashe
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Victor Henderson Ashe II is the former United States Ambassador to Poland. From 1987 to 2003, he was mayor of Knoxville, Tennessee, Ambassador Ashe concluded his service as Ambassador to Poland on September 26,2009. Ashe was born in Knoxville, Tennessee, where he attended public school and he attended the Groton School in Groton, Massachusetts and subsequently the Hotchkiss School in Lakeville, Connecticut. He graduated from Yale University in 1967 with a BA in history, at Yale, Ashe was a member of the Skull and Bones society, as was George W. Bush. In 1974 he earned his law degree from the University of Tennessee College of Law, before becoming an elected official, Ashe worked as an intern for Congressman Bill Brock, and as a staff assistant for Senator Howard Baker. In 1968 Ashe was elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives, after serving three terms in the State House, Ashe won the August 1974 Republican primary for a Tennessee Senate seat representing Knox County, Tennessee. The Knox County GOP then nominated his mother, Martha Ashe and she was elected by the voters with the promise to resign in January 1975 when Ashe turned 30. Upon her resignation the Knox County Commission appointed Victor Ashe to replace her, he was elected to the position. From 1967 to 1973, during the Vietnam War, Ashe was a member of the United States Marine Corps Air Reserves and he was also the Executive Director of the Americans Outdoors Commission from 1985 until 1987. He ran unsuccessfully for the U. S. Senate in 1984 against future Vice President Al Gore, a third candidate in that race, Ed McAteer of Memphis, had moved from Republican to Independent ranks and five years earlier had founded the Christian right Religious Roundtable. Ashe was elected to be the mayor of Knoxville in November 1987 and he served 16 years as mayor, the longest term in the city’s history. As mayor, Ashe led several initiatives to improve Knoxville’s civic and these initiatives focused on such things as waterfront development along the Tennessee River and the building of a convention center to attract tourism and business. The latter was a cause for controversy, with many saying that the city of Knoxville did not offer enough amenities to attract would-be events or shows to a convention center. Other initiatives included downtown redevelopment and sign and billboard control, Ashe stressed diversity within his administration, noting when he left office the growth of minorities and women on commissions and boards during his time as mayor. At the time, hostility in the community toward the police department was extremely high due to these deaths. Ashe circumvented the council and established the committee by executive order, three years later, the council unanimously ratified the order, defusing growing protests for recall elections for Ashe and other councilors. As mayor, Ashe favored preserving buildings that had possible historic value, Ashe was a strong supporter of parkland in the city, and during his tenure, parkland in Knoxville was increased from 700 to 1,700 acres and 30 miles of greenway was added. One of the issues Ashe engaged in when he was appointed ambassador to Poland was the difficulty Poles have getting work and tourist visas for the United States
38.
Lee A. Feinstein
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Lee Andrew Feinstein is a former senior official in the Obama and Clinton administrations, was the United States ambassador to Poland from 2009 to 2012. Born to a Jewish family, Feinstein graduated from Georgetown University Law Center and he also holds a Master of Arts in political science from the City University of New York, and an A. B. from Vassar College. Feinstein was Assistant Director for Research at the Arms Control Association in Washington from 1989 to 1994 before joining the Clinton administration in February 1994, Feinstein joined the Carnegie Endowment Non-Proliferation Project as a visiting scholar in April 2001. He also served as co-director of CFRs nonpartisan Enhancing U. S, leadership at the United Nations Independent Task Force. Feinstein was also an advisor to the congressionally mandated Task Force on the United Nations, chaired by former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, in 2008, Feinstein joined the Brookings Institution as Visiting Fellow in Foreign Policy Studies. From 2007 to 2008 he was national security director for the Hillary Clinton presidential campaign and was later an outside foreign policy advisor to the Barack Obama campaign. Feinstein went on leave from the Brookings Institution in 2009 to become Senior Advisor in the Office of the Secretary under Secretary Clinton in the new administration of President Barack Obama, Feinstein is admitted to the bars of New York and Washington, D. C. He is a member of the Board of Trustees of The Kosciuszko Foundation in New York and he is also a member of the international commission to build a Memorial to Polands Righteous at the site of the Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw. On July 17,2009, President Obama announced that he intended to nominate Feinstein as Ambassador to Poland, feinsteins appointment was notable in that he is viewed as a Clinton loyalist, and the Foreign Policy blog had earlier speculated the post would go to Obama advisor Mark Brzezinski. Feinstein was formally nominated on July 20,2009 and was confirmed by the Senate on September 22,2009 by unanimous consent, on October 20,2009, Ambassador Feinstein presented his credentials to the President of Poland, Lech Kaczyński. During his tenure, Feinstein signed an agreement to establish a U. S. Air Force aviation detachment in Poland and he also signed an agreement, witnessed by Secretary Clinton, to establish missile defenses in Poland under the NATO Phased Adaptive Approach to missile defense. Feinstein co-sponsored with Polish Foreign Minister Radoslaw Sikorski an international conference on the development of Polands natural gas resources. Feinstein served as ambassador in Poland from October 2009 to October 2012, announcing in July 2012, Feinstein has written widely on foreign policy and national security. He is the author of Means to an End, U. S, Interest and the International Criminal Court with Tod Lindberg of the Hoover Institution. Writing in Foreign Affairs, Princeton University Professor John Ikenberry said, two experienced policy intellectuals, one liberal, one conservative, have come together to find common ground on a controversial foreign policy issue. Feinstein is the author of articles, book chapters and op-eds. His writings include “UN Divided” in the National Interest and “A Duty to Prevent and his book chapters include, “Darfur and Beyond, What Is Needed to Prevent Mass Atrocities” in Beyond Humanitarianism and “Beyond Words, U. S. Policy and the Responsibility to Protect” in The Responsibility to Protect, david Dreier and Rep. Lee Hamilton
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of State website http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index.htm (Background Notes).
This article incorporates 