1.
Theatre of ancient Greece
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The ancient Greek drama, is a theatrical culture that flourished in ancient Greece from c.700 BC. Tragedy, comedy, and the play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a cultural identity. The word τραγῳδία, from which the tragedy is derived, is a compound of two Greek words, τράγος or goat and ᾠδή meaning song, from ἀείδειν, to sing. This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults and it is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy. The classical Greeks valued the power of word, and it was their main method of communication. Bahn and Bahn write, To Greeks the spoken word was a living thing, socrates himself believed that once something was written down, it lost its ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece. Greek tragedy as we know it was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the exarchon, or leader, of the dithyrambs performed in and around Attica, especially at the rural Dionysia. By Thespis time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots, under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet Arion, it had become a narrative, ballad-like genre. Thus, Thespiss true contribution to drama is unclear at best, the dramatic performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the City Dionysia. This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica, the festival was created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC, we do know the names of three competitors besides Thespis, Choerilus, Pratinas, and Phrynichus, each is credited with different innovations in the field. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC and he produced tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the golden age such as the Danaids, Phoenician Women and Alcestis. He was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject – his Fall of Miletus, produced in 493-2 and he is also thought to be the first to use female characters. This century is regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The centre-piece of the annual Dionysia, which took place once in winter, each submitted three tragedies, plus a satyr play. Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submitted a comedy, aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added the second actor, and that Sophocles introduced the third
2.
Aeschylus
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Aeschylus was an ancient Greek tragedian. He is often described as the father of tragedy, academics knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier tragedies is largely based on inferences from his surviving plays. According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in theater allowing conflict among them, fragments of some other plays have survived in quotes and more continue to be discovered on Egyptian papyrus, often giving us surprising insights into his work. He was probably the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy, at least one of his plays was influenced by the Persians second invasion of Greece. This work, The Persians, is the surviving classical Greek tragedy concerned with contemporary events. Despite this, Aeschylus work – particularly the Oresteia – is generally acclaimed by modern critics and scholars. As soon as he woke from the dream, the young Aeschylus began to write a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499 BC and he won his first victory at the City Dionysia in 484 BC. In 510 BC, when Aeschylus was 15 years old, Cleomenes I expelled the sons of Peisistratus from Athens, Cleisthenes reforms included a system of registration that emphasized the importance of the deme over family tradition. In the last decade of the 6th century, Aeschylus and his family were living in the deme of Eleusis, the Persian Wars played a large role in the playwrights life and career. In 490 BC, Aeschylus and his brother Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against the army of Darius I of Persia at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians emerged triumphant, a victory celebrated across the city-states of Greece, Cynegeirus, however, died in the battle, receiving a mortal wound while trying to prevent a Persian ship retreating from the shore, for which his countrymen extolled him as a hero. In 480, Aeschylus was called into service again, this time against Xerxes Is invading forces at the Battle of Salamis. Ion of Chios was a witness for Aeschyluss war record and his contribution in Salamis, Salamis holds a prominent place in The Persians, his oldest surviving play, which was performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia. Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, initiates gained secret knowledge through these rites, likely concerning the afterlife. Firm details of specific rites are sparse, as members were sworn under the penalty of not to reveal anything about the Mysteries to non-initiates. Nevertheless, according to Aristotle, Aeschylus was accused of revealing some of the secrets on stage. Other sources claim that a mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot. Heracleides of Pontus asserts that the tried to stone Aeschylus
3.
The Persians
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The Persians is an ancient Greek tragedy written during the Classical period of Ancient Greece by the Greek tragedian Aeschylus. The first play in the trilogy was called Phineus, it dealt with Jason. In The Persians, Xerxes invites the gods enmity for his expedition against Greece in 480/79 BCE. Given Aeschylus’ propensity for writing connected trilogies, the theme of divine retribution may connect the three, Aeschylus himself had fought the Persians at Marathon. He may even have fought at Salamis, just eight years before the play was performed, the satyr play following the trilogy was Prometheus Pyrkaeus, translated as either Prometheus the Fire-lighter or Prometheus the Fire-kindler, which comically portrayed the titan’s theft of fire. Another fragment from Prometheus Pyrkaeus was translated by Herbert Weir Smyth as And do thou guard thee well lest a blast strike thy face, for it is sharp, expressing her anxiety and unease, Atossa narrates what is probably the first dream sequence in European theatre. This is a beginning for a tragedy by Aeschylus, normally the chorus would not appear until slightly later, after a speech by a minor character. An exhausted messenger arrives, who offers a description of the Battle of Salamis. He tells of the Persian defeat, the names of the Persian generals who have killed. The climax of the speech is his rendition of the battle cry of the Greeks as they charged, On. Set free / Your fatherland, set free your children, wives, / Places of your ancestral gods, at the tomb of her dead husband Darius, Atossa asks the chorus to summon his ghost, Some remedy he knows, perhaps, / Knows ruins cure they say. On learning of the Persian defeat, Darius condemns the hubris behind his son’s decision to invade Greece and he particularly rebukes an impious Xerxes’ decision to build a bridge over the Hellespont to expedite the Persian army’s advance. Xerxes finally arrives, dressed in robes and reeling from his crushing defeat. The rest of the consists of the king alone with the chorus engaged in a lyrical kommós that laments the enormity of Persia’s defeat. Aeschylus was not the first to write a play about the Persians—his older contemporary Phrynichus wrote two plays about them, the second, Phoenician Women, treated the same historical event as Aeschylus’ Persians. Neither of Phrynichus plays have survived, interpretations of Persians either read the play as sympathetic toward the defeated Persians or else as a celebration of Greek victory within the context of an ongoing war. The celebratory school argues that the play is part of a culture that would find it difficult to sympathize with its hated barbarian enemy during a time of war. During the play, Xerxes calls his pains a joy to my enemies, according to a scholium at Aristophanes Frogs 1028, Hiero of Syracuse at some point invited Aeschylus to reproduce The Persians in Sicily
4.
Seven Against Thebes
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Seven Against Thebes is the third play in an Oedipus-themed trilogy produced by Aeschylus in 467 BC. The trilogy is sometimes referred to as the Oedipodea and it concerns the battle between an Argive army led by Polynices and the army of Thebes led by Eteocles and his supporters. The trilogy won the first prize at the City Dionysia, the trilogys first two plays, Laius and Oedipus, as well as the satyr play Sphinx, are no longer extant. When Oedipus, King of Thebes, realized he had married his own mother and had two sons and two daughters with her, he blinded himself and cursed his sons to divide their inheritance by the sword. The two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, in order to avoid bloodshed, agreed to rule Thebes in alternate years, after the first year, Eteocles refused to step down, leading Polynices to raise an army of Argives to take Thebes by force. This is where Aeschylus tragedy starts, dialogues show aspects of Eteocles character. There is also a description of each of the seven captains that lead the Argive army against the seven gates of the city of Thebes as well as the devices on their respective shields. Eteocles, in turn, announces which Theban commanders he will send against each Argive attacker, finally, the commander of the troops before the seventh gate is revealed to be Polynices, the brother of the king. Then Eteocles remembers and refers to the curse of their father Oedipus, Eteocles resolves to meet and fight his brother in person before the seventh gate and exits. Following a choral ode, a messenger enters, announcing that the attackers have been repelled and their bodies are brought on stage, and the chorus mourns them. Due to the popularity of Sophocles play Antigone, the ending of Seven against Thebes was rewritten about fifty years after Aeschylus death, others appear as stock figures to fill out the list, Burkert remarks. The city is saved when the brothers simultaneously run each other through, the mythic theme passed into Etruscan culture, a fifth-century bronze mirrorback is inscribed with Fulnice and Evtucle running at one another with drawn swords. The Seven Against Thebes were Adrastus Amphiaraus Capaneus Hippomedon Parthenopeus Polynices Tydeus Allies, some sources, however, state that Eteoclus and Mecisteus were in fact two of the seven, and that Tydeus and Polynices were allies. This is because both Tydeus and Polynices were foreigners, however, Polynices was the cause of the entire conflict, and Tydeus performed acts of valour far surpassing Eteoclus and Mecisteus. Either way, all nine men were present in the battle, from the nineteenth century onwards, however, it has not generally been regarded as among the tragedians major works. Translators Anthony Hecht and Helen S. Bacon wrote that the play has been accused of being static, undramatic, ritualistic, guilty of an interpolated and debased text, archaic, and in a word, boring. Lille Stesichorus, a fragment of the Theban myth by the lyric poet Stesichorus A. S. Way,1906 – verse E. D. A. Morshead,1908 – verse. The Orientalizing Revolution, Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age Seven against Thebes pp 106–14, Burkert draws parallels between Greek and Ancient Near Eastern materials
5.
The Suppliants (Aeschylus)
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The Suppliants, also called The Suppliant Maidens, or The Suppliant Women, is a play by Aeschylus. It was long thought to be the earliest surviving play by Aeschylus due to the relatively anachronistic function of the chorus as the protagonist of the drama. However, evidence discovered in the mid-20th century shows it one of Aeschylus last plays, definitely after The Persians, the Danaids form the chorus and serve as the protagonists. They flee a forced marriage to their Egyptian cousins, when the Danaides reach Argos, they entreat King Pelasgus to protect them. He refuses pending the decision of the Argive people, who decide in the favor of the Danaids, Danaus rejoices the outcome, and the Danaids praise the Greek gods. Almost immediately, a herald of the Egyptians comes to attempt to force the Danaids to return to their cousins for marriage, Pelasgus arrives, threatens the herald, and urges the Danaids to remain within the walls of Argos. The play ends with the Danaids retreating into the Argive walls, the remaining plays of the tetralogy have been mostly lost. However, one significant passage from The Danaids has been preserved and this is a speech by the goddess of love Aphrodite praising the marriage between the sky and the earth from which rain comes, nourishing cattle, corn and fruits. As the plot of the remaining plays has been reconstructed, following a war with the Aegyptids in which Pelasgus has been killed. The marriage is forced upon his daughters, but Danaus instructs them to murder their husbands on their wedding night, all do except for Hypermnestra, whose husband, Lynceus, flees. Danaus imprisons or threatens to kill Hypermnestra for her disobedience, but Lynceus reappears and kills Danaus, Lynceus becomes the new king of Argos, opinions differ as to the ending, although certainly Aphrodite was involved in the denouement. An alternative opinion is that Hypermnestra is put on trial for disobeying her father, the trilogy was followed by the satyr play Amymone, which comically portrayed one of the Danaids seduction by Poseidon. George Thomson, expanding on D. S. Ridgeway, on the other hand, friis Johansen, H. and Whittle, E. W. Aeschylus, The Suppliants. Garvie, A. F. Aeschylus Supplices, Play and Trilogy. E. D. A. Morshead,1908 - verse, full text Walter George Headlam and C. E. S. Headlam,1909 - prose Herbert Weir Smyth,1922 - prose, full text G. M. Cookson,1922 - verse S
6.
Oresteia
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This trilogy also shows how the Greek gods interacted with the characters and influenced their decisions pertaining to events and disputes. The only extant example of an ancient Greek theater trilogy, the Oresteia won first prize at the Dionysia festival in 458 BC, many consider the Oresteia to be Aeschylus finest work. The principal themes of the include the contrast between revenge and justice, as well as the transition from personal vendetta to organized litigation. Orestia originally included a satyr play Proteus following the tragic trilogy, Agamemnon is the first of the three plays within the Oresteia trilogy. It details the homecoming of Agamemnon, King of Mycene, from the Trojan War, after ten years of warfare, Troy had fallen and all of Greece could lay claim to victory. Waiting at home for Agamemnon is his wife, Queen Clytemnestra, who has been planning his murder. The play opens to a watchman looking down and over the sea, reporting that he has been lying restless like a dog for a year and he laments the fortunes of the house, but promises to keep silent, A huge ox has stepped onto my tongue. The watchman sees a far off in the distance and is overjoyed at the victory. Clytaemnestra is introduced to the audience and she declares that there will be celebrations and sacrifices throughout the city as Agamemnon, upon the return of Agamemnon, his wife laments in full view of Argos how horrible the wait for her husband, and King, has been. After her soliloquy, Clytaemnestra pleads, and later convinces Agamemnon to walk on the laid out for him. This is a very ominous moment in the play as loyalties and motives are questioned, the Kings new concubine, Cassandra, is now introduced and this immediately spawns hatred from the queen, Clytaemnestra. Cassandra is ordered out of her chariot and to the altar where, once she is alone, is crying out insane prophecies to Apollo about the death of Agamemnon. Inside the house a cry is heard, Agamemnon had been stabbed in the bathtub. The chorus separate from one another and ramble to themselves proving their cowardice when another final cry is heard, when the doors are finally opened, Clytaemnestra is seen standing over the dead bodies of Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytaemnestra describes the murder in detail to the chorus, showing no sign of remorse or regret, suddenly the exiled lover of Clytaemnestra, Aegisthus, bursts into the palace to take his place next to her. Aegisthus proudly states that he devised the plan to murder Agamemnon, Clytaemnestra claims that she and Aegisthus now have all the power and they re-enter the palace with the doors closing behind them. Upon arriving, Orestes reunites with his sister Electra at Agamemnons grave, shortly after the reunion, both Orestes and Electra, influenced by the Chorus, come up with a plan to kill both Clytaemnestra and Aegisthus. Orestes then heads to the door where he is unexpectedly greeted by Clytaemnestra
7.
Agamemnon
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Mythical legends make him the king of Mycenae or Argos, thought to be different names for the same area. When Helen, the wife of Menelaus, was taken to Troy by Paris, upon Agamemnons return from Troy, he was murdered by Aegisthus, the lover of his wife, Clytemnestra. In some later versions Clytemnestra herself does the killing, or they act together as accomplices, Atreus, Agamemnons father, murdered the children of his twin brother Thyestes and fed them to Thyestes after discovering Thyestes adultery with his wife Aerope. Thyestes fathered Aegisthus with his own daughter, Pelopia, and this son vowed gruesome revenge on Atreus children, Aegisthus successfully murdered Atreus and restored his father to the throne. Aegisthus took possession of the throne of Mycenae and jointly ruled with Thyestes, during this period Agamemnon and his brother, Menelaus, took refuge with Tyndareus, King of Sparta. There they respectively married Tyndareus daughters Clytemnestra and Helen, Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children, one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra and Chrysothemis. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus in Sparta, while Agamemnon, with his brothers assistance, drove out Aegisthus and he extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece. Thus misfortune hounded successive generations of the House of Atreus, until atoned by Orestes in a court of justice held jointly by humans, Agamemnon gathered the reluctant Greek forces to sail for Troy. Preparing to depart from Aulis, which was a port in Boeotia, misfortunes, including a plague and a lack of wind, prevented the army from sailing. Finally, the prophet Calchas announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be propitiated by the sacrifice of Agamemnons daughter Iphigenia and her death appeased Artemis, and the Greek army set out for Troy. Several alternatives to the human sacrifice have been presented in Greek mythology, hesiod said she became the goddess Hecate. Agamemnon was the commander-in-chief of the Greeks during the Trojan War, during the fighting, Agamemnon killed Antiphus and fifteen other Trojan soldiers. The Iliad tells the story about the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles in the year of the war. Following one of the Achaean Armys raids, Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, Chryses pleaded with Agamemnon to free his daughter but was met with little success. Chryses then prayed to Apollo for the return of his daughter. After learning from the Prophet Calchas that the plague could be dispelled by returning Chryseis to her father, Agamemnon reluctantly agreed, however, as compensation for his lost prize, Agamemnon demanded a new prize. As a result, Agamemnon stole an attractive slave called Briseis, one of the spoils of war, Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, withdrew from battle in response to Agamemnons supposedly evil deed and allegedly put the Greek armies at risk of losing the war. Although not the equal of Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon was a representative of kingly authority, as commander-in-chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle
8.
Prometheus Bound
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Prometheus Bound is an Ancient Greek tragedy. In antiquity, it was attributed to Aeschylus, but now is considered by scholars to be the work of another hand. Despite these doubts of authorship, the designation as Aeschylean has remained conventional. The tragedy is based on the myth of Prometheus, a Titan who defies the gods and gives fire to mankind, the play is composed almost entirely of speeches and contains little action since its protagonist is chained and immobile throughout. At the beginning, Kratos, Bia, and the smith-god Hephaestus chain the Titan Prometheus to a mountain in the Caucasus, with Hephaestus alone expressing reluctance and pity, and then departing. According to the author, Prometheus is being punished not only for stealing fire and this punishment is especially galling since Prometheus was instrumental in Zeuss victory in the Titanomachy. The Oceanids appear and attempt to comfort Prometheus by conversing with him, Prometheus cryptically tells them that he knows of a potential marriage that would lead to Zeuss downfall. A Titan named Oceanus commiserates with Prometheus and urges him to peace with Zeus. Prometheus is then visited by Io, a human maiden pursued by a lustful Zeus, the Olympian transformed Io into a cow, Prometheus forecasts Ios future travels, telling her that Zeus will eventually end her torment in Egypt, where she will bear a son named Epaphus. He says one of her descendants, thirteen generations hence, will release him from his own torment, finally, Hermes the messenger-god is sent down by the angered Zeus to demand that Prometheus tell him who threatens to overthrow him. Prometheus refuses, and Zeus strikes him with a thunderbolt that plunges Prometheus into the abyss, the treatment of the myth of Prometheus in Prometheus Bound is a radical departure from the earlier accounts found in Hesiods Theogony and Works and Days. Hesiod essentially portrays the Titan as a trickster and semi-comic foil to Zeuss authority. Zeuss anger toward Prometheus is in responsible for mortal mans having to provide for himself, before. Prometheus theft of fire also prompts the arrival of the first woman, Pandora, Pandora is entirely absent from Prometheus Bound, and Prometheus becomes a human benefactor and divine king-maker, rather than an object of blame for human suffering. In Prometheus Unbound, Heracles frees Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat the Titans perpetually regenerating liver. Perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus, we learn that Zeus has released the other Titans whom he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy. In Prometheus the Fire-Bringer, the Titan finally warns Zeus not to lie with the sea nymph Thetis, not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus would later marry Thetis off to the mortal Peleus, the product of that union will be Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. Grateful for the warning, Zeus finally reconciles with Prometheus, scholars at the Great Library of Alexandria unanimously deemed Aeschylus to be the author of Prometheus Bound
9.
Agathon
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Agathon was an Athenian tragic poet whose works have been lost. He is best known for his appearance in Platos Symposium, which describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for his first tragedy at the Lenaia in 416 and he is also a prominent character in Aristophanes comedy the Thesmophoriazusae. Agathon was the son of Tisamenus, and the companion of Pausanias. Together with Pausanias, he moved to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon. Agathon was also the first playwright to write choral parts which were independent from the main plot of his plays. Agathon is portrayed by Plato as a young man, well dressed, of polished manners, courted by the fashion, wealth and wisdom of Athens. In the later play Frogs, Aristophanes softens his criticisms, Agathon was also a friend of Euripides, another recruit to the court of Archelaus of Macedon. Agathons extraordinary physical beauty is brought up repeatedly in the sources, the most detailed surviving description of Agathon is in the Thesmophoriazousae, in which Agathon appears as a pale, clean-shaven young man dressed in womens clothes. Scholars are unsure how much of Aristophanes portrayal is fact and how much mere comic invention. Agathon has been thought to be the subject of Lovers Lips, another translation reads, Kissing Agathon, I found my soul at my lips. It went there, hoping--to slip across, although the authenticity of this epigram was accepted for many centuries, it was probably not composed for Agathon the tragedian, nor was it composed by Plato. Stylistic evidence suggests that the poem was written some time after Plato had died, its form is that of the Hellenistic erotic epigram. According to 20th-century scholar Walther Ludwig, the poems were spuriously inserted into a biography of Plato sometime between 250 BC and 100 BC and adopted by later writers from this source. Of Agathons plays, only six titles and thirty-one fragments have survived, Fragments in A Nauck, μόνου γὰρ αὐτοῦ καὶ θεὸς στερίσκεται, ἀγένητα ποιεῖν ἅσσ᾽ ἂν ᾖ πεπραγμένα. Even God cannot change the past, as quoted in Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book VI, sect. 2, 1139b List of speakers in Platos dialogues The Drama, Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, volume 1,100 Lovers Lips by Plato in the Project Gutenberg eText Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology by J. W. Mackail. Media related to Agathon at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Agathon at Wikiquote Agathon Poems
10.
Sophocles
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Sophocles is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. His first plays were later than those of Aeschylus. He competed in 30 competitions, won 18, and was never judged lower than second place, Aeschylus won 14 competitions, and was sometimes defeated by Sophocles, while Euripides won 5 competitions. Sophocles influenced the development of drama, most importantly by adding a third actor and he also developed his characters to a greater extent than earlier playwrights such as Aeschylus. Sophocles, the son of Sophilus, was a member of the rural deme of Hippeios Colonus in Attica, which was to become a setting for one of his plays. Sophocles was born a few years before the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, Sophocles was born into a wealthy family and was highly educated. Sophocles first artistic triumph was in 468 BC, when he took first prize in the Dionysia theatre competition over the master of Athenian drama. According to Plutarch, the victory came under unusual circumstances, instead of following the usual custom of choosing judges by lot, the archon asked Cimon and the other strategoi present to decide the victor of the contest. Plutarch further contends that following this loss Aeschylus soon left for Sicily, although Plutarch says that this was Sophocles first production, it is now thought that his first production was probably in 470 BC. Triptolemus was probably one of the plays that Sophocles presented at this festival, in 480 BC Sophocles was chosen to lead the paean, celebrating the Greek victory over the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. Early in his career, the politician Cimon might have one of his patrons, although if he was, there was no ill will borne by Pericles, Cimons rival. In 443/2 he served as one of the Hellenotamiai, or treasurers of Athena, in 420 BC, he welcomed and set up an altar for the image of Asclepius at his house, when the deity was introduced to Athens. For this, he was given the posthumous epithet Dexion by the Athenians and he was also elected, in 413 BC, one of the commissioners who responded to the catastrophic destruction of the Athenian expeditionary force in Sicily during the Peloponnesian War. Sophocles died at the age of ninety or ninety-one in the winter of 406/5 BC, as with many famous men in classical antiquity, his death inspired a number of apocryphal stories. The most famous is the suggestion that he died from the strain of trying to recite a long sentence from his Antigone without pausing to take a breath, another account suggests he choked while eating grapes at the Anthesteria festival in Athens. A third holds that he died of happiness after winning his final victory at the City Dionysia, one of his sons, Iophon, and a grandson, also called Sophocles, also became playwrights. Several ancient sources mention Sophocles homosexuality or bisexuality, Athenaios reported that Sophocles loved boys like Euripides loved women. The poet Ion of Chios relates an anecdote involving Sophocles seducing a serving boy at a symposium, Aeschylus, who dominated Athenian playwriting during Sophocles early career, followed suit and adopted the third character into his own work towards the end of his life
11.
Antigone (Sophocles play)
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Antigone is a tragedy by Sophocles written in or before 441 BC. It is the third of the three Theban plays but was the first written, chronologically, the play expands on the Theban legend that predated it and picks up where Aeschylus Seven Against Thebes ends. In the beginning of the play, two brothers leading opposite sides in Thebes civil war died fighting each other for the throne, Creon, the new ruler of Thebes, has decided that Eteocles will be honored and Polyneices will be in public shame. The rebel brothers body will not be sanctified by holy rites, and will lie unburied on the battlefield, prey for animals like worms and vultures. Antigone and Ismene are the sisters of the dead Polyneices and Eteocles, in the opening of the play, Antigone brings Ismene outside the palace gates late at night for a secret meeting, Antigone wants to bury Polyneices body, in defiance of Creons edict. Ismene refuses to help her, not believing that it will actually be possible to bury their brother, who is under guard, Creon enters, along with the Chorus of Theban Elders. He seeks their support in the days to come, and in particular wants them to back his edict regarding the disposal of Polyneices body, the Leader of the Chorus pledges his support out of deference to Creon. A Sentry enters, fearfully reporting that the body has been given funeral rites, Creon, furious, orders the Sentry to find the culprit or face death himself. The Sentry leaves and the Chorus sings about honouring the gods, the Sentry explains that the watchmen uncovered Polyneices body, and then caught Antigone as she did the funeral rituals. Creon questions her after sending the Sentry away, and she does not deny what she has done and she argues unflinchingly with Creon about the morality of the edict and the morality of her actions. Creon becomes furious, and, thinking Ismene must have known of Antigones plan, seeing her upset, Ismene tries to confess falsely to the crime, wishing to die alongside her sister, but Antigone will not have it. Creon orders that the two women be temporarily imprisoned, Haemon, Creons son, enters to pledge allegiance to his father, even though he is engaged to Antigone. When Creon threatens to execute Antigone in front of his son, Haemon leaves, Creon decides to spare Ismene and to bury Antigone alive in a cave. By not killing her directly, he hopes to pay the minimal respects to the gods and she is brought out of the house, and this time, she is sorrowful instead of defiant. She expresses her regrets at not having married and dying for following the laws of the gods and she is taken away to her living tomb, with the Leader of the Chorus expressing great sorrow for what is going to happen to her. Tiresias warns Creon that Polyneices should now be buried because the gods are displeased. Creon accuses Tiresias of being corrupt, Tiresias responds that because of Creons mistakes, he will lose a son of own loins for the crimes of leaving Polyneices unburied and putting Antigone into the earth. All of Greece will despise Creon, and the offerings of Thebes will not be accepted by the gods
12.
Oedipus Rex
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Oedipus Rex, also known by its Greek title, Oedipus Tyrannus, or Oedipus the King, is an Athenian tragedy by Sophocles that was first performed around 429 BC. Originally, to the ancient Greeks, the title was simply Oedipus and it is thought to have been renamed Oedipus Tyrannus to distinguish it from Oedipus at Colonus. In antiquity, the term referred to a ruler. Of his three Theban plays that have survived, and that deal with the story of Oedipus, Oedipus Rex was the second to be written. However, in terms of the chronology of events that the plays describe, it comes first, followed by Oedipus at Colonus and then Antigone. Prior to the start of Oedipus Rex, Oedipus has become the king of Thebes while unwittingly fulfilling a prophecy that he would kill his father, Laius, and marry his mother, Jocasta. The action of Sophocles play concerns Oedipus search for the murderer of Laius in order to end a plague ravaging Thebes, unaware that the killer he is looking for is none other than himself. At the end of the play, after the truth comes to light, Jocasta hangs herself while Oedipus, horrified at his patricide and incest. Oedipus Rex is regarded by scholars as the masterpiece of ancient Greek tragedy. In his Poetics, Aristotle refers several times to the play in order to exemplify aspects of the genre, many parts or elements of the myth of Oedipus take place before the opening scene of the play. They may be described or referred to in the text, in his youth, Laius was a guest of King Pelops of Elis, and became the tutor of Chrysippus, youngest of the kings sons, in chariot racing. He then violated the laws of hospitality by abducting and raping Chrysippus. This murder cast a doom over Laius, his son Oedipus, however, most scholars are in agreement that the seduction or rape of Chrysippus was a late addition to the Theban myth. A son is born to King Laius and Queen Jocasta of Thebes, after Laius learns from an oracle that he is doomed/To perish by the hand of his own son, he tightly binds the feet of the infant together with a pin and orders Jocasta to kill the infant. Hesitant to do so, she orders a servant to commit the act for her, instead, the servant takes the baby to a mountain top to die from exposure. A shepherd rescues the infant and names him Oedipus, the shepherd carries the baby with him to Corinth, where Oedipus is taken in and raised in the court of the childless King Polybus of Corinth as if he were his own. As a young man in Corinth, Oedipus hears a rumour that he is not the son of Polybus. He asks the Delphic Oracle who his parents really are, the Oracle seems to ignore this question, telling him instead that he is destined to Mate with own mother, and shed/With own hands the blood of own sire
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Oedipus at Colonus
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Oedipus at Colonus is one of the three Theban plays of the Athenian tragedian Sophocles. It was written shortly before Sophocles death in 406 BC and produced by his grandson at the Festival of Dionysus in 401 BC. In the timeline of the plays, the events of Oedipus at Colonus occur after Oedipus Rex and before Antigone, however, the play describes the end of Oedipus tragic life. Led by Antigone, Oedipus enters the village of Colonus and sits down on a stone and they are approached by a villager, who demands that they leave, because that ground is sacred to the Furies, or Erinyes. The chorus of old men from the village enters, and persuades Oedipus to leave the holy ground and they then question him about his identity, and are horrified to learn that he is the son of Laius. Although they promised not to harm Oedipus, they wish to expel him from their city, Oedipus answers by explaining that he is not morally responsible for his crimes, since he killed his father in self-defence. Furthermore, he asks to see their king, Theseus, saying, I come as someone sacred, someone filled with piety and power, the chorus is amazed, and decides to reserve their judgment of Oedipus until Theseus, king of Athens, arrives. Ismene arrives on horseback, rejoicing to see her father and sister and she brings the news that Eteocles has seized the throne of Thebes from his elder brother, Polynices, while Polynices is gathering support from the Argives to attack the city. Both sons have heard from an oracle that the outcome of the conflict will depend on where their father is buried, hearing this, Oedipus curses both of his sons for not treating him well, contrasting them with his devoted daughters. He pledges allegiance with neither of his sons, but with the people of Colonus, who thus far have treated him well. Because Oedipus trespassed on the ground of the Eumenides, the villagers tell him that he must perform certain rites to appease them. Ismene volunteers to go perform them for him and departs, while Antigone remains with Oedipus, meanwhile, the chorus questions Oedipus once more, desiring to know the details of his incest and patricide. After he relates his story to them, Theseus enters. He sympathizes with Oedipus, and offers him unconditional aid, causing Oedipus to praise Theseus and offer him the gift of his burial site, Theseus protests, saying that the two cities are friendly, and Oedipus responds with what is perhaps the most famous speech in the play. Oh Theseus, dear friend, only the gods can never age, all else in the world almighty Time obliterates, crushes all to nothing. Theseus makes Oedipus a citizen of Athens, and leaves the chorus to him as he departs. The chorus sings about the glory and beauty of Athens, Creon, who is the representative of Thebes, comes to Oedipus and feigns pity for him and his children, telling him that he should return to Thebes. Oedipus is disgusted by Creons duplicity and recounts all of the harms Creon has inflicted on him, Creon becomes angry and reveals that he has already captured Ismene, he then instructs his guards to forcibly seize Antigone
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Ajax (play)
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Sophocles Ajax, or Aias, is a Greek tragedy written in the 5th century BCE. Ajax may be the earliest of Sophocles seven tragedies to have survived and it appears to belong to the same period as his Antigone, which was probably performed in 442 or 441 BCE, when he was 55 years old. The play depicts the fate of the warrior Ajax, after the events of the Iliad, the great warrior, Achilles, has been killed in battle. The man who now can be considered the greatest warrior, Ajax, should be given Achilles’ armor, Ajax becomes furious about this and decides to kill them. However, Athena steps in and deludes Ajax into killing instead the spoil of the Greek army, suddenly Ajax comes to his senses and realizes what he has done. Overwhelmed by shame, he decides to commit suicide and his concubine, Tecmessa, pleads for him not to leave her and their child, Eurysakes, unprotected. Ajax then gives his son his shield, and leaves the house saying that he is going out to purify himself, Teucer has learned from the prophet, Kalchas, that Ajax should not be allowed to leave his tent until the end of the day or he will die. Tecmessa and soldiers try to find Ajax, but they are too late. Ajax has impaled himself upon his sword, before his suicide, Ajax calls for vengeance against the sons of Atreus and the whole Greek army. Tecmessa is the first one to discover Ajax’s body, Teucer then arrives and orders that Ajax’s son be brought to him so that he will be safe from foes. Menelaus appears and orders the body not to be moved, the last part of the play is taken up with an angry dispute regarding what to do with Ajax’s body. The two kings, Agamemnon and Menelaos, want to leave the body unburied for scavengers to have, Odysseus arrives and persuades Agamemnon and Menelaos to allow Ajax a proper funeral. Odysseus points out that ones enemies deserve respect in death. The play ends with Teucer making arrangements for the burial, the original title of the play in the ancient Greek is Αἴας. Ajax is the version, and Aias is the English transliteration from the original Greek. Proper nouns in Ancient Greek have conventionally been romanized before entering the English language, the text of the play suggests the original pronunciation of Ajaxs name—in lines 430-432, Ajax, the protagonist, states that it has an onomatopoeic resemblance to a wailing cry of lament, aiai. He was considered a character to the people of ancient Athens. Numerous Homeric myths describe him coming to the rescue of his man in dire moments
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Women of Trachis
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Women of Trachis is an Athenian tragedy by Sophocles. Women of Trachis is generally considered to be less developed than Sophocles other works, the story begins with Deianeira, the wife of Heracles, relating the story of her early life and her plight adjusting to married life. She is now distraught over her husbands neglect of her family, often involved in some adventure, he rarely visits them. She sends their son Hyllus to find him, as she is concerned over prophecies about Heracles, after Hyllus sets off, a messenger arrives with word that Heracles, victorious in his recent battle, is making offerings on Cape Cenaeum and coming home soon to Trachis. Lichas, a herald of Heracles, brings in a procession of captives and he gives Deianeira a false story of why Heracles had laid siege to the city of Oechalia. He claimed Eurytus, the king, was responsible for Heracles being enslaved. Among the captured girls is Iole, daughter of Eurytus, Deianeira soon learns that in truth Heracles laid siege to the city just to obtain Iole, whom he has taken as a lover. Unable to cope with the thought of her falling for this younger woman, she decides to use a love charm on him. When she was younger, she had carried across a river by the centaur. Halfway through he made a grab at her, but Heracles came to her rescue and quickly shot him with an arrow. Deianeira dyes a robe with the blood and has Lichas carry it to Heracles with strict instructions that no one else is to wear it, after the gift is sent, she begins to have a bad feeling about it. She throws some of the material into sunlight and it reacts like boiling acid. Nessus had lied about the love charm, Hyllus soon arrives to inform her that Heracles lies dying due to her gift. He was in pain and fury that he killed Lichas, the deliverer of the gift, he made the white brain to ooze from the hair, as the skull was dashed to splinters. Deianeira feels enormous shame for what she has done, amplified by her sons harsh words, Hyllus discovers soon after that it wasnt actually her intention to kill her husband. The dying Heracles is carried to his home in horrible pain, Hyllus explains the truth, and Heracles realizes that the prophesies about his death have come to pass, He was to be killed by someone who was already dead, and it turned out to be Nessus. In the end, he is in so much pain that he is begging for someone to finish him off, in this weakened state, he says he is like a woman. He makes a wish, which Hyllus promises to obey
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Electra (Sophocles play)
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Electra or Elektra is a Greek tragedy by Sophocles. Its date is not known, but various stylistic similarities with the Philoctetes, when King Agamemnon returns from the Trojan War with his new concubine, Cassandra, his wife Clytemnestra kills them. Clytemnestra believes the murder was justified, since Agamemnon had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia before the war, Electra, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, rescued her younger brother Orestes from her mother by sending him to Strophius of Phocis. The play begins years later when Orestes has returned as a man with a plot for revenge. Orestes arrives with his friend Pylades, son of Strophius, and their plan is to have the tutor announce that Orestes has died in a chariot race, and that two men are arriving shortly to deliver an urn with his remains. Meanwhile, Electra continues to mourn the death of her father Agamemnon, when Electra is told of the death of Orestes her grief is doubled, but is to be short-lived. After a choral ode Orestes arrives, carrying the urn containing his ashes. He does not recognize Electra, nor she him and he gives her the urn and she delivers a moving lament over it, unaware that her brother is in fact standing alive next to her. Now realizing the truth, Orestes reveals his identity to his emotional sister and she is overjoyed that he is alive, but in their excitement they nearly reveal his identity, and the tutor comes out from the palace to urge them on. Orestes and Pylades enter the house and slay Clytemnestra, as Aegisthus returns home, they quickly put her corpse under a sheet and present it to him as the body of Orestes. He lifts the veil to discover who it really is, and they escort Aegisthus off set to be killed at the hearth, the same location Agamemnon was slain. The play ends here, before the death of Aegisthus is announced, the story of Orestes revenge was a popular subject in Greek tragedies. L. A. Post noted that the play was unique among Greek tragedies for its emphasis on action, davies, Gilbert Austin,1908 Finglass, P. J. Sophocles, Electra. Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries 44, cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries 44. Lewis Campbell,1883 - verse Richard C
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Philoctetes (Sophocles play)
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Philoctetes is a play by Sophocles. The play was written during the Peloponnesian War and it is one of the seven extant tragedies by Sophocles. It was first performed at the City Dionysia in 409 BC, the story takes place during the Trojan War. It describes the attempt by Neoptolemus and Odysseus to bring the disabled Philoctetes, when Heracles was near his death, he wished to be burned on a funeral pyre while still alive. Sophocles references the myth in which no one but Philoctetes would light the fire, Philoctetes left with the Greeks to participate in the Trojan War, but was bitten on the foot by a snake while walking on Chryse, a sacred ground. The bite caused him constant agony, and emitted a horrible smell, for this reason he was left by Odysseus and the Atreidai on the desert island Lemnos. Ten years pass, and the Greeks capture the Trojan seer Helenus and he foretells that they will need the master archer Philoctetes and the bow of Heracles to win the war. Odysseus sails back to Lemnos with Neoptolemus to get Philoctetes, the task is not easy, as Philoctetes bitterly hates Odysseus and the Greeks for leaving him there. Sophocles Philoctetes begins with their arrival on the island, Odysseus explains to Neoptolemus that he must perform a shameful action in order to garner future glory - to take Philoctetes by tricking him with a false story while Odysseus hides. Neoptolemus is portrayed as a boy, and so it takes some persuading to get him to play this part. To gain Philoctetes trust, Neoptolemus tricks Philoctetes into thinking he hates Odysseus as well, Neoptolemus does this by telling Philoctetes that Odysseus has his fathers armor. He tells Philoctetes that this armor was his right by birth, after gaining Philoctetes trust and offering him a ride home, Neoptolemus is allowed to look at the bow of Heracles. Neoptolemus holds the bow while Philoctetes is going into a fit of pain in his foot. Feeling ashamed, Neoptolemus debates giving it back to him, Odysseus appears, and a series of arguments ensue. Eventually Neoptolemus conscience gains the hand, and he returns the bow. After many threats made on both sides, Odysseus flees, Neoptolemus then tries to talk Philoctetes into coming to Troy by his own free will, but Philoctetes does not agree. In the end, Neoptolemus consents to take Philoctetes back to Greece and this appears to be the conclusion of the play—however, as they are leaving, Heracles appears above them and tells Philoctetes that if he goes to Troy, he will be cured and the Greeks will win. When Philoctetes later fights in Troy, his foot is healed, the concept of having a moral high ground is a key aspect in this play
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Euripides
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Euripides was a tragedian of classical Athens. He is one of the few plays have survived, with the others being Aeschylus, Sophocles. Some ancient scholars attributed 95 plays to him but according to the Suda it was 92 at most, of these,18 or 19 have survived more or less complete and there are also fragments, some substantial, of most of the other plays. This new approach led him to pioneer developments that later writers adapted to comedy, yet he also became the most tragic of poets, focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way previously unknown. He was also unique among the writers of ancient Athens for the sympathy he demonstrated towards all victims of society and his contemporaries associated him with Socrates as a leader of a decadent intellectualism, both of them being frequently lampooned by comic poets such as Aristophanes. Whereas Socrates was eventually put on trial and executed as an influence, Euripides chose a voluntary exile in old age. Recent scholarship casts doubt on ancient biographies of Euripides, for example, it is possible that he never visited Macedonia at all, or, if he did, he might have been drawn there by King Archelaus with incentives that were also offered to other artists. Upon the receipt of a saying that his son was fated to win crowns of victory. In fact the boy was destined for a career on the stage and he served for a short time as both dancer and torch-bearer at the rites of Apollo Zosterius. His education was not confined to athletics, he studied painting and philosophy under the masters Prodicus. He had two marriages and both his wives—Melite and Choerine —were unfaithful. He became a recluse, making a home for himself in a cave on Salamis, there he built an impressive library and pursued daily communion with the sea and sky. Eventually he retired to the court of King Archelaus in Macedonia. However, as mentioned in the introduction, biographical details such as these should be regarded with scepticism and this biography is divided into three sections corresponding to the three kinds of sources. The apocryphal account that he composed his works in a cave on Salamis island was a late tradition, much of his life and his whole career coincided with the struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece but he didnt live to see the final defeat of his city. In an account by Plutarch, the failure of the Sicilian expedition led Athenians to trade renditions of Euripides lyrics to their enemies in return for food. Tragic poets were often mocked by comic poets during the dramatic festivals Dionysia and Lenaia, Aristophanes scripted him as a character in at least three plays, The Acharnians, Thesmophoriazusae and The Frogs. Yet Aristophanes borrowed rather than just satirized some of the methods, he was once ridiculed by a colleague, Cratinus, as a hair-splitting master of niceties
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Alcestis (play)
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Alcestis is an Athenian tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Euripides. It was first produced at the City Dionysia festival in 438 BCE and its ambiguous, tragicomic tone—which may be cheerfully romantic or bitterly ironic—has earned it the label of a problem play. Alcestis is, possibly excepting the Rhesus, the oldest surviving work by Euripides, long before the start of the play, King Admetus was granted by the Fates the privilege of living past the allotted time of his death. The Fates were persuaded to allow this by the god Apollo, Apollo wishes to repay Admetus hospitality and offers him freedom from death. The gift, however, comes with a price, Admetus must find someone to take his place when Death comes to claim him, the time of Admetus death comes and he still has not found a willing substitute. His father, Pheres, is unwilling to step in and thinks that it is ludicrous that he should be asked to give up the life he enjoys so much as part of this strange deal. Finally, Admetus devoted wife Alcestis agrees to be taken in his place because she not to leave her children fatherless or be bereft of her lover. At the start of the play, she is close to death and he offers an exposition of the events leading up to this moment. He hails the arrival of Thanatos, who, dressed in black, Thanatos challenges Apollos apparent defense of Alcestis and accuses him of twisting slippery tricks when he helped Admetus cheat death in the first place. Apollo reassures him and, in a passage of swift stichomythic banter, proposes a postponement of Alcestis death, for once, Thanatos concludes, you may not have what is not yours. Defeated, Apollo leaves angrily, prophesying the arrival of a man who will wrestle Alcestis away from Death. Alone with the audience, Thanatos warns that this was a god of many words, the entry of the chorus, or the parodos sequence, follows, a chorus of fifteen men of Pherae, led by a coryphaeus, enter the orchestra of the theatre. The chorus-leader complains that they are in a state of suspense, the chorus lyrical ode, to which they dance as they sing, consists of two paired stanzas of strophe and antistrophe. They sing of the silence that greets their search for signs of mourning, when goodness dies, they lament, all good men suffer, too. The chorus-leader concludes by dismissing the chorus search for hope in the situation, the first episode begins with a maidservant, who enters from the palace in tears. When the chorus-leader presses her for news, she gives a confusing response, Alcestis stands, she explains, at this moment on the brink of life and death. The chorus-leader anxiously confirms that all of the customary preparations have been made for her proper burial, the maidservant joins the chorus-leader in praising Alcestis virtue. She describes how Admetus held Alcestis weeping in his arms while her eyes clung to the sight of the last rays of sun she would see, the maidservant welcomes the chorus-leader to the palace and goes inside to inform Admetus of their arrival
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Medea (play)
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Medea is an ancient Greek tragedy written by Euripides, based upon the myth of Jason and Medea and first produced in 431 BC. Medea takes vengeance on Jason by killing Jasons new wife as well as her own children, considered shocking to Euripides contemporaries, Medea and the suite of plays that it accompanied in the City Dionysia festival came last in the festival that year. The play has remained the most frequently performed Greek tragedy through the 20th century, Medea was first performed in 431 BC at the City Dionysia festival. Here every year three playwrights competed against each other, each writing a tetralogy of three tragedies and a satyr play, in 431 the competition was among Euphorion, Sophocles and Euripides. Euphorion won, and Euripides placed last, the form of the play differs from many other Greek tragedies by its simplicity, All scenes involve only two actors, Medea and someone else. These encounters serve to highlight Medeas skill and determination in manipulating powerful male figures to achieve her own ends, Medea is centered on a wife’s calculated desire for revenge against her unfaithful husband. The play is set in Corinth some time after Jasons quest for the Golden Fleece, the play begins with Medea raging at Jason for arranging to marry Glauce, the daughter of Creon. The nurse, overhearing Medea’s grief, fears what she might do to herself or her children, Creon, in anticipation of Medea’s wrath, arrives and reveals his plans to send her into exile. Medea pleads for one day’s delay and eventually Creon acquiesces, in the next scene Jason arrives to explain his rationale for his apparent betrayal. He explains that he pass up the opportunity to marry a royal princess, as Medea is only a barbarian woman. Medea, and the chorus of Corinthian women, do not believe him and she reminds him that she left her own people for him, and that she saved him and slew the dragon. Jason promises to support her after his new marriage, but Medea spurns him, Marry the maid if thou wilt, in the following scene Medea encounters Aegeus, King of Athens. He reveals to her that despite his marriage to his wife he is still without children. He visited the oracle who told him that he was instructed “not to unstop the wineskin’s neck. ”Medea relays her current situation to him. Aegeus, unaware of Medea’s plans for revenge, agrees, Medea then returns to plotting the murders of Glauce and Creon. She decides to poison some golden robes and a coronet, in hopes that the bride will not be able to resist wearing them, and consequently be poisoned. Medea resolves to kill her own children as well, not because the children have done anything wrong and she calls for Jason once more and, in an elaborate ruse, apologizes to him for overreacting to his decision to marry Glauce. When Jason appears fully convinced that she regrets her actions, Medea begins to cry in mourning of her exile and she convinces Jason to allow her to give the robes to Glauce in hopes that Glauce might get Creon to lift the exile
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Children of Heracles
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Children of Heracles is an Athenian tragedy by Euripides that was first performed c.430 BC. It follows the children of Heracles as they seek protection from Eurystheus and it is the first of two surviving tragedies by Euripides where the children of Heracles are suppliants. Eurystheus was responsible for many of the troubles of Heracles, in order to prevent the children of Heracles from taking revenge on him, he sought to kill them. They flee under the protection of Iolaus, Heracles close friend, the play begins at the altar of Zeus at Athens. The herald Copreus, in the employ of King Eurystheus of Mycenae, attempts to seize the children of Heracles, together with Heracless old friend, Iolaus. When King Demophon, son of Theseus, insists that Iolaus and Heracless children are under his protection, Demophon tells Iolaus that as much as he would like to help, he will not sacrifice his own child or force any of the Athenians to do so. Iolaus, realizing that he and the children will have to leave Athens and seek refuge elsewhere, when Macaria, a daughter of Heracles, hears about the oracles pronouncement and realizes her familys predicament, she offers herself as the victim, refusing a lottery. Bidding farewell to her siblings and to Iolaus, she leaves to be sacrificed, at the same time, Hyllus arrives with reinforcements. Although Iolaus is old and feeble, he insists on going out to the battle, once there, he miraculously regains his youth and captures Eurystheus. A debate about executing him follows, alcmene, Herakless aged mother, insists that Eurystheus be executed at once, though such an execution is against Athenian law. Finally, Eurystheus tells them a prophecy of how his spirit will protect the city from the descendants of Heracless children if they slay and bury him, arthur S. Way,1912 - verse Ralph Gladstone,1955 - verse The Children of Herakles - trans. Henry Taylor and Robert A. Brooks, david Kovacs - prose Children of Heracles - trans. John Davie Herakles Children - trans, george Theodoridis - prose The Children of Heracles - trans. Mark Griffith Burian, Peter, and Alan Shapiro, eds, the Greek Tragedy in New Translations ser. Walton, J. Michael, and Kenneth McLeish, eds
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Hippolytus (play)
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Hippolytus is an Ancient Greek tragedy by Euripides, based on the myth of Hippolytus, son of Theseus. The play was first produced for the City Dionysia of Athens in 428 BC, Euripides first treated the myth in a previous play, Hippolytos Kalyptomenos, which is now lost, what is known of it is based on echoes found in other ancient writings. It is thought that the contents to the missing Hippolytos Kalyptomenos portrayed a shamelessly lustful Phaedra who directly propositioned Hippolytus, Euripides revisits the myth in Hippolytos Stephanophoros, its title refers to the crown of garlands Hippolytus wears as a worshipper of Artemis. In this version Phaedra fights against her own desires, which have been incited by Aphrodite. The play is set in Troezen, a town in the northeastern Peloponnese. Theseus, the king of Athens, is serving a voluntary exile after having murdered a local king. His illegitimate son is Hippolytus, whose birth is the result of Theseuss rape of the Amazon Hippolyta, Hippolytus has been trained since childhood by the king of Troezen, Pittheus. At the opening of the play Aphrodite, Goddess of love, explains that Hippolytus has sworn chastity, instead, he honors the Goddess of the hunt, Artemis. This has led her to initiate a plan of vengeance on Hippolytus, when Hippolytus went to Athens two years previously Aphrodite inspired Phaedra, Hippolytus stepmother, to fall in love with him. Hippolytus appears with his followers and shows reverence to a statue of Artemis, a servant warns him about slighting Aphrodite, but Hippolytus refuses to listen. The chorus, consisting of married women of Troezen, enters and describes how Theseuss wife. Phaedra, sickly, appears with her nurse, after an agonizing discussion, Phaedra finally confesses why she is ill, she loves Hippolytus. The nurse and the chorus are shocked, Phaedra explains that she must starve herself and die with her honor intact. However, the nurse quickly retracts her initial response and tells Phaedra that she has a charm to cure her. However, in an aside she reveals different plans, the nurse, after making Hippolytus swear not to tell anyone, informs Hippolytus of Phaedras desire and suggests that Hippolytus consider yielding to her. He reacts with a tirade and threatens to tell his father, Theseus. After making the chorus swear secrecy, she goes inside and hangs herself, Theseus returns and discovers his wifes dead body. Because the chorus is sworn to secrecy, they cannot tell Theseus why she killed herself, Theseus discovers a letter on Phaedras body, which falsely asserts that she was raped by Hippolytus
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Electra (Euripides play)
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Euripides Electra is a play probably written in the mid 410s BC, likely before 413 BC. It is unclear whether it was first produced before or after Sophocles version of the Electra story, years before the start of the play, near the start of the Trojan War, the Greek general Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigeneia in order to appease the goddess Artemis. While his sacrifice allowed the Greek army to set sail for Troy, it led to a deep resentment in his wife, upon Agamemnons return from the Trojan War ten years later, Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus murdered him. The play begins with the introduction of Electra, the daughter of Clytemnestra, several years after Agamemnon’s death suitors began requesting Electra’s hand in marriage. Out of fear that Electra’s child might seek revenge, Clytemnestra, the peasant is kind to her and has respected her family name and her virginity. In return for his kindness, Electra helps her husband with the household chores, despite her appreciation for her husband’s kindness, Electra resents being cast out of her house and laments to the Chorus about her struggles with her drastic change in social status. Now grown, Orestes and Pylades travel to Electra and her husband’s house, Orestes keeps his identity hidden from Electra, claiming to be messengers of Orestes. He uses his anonymity to determine Electra’s loyalty to him and Agamemnon before he reveals his plans for revenge, after some time it is clear that Electra is passionate about avenging the death of their father. At this point the aged servant who brought Orestes to Phocis years before enters the play and he recognizes Orestes because of the scar on his brow and the siblings are reunited. They begin to plot how they will murder both Aegisthus and Clytemnestra, the aged servant explains that Aegisthus is currently in his stables, preparing to sacrifice oxen for a feast. Orestes goes to confront Aegisthus while Electra sends the servant to tell Clytemnestra that she had a son ten days ago. A messenger arrives and describes Orestes’ successful murder of Aegisthus, Orestes and Pylades return bearing Aegisthus’ body. As Clytemnestra approaches, Orestes begins to waver on his decision to murder their mother, Electra convinces Orestes that he must fulfill his duty to Agamemnon and murder their mother. When Clytemnestra arrives, Orestes and Electra lure her into the house, the two leave the house, filled with grief and guilt. As they lament, Clytemnestras deified brothers, Castor and Pollux, the enduring popularity of Aeschylus Oresteia trilogy is evident in Euripides construction of the recognition scene between Orestes and Electra. Euripides own recognition scene clearly parodies Aeschylus account, Orestes is instead recognized from a scar he received on the forehead while chasing a doe in the house as a child. This is an allusion to a scene from Homers Odyssey. In Odyssey 19. 428-54, the nurse Eurycleia recognizes a newly returned Odysseus from a scar on his thigh that he received as a child while on his first boar hunt
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Andromache (play)
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Andromache is an Athenian tragedy by Euripides. It dramatises Andromaches life as a slave, years after the events of the Trojan War, the date of its first performance is unknown, although scholars place it sometime between 428 and 425 BC. A Byzantine scholion to the play suggests that its first production was staged outside of Athens, during the Trojan War, Achilles killed Andromaches husband Hector. The Greeks threw Andromache and Hectors child Astyanax from the Trojan walls for fear that he would grow up and avenge his father, Andromache was made a slave of Achilles son Neoptolemus. Euripides dramatised these events ten years after Andromache in his tragedy The Trojan Women, years pass and Andromache has a child with Neoptolemus. Neoptolemus weds Hermione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen, even though Andromache is still devoted to her dead husband Hector, Hermione is deeply jealous and plots her revenge. Fearing for her life and the life of her child, Andromache hides the child and she reveals that Neoptolemos has left for the oracle at Delphi and that she has hidden the son she bore him for fear that Menelaus will try to kill him as well as her. A Maid arrives to warn her that Menelaus knows the location of her son and is on his way to capture him, Andromache persuades her to risk seeking the help of the king, Peleus. Andromache laments her misfortunes again and weeps at the feet of the statue of Thetis, the párodos of the chorus follows, in which they express their desire to help Andromache and try to persuade her to leave the sanctuary. Just at the moment that they express their fearfulness of discovery by Hermione, she arrives, boasting of her wealth, status, Hermione engages in an extended agôn with Andromache, in which they exchange a long rhetorical speech initially, each accusing the other. Hermione accuses Andromache of practising oriental witchcraft to make her barren and attempting to turn her husband against her, learn your new-found place, she demands. She condemns the Trojans as barbarians who practise incest and polygamy and their agon continues in a series of rapid stichomythic exchanges. When Menelaus arrives and reveals that he has found her son, the intervention of the aged Peleus saves them. Orestes, who has contrived the murder of Neoptolemus at Delphi, the death of Neoptolemus is announced. The goddess Thetis appears as a deus ex machina and arranges matters, the odious character which Euripides attributes to Menelaus has been seen as according with the feeling against Sparta that prevailed at the time at Athens. Peleus curses Sparta several times during the play, edward P. Coleridge,1891 - prose, full text at Andromache. Robert Cannon,1997 - verse George Theodoridis - prose, full text at Andromache, bacchicstage - The Ancient Greek Stage. The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy, Playing Space and Chorus, Chicago and London, U of Chicago P. ISBN 0-226-47757-6
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The Suppliants (Euripides)
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The Suppliants, also called The Suppliant Maidens, or The Suppliant Women, first performed in 423 BC, is an ancient Greek play by Euripides. After Oedipus leaves Thebes, his sons fight for control of it, Polyneices lays siege to Thebes against his brother Eteocles. Polyneices has married the daughter of Adrastus, King of Argos, and so Polyneices has on his side the Argive army, leaders of which help form the Seven Against Thebes. The invaders lose the battle, and Polyneices and Eteocles both die, Creon takes power in Thebes and decrees the invaders are not to be buried. The mothers of the dead seek someone to help reverse this, Aethra, the mother of the Athenian king Theseus, prays before the altar of Demeter and Persephone in Eleusis. She is surrounded by women from Argos whose sons died in battle outside the gates of Thebes, because of Creon’s decree, their corpses remain unburied. Adrastus, the king of Argos who authorized the expedition, lies weeping on the floor surrounded by the sons of the slain warriors, Aethra has sent a messenger to Theseus asking him to come to Eleusis. The old women beg Aethra for help, evoking images of their sons’ unburied bodies, when he asks his mother what is going on, she directs him to Adrastus who begs him to reclaim the bodies. Adrastus explains that he supported the attack on Thebes, against the advice of the seer Amphiaraus, in deference to his sons-in-law, Tydeus, Theseus observes that he favored courage over discretion. Admitting his mistakes, Adrastus appeals to Theseus as the ruler of the city with the integrity. After a bit of reflection on the state of mankind, Theseus resolves not to repeat Adrastus’ mistake and he tells Adrastus to go away and leave him alone. Although Adrastus is ready to concede, the women will not take no for an answer, appealing to principles of common human decency, they beg Aethra to intervene. She reminds her son that he has a duty to uphold the ancient laws of Hellas, moved by her tears and arguments, Theseus agrees to intervene, but only if the Athenian citizens endorse his decision. Confident that the people support him, he and his mother set out for home, followed by Adrastus. After some time, Theseus returns with a retinue and he dispatches his herald to Thebes to request the release of the bodies. If they cooperate, he says, thank them and come back, if they refuse, tell them Theseus will be in arms at their gates with the full backing of the Athenian people. Before the herald can leave, however, a herald from Thebes arrives looking for the local despot, when Theseus tells him that Athens is not ruled by a despot, but by the people, the herald adopts a disparaging tone. His city, he tells Theseus, is ruled by one man, Theseus responds by saying that in a democracy every man can make a contribution if what he says is wise
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Hecuba (play)
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Hecuba is a tragedy by Euripides written c.424 BC. It takes place after the Trojan War, but before the Greeks have departed Troy, the central figure is Hecuba, wife of King Priam, formerly Queen of the now-fallen city. It depicts Hecubas grief over the death of her daughter Polyxena, in the plays opening, the ghost of Polydorus tells how when the war threatened Troy, he was sent to King Polymestor of Thrace for safekeeping, with gifts of gold and jewelry. But when Troy lost the war, Polymestor treacherously murdered Polydorus, Polydorus has foreknowledge of many of the plays events and haunted his mothers dreams the night before. The events take place on the coast of Thrace, as the Greek navy returns home from Troy, the Trojan queen Hecuba, now enslaved by the Greeks, mourns her great losses and worries about the portents of her nightmare. The Chorus of young slave women enters, bearing fateful news, one of Hecubas last remaining daughters, Polyxena, is to be killed on the tomb of Achilles as a blood sacrifice to his honor. Greek commander Odysseus enters, to escort Polyxena to an altar where Neoptolemus will shed her blood, Odysseus ignores Hecubas impassioned pleas to spare Polyxena, and Polyxena herself says she would rather die than live as a slave. In the first Choral interlude, the Chorus lament their own doomed fate, the Greek messenger Talthybius arrives, tells a stirring account of Polyxenas strikingly heroic death, and delivers a message from Agamemnon, chief of the Greek army, to bury Polyxena. Hecuba sends a girl to fetch water from the sea to bathe her daughters corpse. After a second Choral interlude, the body of Polydorus is brought on stage, upon recognizing her son whom she thought safe, Hecuba reaches new heights of despair. Hecuba rages inconsolably against the brutality of such an action, Agamemnon enters, and Hecuba, tentatively at first and then boldly requests that Agamemnon help her avenge her sons murder. Hecubas daughter Cassandra is a concubine of Agamemnon so the two have some relationship to protect and Agamemnon listens, Agamemnon reluctantly agrees, as the Greeks await a favorable wind to sail home. The Greek army considers Polymestor an ally and Agamemnon does not wish to be observed helping Hecuba against him and he inquires about Hecubas welfare, with a pretense of friendliness. Hecuba reciprocates, concealing her knowledge of the murder of Polydorus, Hecuba tells Polymestor she knows where the remaining treasures of Troy are hidden, and offers to tell him the secrets, to be passed on to Polydorus. Hecuba convinces him and his sons to enter an offstage tent where she claims to have more personal treasures, enlisting help from other slaves, Hecuba kills Polymestors sons and stabs Polymestors eyes. He re-enters blinded and savage, hunting as if a beast for the women who ruined him, Agamemnon re-enters angry with the uproar and witnesses Hecubas revenge. Polymestor argues that Hecubas revenge was an act, whereas his murder of Polydorus was intended to preserve the Greek victory and dispatch a young Trojan. The arguments take the form of a trial, and Hecuba delivers a rebuttal exposing Polymestors speech as sophistry, Agamemnon decides justice has been served by Hecubas revenge
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Herakles (Euripides)
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Herakles is an Athenian tragedy by Euripides that was first performed c.416 BCE. While Herakles is in the underworld obtaining Cerberus for one of his labours, his father Amphitryon, wife Megara, Herakles arrives in time to save them, though the goddesses Iris and Madness cause him to kill his wife and children in a frenzy. It is the second of two surviving tragedies by Euripides where the family of Herakles are suppliants and it was first performed at the City Dionysia festival. Lycus is ruling Thebes unlawfully and is about to kill Amphitryon, and—because Megara is the daughter of the lawful king Creon—Herakles wife Megara and their children. Herakles cannot help his family, for he is in Hades engaged in the last of his twelve labours, the family has taken refuge at the altar of Zeus, they are forbidden to enter their palace and are watched too closely to escape. The Chorus sympathize with them and encourage them, but, being old men, are unable to help, Lycus comes to ask how long they are going to try to prolong their lives by clinging to the altar. He claims that Herakles has been killed in Hades and will never help them and he justifies the proposed slaughter, claiming that Herakles children will attempt to avenge their grandfather, Creon, by killing Lycus when they grow up. He depreciates the deeds of Herakles, calling him a coward for using a bow instead of a spear, Amphitryon, point by point, argues the other side and asks permission for them to go into exile. Lycus declares that he is through with words and orders his men to bring logs, stack them around the altar, Megara refuses to be burned alive, that is a cowards death. She has given up hope for Herakles return and gets permission from Lycus to dress the children in robes of death to face their executioners. The old men of the Chorus have stoutly defended Herakles family, Megara returns with the children, dressed for death. She tells of the kingdoms Herakles had planned to each of them. As Amphitryon laments the futility of the life he has lived, when Herakles hears the story of Creons overthrow and Lycus plan to kill Megara and the children, he resolves upon revenge. He tells them the reason for his absence is that in addition to bringing Cerberus back from Hades and imprisoning him, he also brought back Theseus. With the children clinging to his robes, he goes into the palace with Megara, Lycus returns and, impatient at finding only Amphitryon ready, storms into the palace to get the others. He is met inside by Herakles, and killed, the Chorus sing a joyful song of celebration, but it is interrupted by the appearance of Iris and Madness, hovering over the house. Iris announces that she has come to make Herakles kill his own children by driving him mad, Hera, Zeus wife, is behind the plan, she has hated Herakles since birth because Zeus was his father. She also resents his god-like strength and wants to humble him, a Messenger reports that when the fit of madness fell on Herakles, he believed he had to kill Eurystheus, the king who assigned his labours
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The Trojan Women
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The Trojan Women, also known as Troades, is a tragedy by the Greek playwright Euripides. 415 BC was also the year of the desecration of the hermai. The Trojan Women was the tragedy of a trilogy dealing with the Trojan War. The first tragedy, Alexandros, was about the recognition of the Trojan prince Paris who had abandoned in infancy by his parents. The second tragedy, Palamedes, dealt with Greek mistreatment of their fellow Greek Palamedes and this trilogy was presented at the Dionysia along with the comedic satyr play Sisyphos. The plots of this trilogy were not connected in the way that Aeschylus Oresteia was connected, Euripides did not favor such connected trilogies. Euripides won second prize at the City Dionysia for his effort, the four Trojan women of the play are the same that appear in the final book of the Iliad lamenting over the corpse of Hector. Taking place near the time is Hecuba, another play by Euripides. Euripidess play follows the fates of the women of Troy after their city has been sacked, their husbands killed, what follows shows how much the Trojan women have suffered as their grief is compounded when the Greeks dole out additional deaths and divide their shares of women. The Greek herald Talthybius arrives to tell the dethroned queen Hecuba what will befall her and her children, Hecuba will be taken away with the Greek general Odysseus, and Cassandra is destined to become the conquering general Agamemnons concubine. Cassandra, who can see the future, is delighted by this news, she sees that when they arrive in Argos. However, Cassandra is also cursed so that her visions of the future are never believed, the widowed princess Andromache arrives and Hecuba learns from her that her youngest daughter, Polyxena, has been killed as a sacrifice at the tomb of the Greek warrior Achilles. The Greek leaders are afraid that the boy grow up to avenge his father Hector. Helen, though not one of the Trojan women, is supposed to suffer greatly as well, Helen begs and tries to seduce her husband into sparing her life. Menelaus remains resolved to kill her, but the audience watching the play knows that he let her live. In the end, Talthybius returns, carrying with him the body of little Astyanax on Hectors shield, andromaches wish had been to bury her child herself, performing the proper rituals according to Trojan ways, but her ship had already departed. Talthybius gives the corpse to Hecuba, who prepares the body of her grandson for burial before they are taken off with Odysseus. Throughout the play, many of the Trojan women lament the loss of the land that reared them, the Israeli playwright Hanoch Levin also wrote his own version of the play, adding more disturbing scenes and scatological details
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Ion (play)
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Ion is an ancient Greek play by Euripides, thought to be written between 414 and 412 BC. It follows the orphan Ion in the discovery of his origins, Creusa, daughter of Erechtheus, was a noble native of Athens. The god Apollo raped her in a cave, there she gave birth to his son and she keeps all this a secret. Many years later she was near the end of child bearing age, and had so far unable to have a child with her husband Xuthus. So they traveled to Delphi to seek a sign from the oracles, outside the temple of Apollo at Delphi, Hermes recalls the time when Creusa, the daughter of Erectheus, was raped by Apollo in a cave at Long Rocks under the Acropolis. Creusa secretly gave birth to a child, whom she left in a basket, along with some trinkets, Apollo sent Hermes to bring the boy to Delphi where he has grown up as an attendant at the temple. Creusa, meanwhile, was married to the foreign-born Xuthus, son of Aeolus, Xuthus won Creusa by assisting the Athenians in a war against the Chalcidians. Xuthus and Creusa have come to Delphi to ask if they can have children, Hermes says that Apollo will give the boy, soon to be named Ion, to Xuthus who will take him home to Athens where he will be recognized by his mother. Hermes steps into a wooded grove when Ion arrives to begin his morning chores, as Ion sweeps the steps of the temple with a broom of laurel, he sings the praise of the god who is like a father to him. His reveries are disturbed by birds which he shoos away with his arrows, the Chorus, consisting of Athenian maidens, arrives at the temple and marvels at the stonework depicting ancient legends. They identify themselves to Ion as servants of the Athenian rulers, Creusa introduces herself to Ion as the daughter of Erectheus. Ion is impressed, as he is familiar with the old stories about her family, Ions casual mention of Long Rocks startles Creusa but she reveals nothing of her past. She tells him that she has married a foreigner, Xuthus and they are here to ask about having children. Ion introduces himself as a slave who was brought up by the priestess of Apollo. When Creusa asks if he has tried to find his mother. Moved by the thought of his mother, Creusa tells Ion that she has come in advance of her husband to question the oracle on behalf of a friend who had a child by Apollo, which she abandoned. She has come, she tells him, to ask the god if her friends child is still alive and he would be about your age now, she tells him. Ion warns her to abandon the inquiry, saying no one would dare accuse the god of such a deed in his own temple
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Iphigenia in Tauris
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Iphigenia in Tauris is a drama by the playwright Euripides, written between 414 BC and 412 BC. It has much in common with another of Euripidess plays, Helen, as well as the lost play Andromeda, and is described as a romance, a melodrama. Although the play is known in English as Iphigenia in Tauris, this is, strictly speaking, the Latin title of the play. There is no place as Tauris in Euripides play, although Goethe, in his play Iphigenie auf Tauris. Years before the period covered by the play, the young princess Iphigeneia narrowly avoided death by sacrifice at the hands of her father. She has since made a priestess at the temple of Artemis in Tauris. Iphigeneia hates her forced religious servitude and is desperate to contact her family in Greece. She wants to inform them that, thanks to the miraculous swap performed by Artemis, she is alive and wants to return to her homeland. Furthermore, she has had a dream about her younger brother Orestes and believes that he is dead. Meanwhile, Orestes has killed his mother Clytemnestra to avenge his father Agamemnon with assistance from his friend Pylades and he becomes haunted by the Erinyes for committing the crime and goes through periodic fits of madness. He is told by Apollo to go to Athens to be brought to trial, although the trial ends in his favour, the Erinyes continue to haunt him. Apollo sends him to steal a statue of Artemis to bring back to Athens so that he may be set free. The scene represents the front of the temple of Artemis in the land of the Taurians, the altar is in the center. The play begins with Iphigenia reflecting on her brothers death and she recounts her sacrifice at the hands of Agamemnon, and how she was saved by Artemis and made priestess in this temple. She has had a dream in which the structure of her familys house crashed down in ruins and she interprets this dream to mean that Orestes is dead. Orestes and Pylades enter, having just arrived in this land, Orestes was sent by Apollo to retrieve the image of Artemis from the temple, and Pylades has accompanied him. Orestes explains that he has avenged Agamemnons death by killing Clytaemnestra, the two decide to hide and make a plan to retrieve the idol without being captured. They know that the Taurians sacrifice Hellene blood in their temple of Artemis, Iphigenia enters and discusses her sad life with the chorus, composed of captive Greek maidens, attendants of Iphigenia
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Helen (play)
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Helen is a drama by Euripides about Helen, first produced in 412 BC for the Dionysia in a trilogy that also contained Euripides lost Andromeda. The play has much in common with Iphigenia in Tauris, one of the later works. Helen was written soon after the Sicilian Expedition, in which Athens had suffered a massive defeat, concurrently, the sophists – a movement of teachers who incorporated philosophy and rhetoric into their occupation – were beginning to question traditional values and religious beliefs. Within the plays framework, Euripides starkly condemns war, deeming it to be the root of all evil, about thirty years before this play, Herodotus argued in his Histories that Helen had never in fact arrived at Troy, but was in Egypt during the entire Trojan War. The Archaic lyric poet Stesichorus had made the assertion in his Palinode. The play Helen tells a variant of this story, beginning under the premise that rather than running off to Troy with Paris, the Helen who escaped with Paris, betraying her husband and her country and initiating the ten-year conflict, was actually an eidolon, a phantom look-alike. Thus, the real Helen has been languishing in Egypt for years, while the Greeks, in Egypt, king Proteus, who had protected Helen, has died. His son Theoclymenus, the new king with a penchant for killing Greeks, intends to marry Helen and her fears are allayed when a stranger arrives in Egypt and turns out to be Menelaus himself, and the long-separated couple recognize each other. At first, Menelaus does not believe that she is the real Helen, however, the woman he was shipwrecked with was in reality, only a mere phantom of the real Helen. Before the Trojan war even began, a judgement took place and he gave the Goddess Aphrodite the award of the fairest since she bribed him with Helen as a bride. To take their revenge on Paris, the goddesses, Athena and Hera. However, Menelaus did not know better, but luckily one of his sailors steps in to inform him that the false Helen has disappeared into thin air. The couple still must figure out how to escape from Egypt, but fortunately, thus, Helen tells Theoclymenus that the stranger who came ashore was a messenger there to tell her that her husband was truly dead. She informs the king that she may marry him as soon as she has performed a ritual burial at sea, the king agrees to this, and Helen and Menelaus use this opportunity to escape on the boat given to them for the ceremony. Theoclymenus is furious when he learns of the trick and nearly murders his sister Theonoe for not telling him that Menelaus is still alive, however, he is prevented by the miraculous intervention of the demi-gods Castor and Polydeuces, brothers of Helen and the sons of Zeus and Leda
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Iphigenia in Aulis
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Iphigenia in Aulis or at Aulis is the last of the extant works by the playwright Euripides. The conflict between Agamemnon and Achilles over the fate of the young woman presages a similar conflict between the two at the beginning of the Iliad, in his depiction of the experiences of the main characters, Euripides frequently uses tragic irony for dramatic effect. The Greek fleet is waiting at Aulis, Boeotia, with its ships ready to sail for Troy, calchas informs the general that in order to appease the goddess, he must sacrifice his eldest daughter, Iphigenia. He sends a message to his wife, Clytemnestra, telling her to send Iphigenia to Aulis on the pretext that the girl is to be married to the Greek warrior Achilles before he sets off to fight. At the start of the play, Agamemnon has second thoughts about going through with the sacrifice and sends a message to his wife. Clytemnestra never receives it, however, because it is intercepted by Menelaus, Agamemnons brother, by this time, Clytemnestra is already on her way to Aulis with Iphigenia and her baby brother Orestes, making the decision of how to proceed all the more difficult. Iphigenia is thrilled at the prospect of marrying one of the heroes of the Greek army, but she, her mother. Furious at having been used as a prop in Agamemnons plan, Clytemnestra and Iphigenia try in vain to persuade Agamemnon to change his mind, but the general believes that he has no choice. As Achilles prepares to defend Iphigenia by force, Iphigenia, realizing that she has no hope of escape, begs Achilles not to throw his life away in a lost cause. Leading the chorus in a hymn to Artemis, she goes to her death, with her mother Clytemnestra so distraught as to presage her murder of her husband and Orestess matricide years later. The play as it exists in the ends with a messenger reporting that Iphigenia has been replaced on the altar by a deer. It is, however, generally considered that this is not a part of Euripides original text. The earliest extant libretto is by Christian Heinrich Postel, Die wunderbar errettete Iphigenia, other libretti include Ifigenia by Matteo Verazi, that of Vittorio Amadeo Cigna-Santi, that of Luigi Serio, and that of Ferdinando Moretti. However, the best-known opera today is Christoph Willibald Glucks Iphigénie en Aulide, Iphigenia in Aulis has had a significant influence on modern art. Greek director Mihalis Kakogiannis based his 1977 film Iphigenia on Euripidess script, the play also formed the basis for the 2003 novel The Songs of the Kings by Barry Unsworth, as well as the P. D. Q. Neil LaBute drew heavily on the story of Iphigenia for his short play Iphigenia in Orem, the play re-sets Iphigenias story in and around Ciudad Juárez and the murders of the Women of Juárez. Charles L. Mee, an American playwright, adapted the text for the theatre through his project. The New York World Premiere of this version of Iphigenia 2
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Orestes (play)
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Orestes is an Ancient Greek play by Euripides that follows the events of Orestes after he had murdered his mother. In accordance with the advice of the god Apollo, Orestes has killed his mother Clytemnestra to avenge the death of his father Agamemnon at her hands, despite Apollo’s earlier prophecy, Orestes finds himself tormented by Erinyes or Furies to the blood guilt stemming from his matricide. The only person capable of calming Orestes down from his madness is his sister Electra, to complicate matters further, a leading political faction of Argos wants to put Orestes to death for the murder. Orestes’ only hope to save his life lies in his uncle Menelaus, the play begins with a soliloquy that outlines the basic plot and events that have led up to this point from Electra, who stands next to a sleeping Orestes. Shortly after, Helen comes out of the palace under the pretext that she wishes to make an offering at her sister Clytemnestra’s grave, after Helen leaves, a chorus of Argive women enters to help advance the plot. Then Orestes, still maddened by the Furies, awakes, Menelaus arrives at the palace and he and Orestes discuss the murder and the resulting madness. As Tyndareus leaves, he warns Menelaus that he will need the old man as an ally, Orestes, in supplication before Menelaus, hopes to gain the compassion that Tyndareus would not grant in an attempt to get him to speak before the assembly of Argive men. However, Menelaus ultimately shuns his nephew, choosing not to compromise his tenuous power among the Greeks, Pylades, Orestes’ best friend and his accomplice in Clytemnestra’s murder, arrives after Menelaus has exited. He and Orestes begin to formulate a plan, in the process indicting partisan politics, Orestes and Pylades then exit so that they may state their case before the town assembly in an effort to save Orestes and Electra from execution, which proves unsuccessful. Their execution certain, Orestes, Electra, and Pylades formulate a plan of revenge against Menelaus for turning his back on them, to inflict the greatest suffering, they plan to kill Helen and their daughter, Hermione. However, when they go to kill Helen, she vanishes, in attempting to execute their plan, a Phrygian slave of Helen’s escapes the palace. Orestes asks the slave why he should spare his life and the slave supplicates himself before Orestes, Orestes is won over by the Phrygian’s argument that, like free men, slaves prefer the light of day to death. Menelaus then enters leading to a standoff between him and Orestes, Electra, and Pylades, who have successfully captured Hermione, just as more bloodshed is to occur, Apollo arrives on stage deus ex machina. He sets everything back in order, explaining that Helen has been placed among the stars and he tells Orestes to go to Athens to the Areopagus, the Athenian court, in order to stand judgment, where he will later be acquitted. Also, Orestes is to marry Hermione, while Pylades will marry Electra, finally, Apollo tells the mortals to go and rejoice in Peace, most honored and favored of the gods. Like much of his work, Euripides uses the mythology of the Bronze Age to make a point about the politics of Classical Athens during the Peloponnesian War. Orestes first played at the Dionysia during the years of the war. Euripides challenges the role of the gods and perhaps more appropriately man’s interpretation of divine will, Orestes and others note the subordinate role of man to the gods, but the superiority of the gods does not make them particularly fair or rational
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The Bacchae
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The Bacchae is an ancient Greek tragedy, written by the Athenian playwright Euripides during his final years in Macedonia, at the court of Archelaus I of Macedon. It won first prize in the City Dionysia festival competition and this side is sensual without analysis, it feels a connection between man and beast, and it is a potential source of divinity and spiritual power. In Euripides’ plays the gods represent various qualities, allowing the audience to grapple with considerations of the human condition. The tragedy is based on the Greek myth of King Pentheus of Thebes and his mother Agave, and their punishment by the god Dionysus. The god Dionysus appears at the beginning of the play and proclaims that he has arrived in Thebes to avenge the slander, which has been repeated by his aunts, that he is not the son of Zeus. In response, he intends to introduce Dionysian rites into the city, and he intends to demonstrate to the king, Pentheus, and to Thebes that he was indeed born a god. However, as the play proceeds Dionysus encounters what he considers newly occurring reasons to be angry, and in his capriciousness, the audience watches his revenge grow out of proportion. By the end of the play, there is the horrible and gruesome death of the king, Dionysus will further cause the plundering of a number of other cities. In The Bacchae there are two different versions of Dionysus. First there is the god as he is described by the chorus, however, Dionysus also appears as a character on the stage, has come for revenge, and is never like this. He is instead deliberate, plotting, angry and vengeful, the Bacchae is considered to be not only Euripides greatest tragedy, but one of the greatest ever written, modern or ancient. The Bacchae is distinctive for the facts that the chorus is integrated into the plot and the god is not a distant presence, but a character in the play, indeed, the protagonist. The Bacchae has been the subject of varying interpretations regarding what the play as a whole means. The extraordinary beauty and passion of the poetic choral descriptions indicate that the author certainly knew what attracted those who followed Dionysus, and the vivid gruesomeness of the punishment of Pentheus suggests that he could also understand those who were troubled by the religion. The Dionysus in Euripides tale is a god, angry that his mortal family. His mortal mother, Semele, was a mistress of Zeus, while pregnant she was killed, through trickery, by Hera, who was jealous of her husbands affair. When Semele died, her sisters said it was Zeus will and accused her of lying, they accused their father, Cadmus. Most of Semeles family refuse to believe Dionysus is the son of Zeus, and he has traveled throughout Asia and other foreign lands, gathering a cult of female worshipers
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Rhesus (play)
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Rhesus is an Athenian tragedy that belongs to the transmitted plays of Euripides. The conventional attribution to Euripides remains controversial, Rhesus takes place during the Trojan War, on the night when Odysseus and Diomedes sneak into the Trojan camp. The same event is narrated in book 10 of Homers epic poem, in the middle of the night Trojan guards on the lookout for suspicious enemy activity sight bright fires in the Greek camp. They promptly inform Hector, who almost issues a call to arms before Aeneas makes him see how ill-advised this would be. Their best bet, Aeneas argues, would be to send someone to spy on the Greek camp, Dolon volunteers to spy on the Greeks in exchange for Achilless horses when the war is won. Hector accepts the deal and sends him out, Dolon leaves wearing the skin of a wolf, and plans on deceiving the Greeks by walking on all fours. Rhesus, the king of Thrace, arrives to assist the Trojans soon after Dolon sets out. Hector berates him for coming so many years late, but decides better late than never, Rhesus says he intended on coming in the beginning, but was sidetracked defending his own land from an attack by Scythians. Meanwhile, on their way into the Trojan encampment, Odysseus and Diomedes run into Dolon, when they reach the encampment with the intention of killing Hector, Athena guides them to Rhesus sleeping quarters instead, pointing out that they are not destined to kill Hector. Diomedes slays Rhesus and others while Odysseus takes his prized horses before making their escape, rumors spread from Rhesus men that it was an inside job, and that Hector was responsible. Hector arrives to cast blame on the sentinels for, due to the sly tactics, the mother of Rhesus, one of the nine muses, then arrives and lays blame on all those responsible, Odysseus, Diomedes, and Athena. She also announces the imminent resurrection of Rhesus, who will become immortal and this short play is most notable in comparison with the Iliad. The part with Dolon is pushed to the background, and much more is revealed about Rhesus, the first to fully dispute that the Rhesus was a play by Euripides was L. C. Valckenaer in his Phoenissae and Diatribe in Euripidis deperditorum dramatum reliquias, in an introduction to Rhesus, classical scholar Gilbert Murray wrote that passages from the play were quoted by early Alexandrian writers. The ancient hypotheses transmitted along with the play, however, show that its authenticity was attacked by a number of whose names are not given. Cases against Euripides authorship generally center on stylistic differences, Murray argued that this may be attributable simply to a younger or less-developed Euripides. Murray also raised the possibility of its being a reproduction of a Euripides play, in 1964, William Ritchie defended the plays authenticity in a book-length study. His conclusions were opposed, however, by Eduard Fraenkel, ISBN9780199540525 unknown translator – verse, full text George Theodoridis,2010 – prose, full text Hall, Edith
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Megara
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Megara is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis. Megara was one of the four districts of Attica, embodied in the four sons of King Pandion II. Megara was also a port, its people using their ships. Megara specialized in the exportation of wool and other products including livestock such as horses. It possessed two harbors, Pegae, to the west on the Corinthian Gulf and Nisaea, to the east on the Saronic Gulf of the Aegean Sea. In historical times, Megara was a dependency of Corinth, in which capacity colonists from Megara founded Megara Hyblaea. Megara then fought a war of independence with Corinth, and afterwards founded Chalcedon in 685 BC, Megara is known to have early ties with Miletos, in the region of Caria in Asia Minor. According to some scholars, they had built up a “colonisation alliance”, in the 7th/6th century BCE these two cities acted in concordance with each other. Both cities acted under the leadership and sanction of an Apollo oracle, Megara cooperated with that of Delphi. Miletos had her own oracle of Apollo Didymeus Milesios in Didyma, also, there are many parallels in the political organisation of both cities. In the late 7th century BC Theagenes established himself as tyrant of Megara by slaughtering the cattle of the rich to win over the poor, during the second Persian invasion of Greece Megara fought alongside the Spartans and Athenians at crucial battles such as Salamis and Plataea. Megaras defection from the Spartan-dominated Peloponnesian League became one of the causes of the First Peloponnesian War, by the terms of the Thirty Years Peace of 446-445 BC Megara was returned to the Peloponnesian League. In the Peloponnesian War, Megara was an ally of Sparta, the Megarian decree is considered to be one of several contributing causes of the Peloponnesian War. Athens issued the Megarian decree with the aim of choking out the Megarian economy, the decree banned Megarian merchants from territory controlled by Athens. The Athenians claimed that they were responding to the Megarians desecration of the Hiera Orgas, arguably the most famous citizen of Megara in antiquity was Byzas, the legendary founder of Byzantium in the 7th century BC. The 6th-century BC poet Theognis also came from Megara, in the early 4th century BC, Euclid of Megara founded the Megarian school of philosophy which flourished for about a century, and which became famous for the use of logic and dialectic. In 243 BC Megara expelled its Macedonian garrison and joined the Achaean League, the Megarians were proverbial for their generosity in building and endowing temples
