1.
Cookware and bakeware
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Cookware and bakeware are types of food preparation containers, commonly found in a kitchen. Cookware comprises cooking vessels, such as saucepans and frying pans, bakeware comprises cooking vessels intended for use inside an oven. Some utensils are considered both cookware and bakeware, some choices of material also require special pre-preparation of the surface—known as seasoning—before they are used for food preparation. Both the cooking pot and lid handles can be made of the material but will mean that. In order to avoid this, handles can be made of non-heat-conducting materials, for example bakelite and it is best to avoid hollow handles because they are difficult to clean or to dry. A good cooking pot design has an edge which is what the lid lies on. The lid has an edge that avoids condensation fluid from dripping off when handling the lid or putting it down. The history of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is due to the limited archaeological evidence. The earliest pottery vessels, dating from 19, 600±400 BP, were discovered in Xianrendong Cave, Jiangxi, the pottery may have been used as cookware, manufactured by hunter-gatherers. Harvard University archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef reported that When you look at the pots and it is also possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the believed to be used by stone age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines, of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to heated water sources, such as hot springs. In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels, according to Frank Hamilton Cushing, Native American cooking baskets used by the Zuni developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels. He reported witnessing cooking basket use by Havasupai in 1881, roasting baskets covered with clay would be filled with wood coals and the product to be roasted. When the thus fired clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay roasting pan in itself and this indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in other cultures, Native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking baskets are filled with hot stones and roasting pans with wood coals, Native Americans would form a basket from large leaves to boil water, according to historian and novelist Louis LAmour
2.
Cast iron
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Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
3.
Clay pot cooking
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Clay pot cooking is a process of cooking food in a pot made of unglazed or glazed pottery. Different cultures have different techniques of cooking food in clay pots, some use pots that are fully finished by burnishing and therefore do not require the pot to be soaked each time before use. Some are unfinished and must be soaked in water for 30-45 minutes before use to avoid cracking. The design and shape of the pot differ slightly from one culture to another to suit their style of cooking, seasoning is important to prevent cracking of the vessel when exposed to high heat. Clay pots are initially seasoned with oil and hot water but may be fully seasoned only after the first several uses and it is also essential to avoid sudden temperature changes, which may cause the pot to crack. Heat should be started low and increased gradually both on the stovetop and in the oven, the food inside the pot loses little to no moisture because it is surrounded by steam, creating a tender, flavorful dish. Water absorbed within the walls of the pot prevents burning so long as the pot is not allowed to dry completely, because no oil needs to be added with this cooking technique, food cooked in clay is often lower in fat than food prepared by other methods. In the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana in India, there are many different types of pots used in the different cultures of North India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. In northern states including Panjab, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, traditionally, Indian chefs could cook many dishes simultaneously by stacking handi while cooking. In southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana, the cooking pots are called man panai, man satti in Tamil. In Chinese, the pot used for cooking is generally known as Chinese, 砂鍋, pinyin, shā guo, Cantonese Yale, sā wō or Chinese, 煲仔, Cantonese Yale, bōu jái. In Taiwan, the chicken dish sanbeiji is prepared in a clay pot, in Japan, the pot used for cooking is called a donabe, although it is not submerged in water. The stew-like dish kho is cooked in a pot, the pot is most often called nồi đất in Vietnamese, although, depending on its size and use, it may also be called nồi kho cá, nồi kho thịt, nồi kho tiêu, or nồi kho tộ. The traditional pot used for cooking is the palayok, the traditional pot used for cooking is called kuali. Traditionally, all food was cooked in specialized clay pots, some traditional dishes are still cooked in clay pots as the same flavor cannot be achieved with metal cookware. The tajine is a North African, two-piece pot used in Moroccan cuisine, the bottom part is a broad, shallow bowl, while the top is tall and conical, or sometimes domed. The tall lid acts to condense rising steam and allow the moisture to roll back down into the dish, the tajine lends its name to the meat stew that is typically cooked in this pot. Clay roasting pots called Römertopf are mainly used to meat or stew in the oven
4.
Ceramic
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A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic, solid material comprising metal, non-metal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. This article gives an overview of ceramic materials from the point of view of materials science, the crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, vitrified, and often completely amorphous. Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, varying crystallinity and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators. With such a range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic, the breadth of the subject is vast. Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family. The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects or figurines made from clay, either by itself or mixed with materials like silica, hardened, sintered. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products, as well as a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering. The word ceramic comes from the Greek word κεραμικός, of pottery or for pottery, from κέραμος, potters clay, tile, the earliest known mention of the root ceram- is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, workers of ceramics, written in Linear B syllabic script. The word ceramic may be used as an adjective to describe a material, product or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular, or, more commonly, as the plural noun ceramics. A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material, some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and they withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C. Glass is often not considered a ceramic because of its amorphous character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials. Traditional ceramic raw materials include minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide, both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are used in the medicine, electrical, electronics industries. Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a range of processing
5.
Bain-marie
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A bain-marie is also used to melt ingredients for cooking. Under the outer container of the bain-marie is a heat source, typically the inner container is immersed about halfway into the working fluid. The insulating action of the water helps to keep contents of the pot from boiling or scorching. Using different working fluids in the container will result in different maximum temperatures. A contemporary alternative to the traditional, liquid-filled bain-marie is the electric dry-heat bain-marie, the dry-heat form of electric bains-marie often consumes less energy, requires little cleaning, and can be heated more quickly than traditional versions. They can also operate at higher temperatures, and are much less expensive than their traditional counterparts. Electric bains-marie can also be wet, using hot water or vapor, or steam. The open, bath-type bain-marie heats via a small, hot-water tub, chocolate can be melted in a bain-marie to avoid splitting and caking onto the pot. Special dessert bains-marie have an insulated container and are used as a chocolate fondue. Cheesecake is often baked in a bain-marie to prevent the top from cracking in the centre, custard may be cooked in a bain-marie to keep a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is fully cooked. The humidity from the steam that rises as the water helps keep the top of the custard from becoming too dry. Classic warm sauces, such as Hollandaise and beurre blanc, requiring heat to emulsify the mixture, some charcuterie such as terrines and pâtés are cooked in an oven-type bain-marie. Thickening of condensed milk, such as in confection-making, is easily in a bain-marie. Controlled-temperature bains-marie can be used to heat frozen breast milk before feedings, bains-marie can be used in place of chafing dishes for keeping foods warm for long periods of time, where stovetops or hot plates are inconvenient or too powerful. A bain-marie can be used to re-liquefy hardened honey by placing a glass jar on top of any improvised platform sitting at the bottom of a pot of boiling water. In small scale soap-making, a bain-maries inherent control over maximum temperature makes it optimal for liquefying melt-and-pour soap bases prior to molding them into bars and it offers the advantage of maintaining the base in a liquid state, or reliquefying a solidified base, with minimal deterioration. Similarly, using a bath, traditional wood glue can be melted. The name comes from the medieval-Latin term balneum Mariae—literally, Marys bath—from which the French bain de Marie, the devices invention has been popularly attributed to Mary the Jewess, an ancient alchemist
6.
Goulash
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Goulash is a soup or stew of meat and vegetables, seasoned with paprika and other spices. Originating from the medieval Kingdom of Hungary, goulash is also a meal in Central Europe, Eastern Europe. Its origin traces back to the 9th century to stews eaten by Hungarian shepherds, back then, the cooked and flavored meat was dried with the help of the sun and packed into bags produced from sheeps stomachs, needing only water to make it into a meal. It is one of the dishes of Hungary and a symbol of the country. The name originates from the Hungarian gulyás, the word gulya means herd of cattle in Hungarian, and gulyás means herdsman or cowboy. The word gulyás originally meant only herdsman, but over time the dish became gulyáshús – that is to say, today, gulyás refers both to the herdsmen, and to the soup. From the Middle Ages until well into the 19th century, the Puszta was the home of massive herds of cattle and they were driven, in their tens of thousands, to Europe’s biggest cattle markets in Moravia, Vienna, Nuremberg and Venice. The herdsmen made sure there were always some cattle that had to be slaughtered along the way. In Hungarian cuisine, traditional Gulyásleves, bográcsgulyás, pörkölt, and paprikás were thick stews made by cattle herders, garlic, caraway seed, bell pepper, and wine are optional. These dishes can be made as soups rather than stews, excepting paprikás, the Hungarian stews do not rely on a flour or roux for thickening. Tomato is an addition, totally unknown in the original recipe. Goulash can be prepared from beef, veal, pork, or lamb, meat is cut into chunks, seasoned with salt, and then browned with sliced onion in a pot with oil or lard. Paprika is added, along with water or stock, and the goulash is left to simmer, after cooking a while, garlic, whole or ground caraway seed, or soup vegetables like carrot, parsley root, peppers and celery may be added. Other herbs and spices could also be added, especially pepper, bay leaf. However, chili peppers are an addition, totally unknown in the original recipe. Diced potatoes may be added, since they provide starch as they cook, however, potatoes are a modern addition, totally unknown in the original recipe. A small amount of wine or wine vinegar may also be added near the end of cooking to round the taste. Goulash may be served with egg noodles called csipetke
7.
Cauldron
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A cauldron is a large metal pot for cooking and/or boiling over an open fire, with a large mouth and frequently with an arc-shaped hanger. The word cauldron is first recorded in Middle English as caudroun and it was borrowed from Norman caudron. It represents the evolution of Vulgar Latin *caldario for Classical Latin caldārium hot bath. The Norman-French word replaces probably the not initial new English sentence ċetel, the word kettle is a borrowing of the Old Norse variant ketill cauldron. Cauldrons have largely fallen out of use in the world as cooking vessels. In fiction, witches often prepare their potions in a cauldron, also, in Irish folklore, a cauldron is purported to be where leprechauns keep their gold and treasure. In some forms of Wicca, incorporating aspects of Celtic mythology, welsh legend also tells of cauldrons that were useful to warring armies. It was suspected that they lacked souls and these warriors could go back into battle until they were killed again. In Wicca and some forms of neopagan or pagan belief systems the cauldron is still used in magical practices. Most often a cauldron is made of cast iron and is used to burn incense on a charcoal disc, to make black salt, for mixing herbs. Cauldrons symbolize not only the Goddess but also represent the womb, cauldrons are often sold in New Age or metaphysical stores and may have various symbols of power inscribed on them. This may have resulted from the combination of the legend with earlier Celtic myths of magical cauldrons. The common translation for ding is often referred to as a cauldron, in Chinese history and culture, possession of one or more ancient dings is often associated with power and dominion over the land. Therefore, the ding is often used as a symbolism for power. The term inquiring of the ding is often used interchangeably with the quest for power
8.
Beanpot
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A beanpot is a deep, wide-bellied, short-necked vessel used to cook bean-based dishes. Beanpots are typically made of ceramic, though made of other materials, like cast iron. The relatively narrow mouth of the beanpot minimizes evaporation and heat loss, while the deep, wide, thick-walled body of the pot facilitates long, beanpots are traditionally associated with New England, in particular Boston, Massachusetts. This association is evident in the nickname Beantown, and the use of the name beanpot for Boston events such as the Beanpot ice hockey tournament, beanpots resemble the Indian handi and the Spanish, Mexican or Native American olla, and may be related to the latter vessel. Unlike the German Römertopf and the Japanese donabe, they are typically glazed both inside and out, and so cannot be used for clay pot cooking. Baked beans Cassole Guernsey Bean Jar Handi Olla Slow cooker Tangia Bean Pot Recipes Online American Centuries beanpot picture Why is Boston called beantown, baked Beans, Exalted by New Englanders in 1800s Zuni Olla picture
9.
Billycan
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A billycan is a lightweight cooking pot in the form of a metal bucket commonly used for boiling water, making tea or cooking over a campfire or to carry water. These utensils are more known simply as a billy or occasionally as a billy can. The term billy or billycan is particularly associated with Australian usage, in Australia, the billy has come to symbolise the spirit of exploration of the outback and is a widespread symbol of bush life, although now regarded mostly as a symbol of an age that has passed. To boil the billy most often means to make tea, billy Tea is the name of a popular brand of tea long sold in Australian grocers and supermarkets. Billies feature in many of Henry Lawsons stories and poems
10.
Braising
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Braising of meat is often referred to as pot roasting, though some authors make a distinction between the two methods, based on whether additional liquid is added. Many classic braised dishes are highly evolved methods of cooking tough, both pressure cooking and slow cooking are forms of braising. Most braises follow the basic steps. The food to be braised is first pan-seared to brown its surface and enhance its flavor, if the food will not produce enough liquid of its own, a certain amount of cooking liquid that often includes an acidic element is added to the pot, often with stock. A classic braise is done with a whole cut of meat. Then, the dish is covered and cooked at a low simmer. Often the cooking liquid is finished to create a sauce or gravy, sometimes, foods with high water content can be cooked in their own juices, making the addition of liquid unnecessary. A successful braise intermingles the flavors of the foods being cooked with those of the cooking liquid and this cooking method dissolves the meats collagen into gelatin, which can greatly enrich and thicken the liquid. Familiar braised dishes include pot roast, Swiss steak, chicken cacciatore, goulash, Carbonade Flamande, coq au vin, sauerbraten, beef bourguignon, beef brisket, and tajines, among others. Braising is also used extensively in the cuisines of Asia, particularly Chinese cuisine and Vietnamese cuisine, adobo Hot pot Jugging Kho Lancashire hotpot Pot roast Red cooking Stew
11.
Searing
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Searing is a technique used in grilling, baking, braising, roasting, sautéing, etc. in which the surface of the food is cooked at high temperature until a caramelized crust forms. Similar techniques, browning and blackening, are used to sear all sides of a particular piece of meat, fish, poultry. To obtain the desired brown or black crust, the surface must exceed 150 °C, so searing requires the meat surface be free of water. Nonetheless, it remains an essential technique in cooking meat for several reasons, The browning creates desirable flavors through caramelization, the appearance of the food is usually improved with a well-browned crust. The contrast in taste and texture between the crust and the interior makes the food more interesting to the palate, typically in grilling, the food will be seared over very high heat and then moved to a lower-temperature area of the grill to finish cooking. In braising, the seared surface acts to flavor, color, the incorrect belief that searing meat seals in the juices is widespread and still often repeated. This theory was first put forth by Justus von Liebig, a German chemist and food scientist, the notion was embraced by contemporary cooks and authors, including Auguste Escoffier. It is more cited in regards to larger cuts, especially steaks and chops, of non-poultry meats such as beef, pork, lamb. Simple experimentation can test the theory, in two similar cuts of meat are cooked, one of which is seared and one of which is not. Each piece is then cooked normally in a preferred method until each reaches exactly the same predetermined internal temperature and they are then weighed to see which lost more moisture. As early as the 1930s, such experiments were carried out, moisture in liquid and vapor form continues to escape from a seared piece of meat
12.
Frying
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Frying is the cooking of food in oil or another fat. Chemically, oils and fats are the same, differing only in melting point, foods can be fried in a variety of fats, including lard, vegetable oil, rapeseed oil and olive oil. In commerce, many fats are called oils by custom, e. g. palm oil and coconut oil, a variety of foods may be fried, including the potato chip, bread, eggs and foods made from eggs, such as omelettes or pancakes. Frying is believed to have first appeared in the Ancient Egyptian kitchen, during the Old Kingdom, fats can reach much higher temperatures than water at normal atmospheric pressure. Through frying, one can sear or even carbonize the surface of foods while caramelizing sugars, the food is cooked much more quickly and has a characteristic crispness and texture. Depending on the food, the fat will penetrate it to varying degrees, contributing richness, lubricity, Frying techniques vary in the amount of fat required, the cooking time, the type of cooking vessel required, and the manipulation of the food. Sautéing, stir frying, pan frying, shallow frying, pan frying, sautéing and stir-frying involve cooking foods in a thin layer of fat on a hot surface, such as a frying pan, griddle, wok, or sauteuse. Stir frying involves frying quickly at high temperatures, requiring that the food be stirred continuously to prevent it from adhering to the cooking surface. Shallow frying is a type of pan frying using only enough fat to immerse approximately one-third to one-half of each piece of food, fat used in this technique is typically only used once. Deep-frying, on the hand, involves totally immersing the food in hot oil. Deep-frying is typically a more involved process, and may require specialized oils for optimal results. Deep frying is now the basis of a large and expanding worldwide industry. The end products can then be easily packaged for storage and distribution, examples are potato chips, french fries, nuts, doughnuts, instant noodles, etc. Media related to Frying at Wikimedia Commons
13.
Bread pan
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A bread pan, also called a loaf pan, is a kitchen utensil in the form of a container in which bread is baked. Its function is to shape bread while it is rising during baking, the most common shape of the bread pan is the loaf, or narrow rectangle, a convenient form which enables uniform slicing. The bread pan is made from a material such as metal which might be treated with a non-stick coating. It can also be made of heat resistant glass, ceramic, or a type of paper that sticks to the dough but is easily removed. Bread pans are found in a variety of designs and sizes providing the baker with different possibilities not only for baking bread, types of bread typically baked in bread pans include sandwich breads, brioche, challah, and raisin bread. Cake pan Proofing Pullman loaf, type of square slicing bread, made with a lidded bread pan
14.
Stoneware
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Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery which has normally been fired below 1200°C. Porcelain, bone china and stoneware, all fired at high temperatures to vitrify, are the main other important types of pottery. Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29, 000–25,000 BCE, outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century, and then initially as an expensive luxury. Earthenware, when fired, is opaque and non-vitreous, soft, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities describes it as being made of selected clays sometimes mixed with feldspars and varying amounts of other minerals and white or light-colored. Generally, earthenware bodies exhibit higher plasticity than most whiteware bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, due to its porosity, earthenware, with a water absorption of 5-8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, darker-colored terracotta earthenwares, typically orange or red, due to a comparatively high content of iron oxide are widely used for flower pots, tiles and some decorative and oven wares. A general body formulation for contemporary earthenware is 25% kaolin, 25% ball clay, 35% quartz and 15% feldspar. Modern earthenware may be fired to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,150 °C and glost-fired to between 950 to 1,050 °C, the usual practice in factories and some studio potteries. Some studio potters follow the practice, with a low-temperature bisque firing. The firing schedule will be determined by the raw materials used, historically, such high temperatures were unattainable in most cultures and periods until modern times, though Chinese ceramics were far ahead of other cultures in this respect. Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C, much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C, giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. After firing most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red, for red earthenware, the firing temperature affects the color of the clay body. Lower temperatures produce a red terracotta color, higher temperatures will make the clay brown or even black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat, an Introduction to the Technology Of Pottery. Whitewares, Production, Testing And Quality Control, the Potters Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers Limited, London, England, Third Edition,1991
15.
Porcelain
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Porcelain /ˈpɔːrsəlᵻn, ˈpɔːrslᵻn/ is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain was first developed in China around 2,000 years ago, then spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels. It also has uses in technology and industry. The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian porcellana because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell, Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent, however, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, a high proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china. Kaolin is the material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both the unfired and fired material, a more common terminology these days for the unfired material is body, for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse, the clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive and have high plasticity, short clays are cohesive and have lower plasticity. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays and they wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow. The following section provides information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 °C, coated with glaze, another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation
16.
Fondue
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Fondue is a Swiss dish of melted cheese served in a communal pot over a portable stove heated with a candle or spirit lamp, and eaten by dipping bread into the cheese using long-stemmed forks. It was promoted as a Swiss national dish by the Swiss Cheese Union in the 1930s, the word fondue is the feminine passive past participle of the French verb fondre used as a noun. It is first attested in French in 1735, in Vincent la Chapelles Cuisinier moderne, the earliest known recipe for cheese fondue as we know it today comes from a 1699 book published in Zurich, under the name Käss mit Wein zu kochen, to cook cheese with wine. It calls for grated or cut-up cheese to be melted with wine, brillat-Savarin wrote in 1834 that it is nothing other than scrambled eggs with cheese. Variations included cream and truffles in addition to eggs, as well as what is now called raclette. The first known recipe for the modern cheese fondue under that name, with cheese and wine but no eggs, was published in 1875, and was already presented as a Swiss national dish. The introduction of cornstarch to Switzerland in 1905 made it easier to make a smooth and stable emulsion of the wine and cheese, Fondue was popularized as a Swiss national dish by the Swiss Cheese Union in the 1930s as a way of increasing cheese consumption. The Swiss Cheese Union also created pseudo-regional recipes as part of the defense of Switzerland. After World War II rationing ended, the Swiss Cheese Union continued its campaign, sending fondue sets to military regiments. Fondue is now a symbol of Swiss unity, Fondue was promoted to Americans at the Swiss Pavilions Alpine restaurant at the 1964 New York Worlds Fair. The extension of the name fondue to other dishes served in a hot pot dates to 1950s New York. Konrad Egli, a Swiss restaurateur, introduced fondue bourguignonne at his Chalet Suisse restaurant in 1956, in the mid 1960s, he invented chocolate fondue as part of a promotion for Toblerone chocolate. A sort of chocolate mousse or chocolate cake had also sometimes called chocolate fondue starting in the 1930s. Cheese fondue consists of a blend of cheeses, wine and seasoning, to prepare the caquelon it is first rubbed with a cut garlic clove. White wine is heated with cornstarch, and then grated cheese is added and stirred until melted. It is often topped off with a bit of kirsch, the cornstarch or other starch is added to prevent separation. The mixture is stirred continuously as it heats in the caquelon, when it is ready, diners dip cubes of bread speared on a fondue fork into the mixture. A cheese fondue mixture should be warm enough to keep the fondue smooth and liquid
17.
Casserole
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A casserole is a large, deep dish used both in the oven and as a serving vessel. The word is used for the food cooked and served in such a vessel. Liquids are released from the meat and vegetables during cooking, and further liquid in the form of stock, wine, beer, gin, cider, casseroles are usually cooked slowly in the oven, often uncovered. They may be served as a course or a side dish. In the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, a casserole is named after its dish, casseroles in these countries are very similar to stews. The heat is indirect, so there is chance of burning. Examples of casserole include ragout, hotpot, cassoulet, tajine, moussaka, shepherds pie, gratin, rice or macaroni timballo, casseroles may be cooked covered or uncovered, while braises are typically covered to prevent evaporation. In 1866, Elmire Jolicoeur, a French Canadian immigrant, invented the precursor of the modern casserole in Berlin, the casseroles we know today are a relatively modern invention. Early casserole recipes consisted of rice that was pounded, pressed, some time around the 1870s this sense of casserole seems to have slipped into its current sense. By the 1970s casseroles took on a sophisticated image. A characteristic method of preparing casserole in the United States, particularly in the Midwest, the South, examples of casseroles prepared in this manner are tuna casserole and green bean casserole. A similar comfort food, macaroni and cheese, can also be prepared as a casserole, casseroles are a staple at potlucks and family gatherings. In Minnesota and North Dakota, where they are one of the foods of the region. The potato casserole Janssons frestelse is a legacy of the Scandinavian immigrants of the area, dutch oven Güveç Jugging List of baked goods List of casserole dishes Parched grain Wright, C. A. Bake Until Bubbly, The Ultimate Casserole Cookbook
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Cast-iron cookware
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Cast iron cookware are valued for their heat retention properties, and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep fryers, tetsubin, woks, potjies, karahi, flattop grills, bare cast iron vessels have been used for cooking for over two thousand years. Cast iron cauldrons and cooking pots were valued as items for their durability and their ability to retain heat. In Europe, before the introduction of the stove in the middle of the 19th century, meals were cooked in the hearth or fireplace. This meant that all cooking vessels had to be designed to be suspended on, or in, Cast iron pots were made with handles to allow them to be hung over a fire, or with legs so that they could stand up in the fireplace. Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular, Cast iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers and housekeepers during the first half of the 20th century. Most American households had at least one cast iron cooking pan, the Lodge Manufacturing company is currently the only major manufacturer of cast iron cookware in the United States, as most other cookware suppliers use pots and pans made in Asia or Europe. The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel-coated cast iron cookware, Cast iron fell out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s, as teflon-coated aluminum non-stick cookware was introduced and quickly became the item of choice in many kitchens. Today, a selection of cookware can be purchased from kitchen suppliers. Because cast iron skillets can develop a non-stick surface, they are also a choice for egg dishes. Other uses of cast iron pans include baking, for instance for making cornbread, cobblers, most bare cast iron pots and pans are cast as a single piece of metal, including the handle. This allows them to be used on both the stovetop and in the oven, likewise, cast iron skillets can double as baking dishes. This differs from other cooking pots, which have varying components that may be damaged by the excessive temperatures of 400 °F or more. An American Dietetic Association study found that cast iron cookware can leach significant amounts of iron into food. The amounts of iron absorbed varied greatly depending on the food, its acidity, its content, how long it was cooked. The iron in spaghetti sauce increased 2,109 percent, while other foods increased less dramatically, for example, people with hemochromatosis should avoid using cast iron cookware because of the iron leaching effect into the food. A seasoned pan has a stick-resistant coating created by polymerized oils, seasoning is a process by which a layer of animal fat or vegetable oil is applied and cooked onto cast iron or carbon steel cookware
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Seasoning (cookware)
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Seasoning is the process of treating the surface of a saucepan, wok, crepe griddle or other cooking vessel with a stick-resistant coating formed from polymerized fat and oil on the surface. Food tends to stick to unseasoned iron and carbon steel cookware, other cookware surfaces such as stainless steel or cast aluminium do not require as much protection from corrosion but seasoning is still very often employed by professional chefs to avoid sticking. Seasoning of other surfaces is generally discouraged. Non-stick enamels often crack under stress, and non-stick polymers degrade at high heat so neither type of surface should be seasoned. Food sticks easily to a new bare metal pan, it must either be oiled before use, the natural coating known as seasoning is initially created by a process of layering a very thin coat of oil on the pan. Then, the oil is polymerized to the surface with high heat for a time. The base coat will darken with use and this process is known as seasoning, the colour of the coating is commonly known as its patina. If it is not pre-seasoned, a new cast iron skillet or dutch oven typically comes from the manufacturer with a coating of wax or shellac. This needs to be removed before the item is used, an initial scouring with hot soapy water will usually remove the protective coating. Alternatively, for woks, it is common to burn off the coating over high heat to expose the metal surface. Once the pan has been heated, dried, and thinly layered with oil or fat, it is placed in an oven, grill, the process of polymerization is dependent on the oil, temperature of the enclosure, and the duration. The precise details of the process differ from one source to another. There is also no consensus about the best temperature and duration. Lodge Manufacturing uses a proprietary soybean blend in their coats as stated on their website. Others use lard, or animal fats, some advocate the use of food-grade flaxseed oil. The temperature recommended for seasoning varies from high temperatures above 260 °C to temperatures below 150 °C, and, there is also no consensus on the correct duration of heating, from half an hour to an hour is often recommended. Seasoning a cast iron or carbon steel wok is a process in Asia. While the vegetable oil method of seasoning is used in Asia
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Algarve
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The Algarve is the southernmost region of continental Portugal. It has an area of 4,997 square kilometres with 451,006 permanent inhabitants, the region has as its administrative centre in the city of Faro, where both the regions international airport and public university, University of Algarve, are located. Tourism and related activities are extensive and make up the bulk of the Algarves summer economy, production of food, which includes fish and other seafood, fruit, oranges, carob beans, figs and almonds, is also economically important in the region. The Algarve is the most popular tourist destination in Portugal, and its population triples to nearly 1.5 million people in the peak holiday season thanks to seasonal residents, and receives an average of 7 million foreign tourists each year. In total, including visitors, almost 10 million people visit the Algarve annually. The Algarve is currently the third richest region in Portugal, after Lisbon and Madeira, human presence in southern Portugal dates back to the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The presence of stones in the area of Vila do Bispo attests to this presence. The Cynetes, influenced by Tartessos, were established by the sixth century BC in the region of the Algarve and they would be strongly influenced by the Celtici. Those indo-european tribes, celtic or pre-celtic, founded the city of Lagos, the Phoenicians had established trading ports along the coast circa 1000 BC. Some sources claim that the Carthaginians founded Portus Hanibalis – known today as Portimão – in about 550 BC, much of the Iberian Peninsula was absorbed into the Roman Republic in the second century BC, and the Algarve region similarly came under Roman control. Many Roman ruins can still be seen, notably in Lagos, Roman bath complexes and fish salting tanks have been found near the shore in several locations, for example the ones near Vilamoura and Praia da Luz. In the 5th century the Visigoths took control of the Algarve until the beginning of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711, when the Moors conquered Lagos in 716, it was named Zawaia. Faro, which the Christian residents had called Santa Maria, was renamed Faraon, due to the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the region was called Gharb Al-Andalus, Gharb means the west, while al-Andalus is the Arabic name for the Iberian Peninsula. For several years, the town of Silves was the capital of the region, in the mid-13th century, during the Reconquista, the Kingdom of Portugal conquered the region in a series of successful military campaigns against the Moors. Al-Gharb became the Kingdom of the Algarve, and the moors were expelled and it was not until the early 14th century that the Portuguese finally secured the region against the subsequent Muslim attempts to recapture the area. King Afonso III of Portugal started calling himself King of Portugal, prior to the independence of Brazil, the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was an official designation for Portugal which also alluded to the Algarve. Portuguese monarchs continued used this title until the proclamation of the First Portuguese Republic in 1910, between 1595 and 1808, the Algarve was a semi-autonomous area of Portugal with its own governor, as well as a separate taxation system. In the 15th century, Prince Henry the Navigator based himself near Lagos and it was also from Lagos that Gil Eanes set sail in 1434 to become the first seafarer to round Cape Bojador in West Africa
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Ding (vessel)
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Ding were prehistoric and ancient Chinese cauldrons, standing upon legs with a lid and two facing handles. They are one of the most important shapes used in Chinese ritual bronzes and they were made in two shapes, round vessels with three legs and rectangular ones with four, the latter often called fanding. They were used for cooking, storage, and ritual offerings to the gods or to ancestors, under the Zhou, the ding and the privilege to perform the associated rituals became symbols of authority. In Chinese history and culture, possession of one or more ancient ding is often associated with power, therefore, the ding is often used as an implicit symbolism for power. The term inquiring of the ding is often used interchangeably with the quest for power, in the early Bronze Age of China, the use of wine and food vessels served a religious purpose. While ding were the most important food vessels, wine vessels were the more prominent ritual bronzes of this time, likely due to the belief in Shamanism, Ding were used to make ritual sacrifices, both human and animal, to ancestors. They varied in size, but were quite large, indicating that whole animals were likely sacrificed. The sacrifices were meant to appease ancestors due to the Shang belief that spirits had the capability to affect the world of the living, if the ancestors were happy, the living would be blessed with good fortune. During the Early Western Zhou Dynasty, the people underwent a political and cultural change, King Wu of Zhou believed that the Shang people were drunkards. He believed that their over-consumption of wine led their king to lose the Mandate of Heaven, because of this belief, food vessels replaced wine vessels in importance. Bronze vessels underwent what has been the Ritual Revolution and this theory suggests that because there was a change in decor as well as the types and variations of vessels found in tombs, their function shifted from solely religious to a more secular one. Instead of sacrificing food to ancestors, the Zhou used ding to show off the status of the deceased to both the living and spirits. For example, emperors were buried with nine ding, feudal lords with seven, ministers with five, the vessels served as symbols of authority for the elite far into the Warring States period. This is the period to which the oldest examples of bronze dings date, inscriptions found on dings and zhongs are used to study bronzeware script. The most commonly believed bronze vessel casting process of ancient Chinese vessels is the mold process. The model would then be shaved down to form the core, when the bronze had cooled, the clay would be broken away from the vessel, and the process was complete. A newer variation on the mold process was put forth as a way to explain asymmetrical faces on vessels which, as a rule. It was proposed that décor was not made on a model and then transferred to the outer mold layer, décor was added in a variety of ways
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History of China
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Written records of the history of China can be found from as early as 1500 BC under the Shang dynasty. Ancient historical texts such as the Records of the Grand Historian and the Bamboo Annals describe a Xia dynasty, with thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the worlds oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization. Much of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy developed during the Zhou dynasty. This is one of multiple periods of failed statehood in Chinese history, between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China, in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang united the warring kingdoms and created for himself the title of emperor of the Qin dynasty. Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly, in the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite, the Scholar-officials. Young men were selected through difficult examinations and were well-versed in calligraphy and philosophy. What is now China was inhabited by Homo erectus more than a million years ago, recent study shows that the stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site are magnetostratigraphically dated to 1.36 million years ago. The archaeological site of Xihoudu in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, the excavations at Yuanmou and later Lantian show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Homo erectus found in China is the so-called Peking Man discovered in 1923–27, fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125, 000–80,000 BC have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County in Hunan. The Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 10,000 BC, Early evidence for proto-Chinese millet agriculture is radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, is carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago, farming gave rise to the Jiahu culture. At Damaidi in Ningxia,3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and these pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC, some scholars have suggested that Jiahu symbols were the earliest Chinese writing system. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC. Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site, The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan province is believed to be the site of a ancient city. The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986, Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the ancient kingdom of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings
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Chinese ritual bronzes
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Sets of ritual bronzes are the most impressive surviving objects from the Chinese Bronze Age. On the death of the owner they would be placed in his tomb, so that he could continue to pay his respects in the afterlife, other examples were cast specifically as grave goods. The ritual bronzes were not used for normal eating and drinking, they represent larger, more elaborate versions of the types of vessels used for this. Apart from table vessels, weapons and some objects were made in special ritual forms. At least initially, the production of bronze was probably controlled by the ruler, bronzes are some of the most important pieces of ancient Chinese art, warranting an entire separate catalogue in the Imperial art collections. The majority of surviving Chinese ancient bronze artefacts are ritual forms rather than their equivalents made for practical use, weapons like daggers and axes had a sacrificial meaning, symbolizing the heavenly power of the ruler. The ritual books of old China minutely describe who was allowed to use what kinds of sacrificial vessels and her higher status would have been clear not only to her contemporaries, but also, it was believed, to her ancestors and other spirits. Many of the pieces were cast with inscriptions using the form of her name. The most highly prized are generally the sacrificial and wine vessels, often these vessels are elaborately decorated with taotie designs. Dǐng Sacrificial vessel, originally a cauldron for cooking and storing meat, the Shang prototype has a round bowl, wider than it is tall, set on three legs, there are two short handles on each side. Later examples became larger and larger and were considered a measure of power and it is considered the single most important class of Chinese bronzeware in terms of its cultural importance. There is a called a fāngdǐng which has a square bowl. There exist rare forms with lids, 西清古鑒 contains over two hundred examples, and this is the most highly regarded of all Chinese bronzes. Dòu, Sacrificial vessel that was originally a food vessel, Flat, covered bowl on a long stem. Fǔ, Rectangular dish, triangular in vertical cross-section, always with a lid shaped like the dish. Zūn, Wine vessel and sacrificial vessel, Tall cylindrical wine cup, with no handles or legs. The mouth is slightly broader than the body. In the late Zhōu dynasty, this type of vessel became exceedingly elaborate, often taking the shape of animals and these later types are distinguished from gōng by retaining a small, roughly circular mouth
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Chafing dish
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A chafing dish is a kind of portable grate raised on a tripod, originally heated with charcoal in a brazier, and used for foods that require gentle cooking, away from the fierce heat of direct flames. The chafing dish could be used at table or provided with a cover for keeping food warm on a buffet, double dishes that provide a protective water jacket are known as bains-marie and help keep delicate foods, such as fish, warm while preventing overcooking. Fragments of ceramic chafing dishes are common in the archaeology of medieval city sites, such as York, Chafing dishes in the form of charcoal-burning braziers are familiar in 17th-century American inventories almost from the start. François Pierre La Varenne, Le Cuisinier françois mentions the use of a réchaut in a recipe for champignons à lolivier, in describing the Velasquez genre painting, sometimes art historians not handy in the kitchen describe her as frying eggs in her earthenware dish. The servants and attendants of these remained in the court-yards. Daily his larder and wine-cellar were open to all who wished to eat or drink, as the climate is cold, they put a chafing-dish with live coals under every plate and dish, to keep them warm. Dish-crosses and the dish with a handle were introductions of the reign of George II. In the American colonies, One chafing dish was inventoried among the silver at Abraham de Peysters death in New York,1728, specialized chafing-dish cookbooks appeared from the 1880s. Fannie Farmers Chafing Dish Possibilities was published in Boston in 1898, modern chafing dishes are made of light metal or ceramic casseroles with handles, sometimes covered with a Pyrex lid. Classic uses of a chafing-dish are in preparing Welsh rarebit or cheese fondue, Chafing fuel Braziers and chafing dishes
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Charcoal
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Charcoal is a lightweight, black residue, consisting of carbon and any remaining ash, obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis- the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen, the whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, the success of the operation depends upon the rate of the combustion. The operation is so delicate that it was left to colliers. They often lived alone in small huts in order to tend their wood piles, for example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany, charcoal burners lived in conical huts called Köten which are still much in evidence today. The massive production of charcoal was a cause of deforestation. The increasing scarcity of easily harvested wood was a factor behind the switch to fossil fuel equivalents, mainly coal. Charcoal made at 300 °C is brown, soft and friable, and readily inflames at 380 °C, made at higher temperatures it is hard and brittle, in Finland and Scandinavia, the charcoal was considered the by-product of wood tar production. The best tar came from pine, thus pinewoods were cut down for tar pyrolysis, the residual charcoal was widely used as substitute for metallurgical coke in blast furnaces for smelting. Tar production led to deforestation, it has been estimated all Finnish forests are younger than 300 years. The end of tar production at the end of the 19th century resulted in rapid re-forestation, the charcoal briquette was first invented and patented by Ellsworth B. A. Zwoyer of Pennsylvania in 1897 and was produced by the Zwoyer Fuel Company. The process was popularized by Henry Ford, who used wood. Ford Charcoal went on to become the Kingsford Company, Charcoal has been made by various methods. The traditional method in Britain used a clamp and this is essentially a pile of wooden logs leaning against a chimney. The chimney consists of 4 wooden stakes held up by some rope, the logs are completely covered with soil and straw allowing no air to enter. It must be lit by introducing some burning fuel into the chimney, if the soil covering gets torn by the fire, additional soil is placed on the cracks. Once the burn is complete, the chimney is plugged to prevent air from entering, the true art of this production method is in managing the sufficient generation of heat, and its transfer to wood parts in the process of being carbonised. A strong disadvantage of this method is the huge amount of emissions that are harmful to human health
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Brazier
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A brazier /ˈbreɪʒər/ is a container for hot coals, generally taking the form of an upright standing or hanging metal bowl or box. Used for burning solid fuel, usually charcoal, braziers principally provide heat, braziers have been recovered from many early archaeological sites like the Nimrud brazier, recently excavated by the Iraqi National Museum, which dates back to at least 824 BC. Braziers are mentioned in the Bible, the Hebrew word for brazier is of Egyptian origin, suggesting that it was imported from Egypt. The only reference to it in the Bible is in Jeremiah 36, 22–23, the Roman Emperor Jovian was poisoned by the fumes from a brazier in his tent in 364, ending the line of Constantine. Despite the risks associated with burning charcoal on open fires, braziers were widely adopted as a source of domestic heat, fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl notes that the Tepanec Tlatoani in New Spain slept between two braziers because he was so old he produced no natural heat. The brazier did not just sit out in the open, in a room, when burned, moist rose and grapevine trimmings produce a pungent, sweet-smelling smoke, and make very good charcoal. When the charcoal fumes became overbearing, however, aromatics were sometimes added to the embers in the brazier, a brazier used exclusively for burning aromatics is known as a censer or thurible. In some churches a brazier is used to create a fire, called new fire. Braziers used to be a sight on industrial picket lines, although as strikes in the UK have become increasingly white collar. In Japanese, a brazier is called a hibachi and they are used principally for cooking and in cultural rituals such as the Japanese tea ceremony
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Chip pan
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A chip pan is a deep-sided cooking pan used for deep-frying. Chip pans are named for their use in frying chips. Today, they are made from aluminium or stainless steel. A basket is placed inside the pan, to lower the chips into the hot cooking oil, chip pans are commonly used in the United Kingdom, although are slowly being outmoded by deep fryers. Chip pans are manufactured through a spinning process, as the metal used is malleable. The lid is typically stamped out by a die in a heavy press, repeated heating of oil is believed to greatly increase the free radicals in the oil, leading to a higher risk of heart disease. Injuries, particularly to children, caused by the hot oil from a chip pan falling on them are a cause of hospital admission in the UK. Chip pans are well known for being a fire hazard, in the UK, chip pan fires are the largest cause of fire-related injuries in the home, such that several local fire brigades have offered a chip pan amnesty, trading old chip pans for a deep fryer. By comparison, electric deep fryers feature circuitry and design features that prevent the oil from being heated to the point of ignition, boil-overs and splattering can still occur for the usual reasons, but the fire danger is largely eliminated. Chip pans are the most common cause of fires in the United Kingdom. These fires result in over 4,600 injuries, and 50 deaths per year, cooking oil fires burn hotter than other typical combustible liquids, rendering the standard class B extinguisher ineffective. Class F fire extinguishers use saponification to put out chip pan fires by spraying a solution which reacts with the fat to make a non-flammable soap. However, these extinguishers are generally available in industrial and commercial kitchens. The dangers of oil or fat fires are known in industrial processes. Attempts to extinguish oil fires with water result in a boilover and these fires result from either heating the oil to its autoignition point or by oil splattering onto the heat source
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Dough
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Dough is a thick, malleable, sometimes elastic, paste made out of any grains, leguminous or chestnut crops. Doughs are made from a variety of flours, commonly wheat but also flours made from maize, rice, rye, legumes, almonds. Doughs vary widely depending on ingredients, the kind of product being produced, the type of leavening agent, how the dough is mixed, there is no formal definition of what makes dough, though most doughs have viscoelastic properties. Leavened or fermented doughs are used all over the world to various breads. Salt, oils or fats, sugars or honey and sometimes milk or eggs are common ingredients in bread dough. Commercial bread doughs may also include dough conditioners, a class of ingredients that aid in dough consistency and final product. Flatbreads such as pita, lafa, lavash, matzah or matzo, naan, roti, sangak, tortilla, some flatbreads, such as naan, use leavening agents, others, such as matzo, do not. Crackers are also made from dough, and some are leavened, pasta and noodles are generally based on unleavened doughs that are worked until they are dry and smooth, and then shaped into their final form. The finished pasta may be cooked immediately or dried before cooking, doughs with higher fat content have a lesser water content, develop less gluten and are therefore generally less elastic than bread doughs, these doughs are often called short by bakers. This category includes many cookie and pie crust doughs, such as shortcrust pastry, in many parts of central India, people use the quick method of making an instant roasted dough ball or baati. In countries in the Sahel region of Africa, dough balls called aiysh or biya are made from sorghum or millet, and are ground and boiled. Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast, and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more, Techniques used in dough production depend on the type of dough and final product. For yeast-based and sponge breads, a production technique is the dough is mixed, kneaded. Many bread doughs call for a stage, where the dough is kneaded again, shaped into the final form. Kneading is the process of working a dough to produce a smooth, pasta is typically made from a dry dough that is kneaded and shaped, either through extrusion, rolling out in a pasta machine, or stretched or shaped by hand. Pasta may be cooked directly after production or dried, which renders it shelf-stable, doughs for biscuits and many flatbreads which are not leavened with yeast are typically mixed but not kneaded or left to rise, these doughs are shaped and cooked directly after mixing. While breads and other products made from doughs are often baked, some types of dough-based foods are cooked over direct heat, such as tortillas, fried dough foods are also common in many cultures. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network, the word dough is a common slang term for money in English-speaking countries, this usage is originally American, and dates to the mid-19th century
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Tableware
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Tableware is the dishes or dishware used for setting a table, serving food and dining. It includes cutlery, glassware, serving dishes and other items for practical as well as decorative purposes. The quality, nature, variety and number of objects according to culture, religion, number of diners, cuisine. For example, Middle Eastern, Indian or Polynesian food culture and cuisine sometimes limits tableware to serving dishes, special occasions are usually reflected in higher quality tableware. Sets of dishes are referred to as a service, dinner service or service set. Table settings or place settings are the dishes, cutlery and glassware used for formal and informal dining, in Ireland such items are normally referred to as delph, the word being an English language phonetic spelling of the word delft, the town from which so much delftware came. Silver service or butler service are methods for a butler or waiter to serve a meal, Setting the table refers to arranging the tableware, including individual place settings for each diner at the table as well as decorating the table itself in a manner suitable for the occasion. Tableware and table decoration is more elaborate for special occasions. Unusual dining locations demand tableware be adapted, dishes are usually made of ceramic materials such as earthenware, stoneware, faience, bone china or porcelain. However, they can be made of materials such as wood, pewter, silver, gold, glass. Before it was possible to purchase mass-produced tableware, it was fashioned from available materials, industrialisation and developments in ceramic manufacture made inexpensive washable tableware available. It is sold either by the piece or as a set for a number of diners, normally four, six, eight. Large quantities are purchased for use in restaurants, individual pieces, such as those needed as replacement pieces for broken dishes, can be procured from open stock inventory at shops, or from antique dealers if the pattern is no longer in production. Possession of tableware has to a large extent been determined by individual wealth, the greater the means, the higher was the quality of tableware that was owned and the more numerous its pieces. In the London of the 13th century, the more affluent citizens owned fine furniture and silver, while those of straiter means possessed only the simplest pottery and kitchen utensils. By the later 16th century, even the poorer citizens dined off pewter rather than wood and had plate, jars, the nobility often used their arms on heraldic china. Table decoration may be ephemeral and consist of items made from confectionery or wax - substances commonly employed in Roman banqueting tables of the 17th century, in modern times, ephemeral table decorations continue to be made from sugar or carved from ice. In wealthy countries such as 17th century France, table decorations for the aristocracy were made of silver
30.
Bap (food)
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Special ingredients such as vegetables, seafood, and meat can also be added to create different kinds of bap. There are many bap dishes such as bibimbap, bokkeum-bap and gimbap, the word can also be used to refer to a meal. The honorific forms of bap include jinji for an elderly, sura for the monarch, traditionally, bap was made using gamasot for a large family, however in modern times an electronic rice cooker is usually used to cook rice. Regular heavy-bottomed pot or dolsot can also be used, nowadays, rice cooked in gamasot or dolsot are called sotbap, and are considered as delicacies. More nurungji is produced when making gamasot-bap and dolsot-bap, to make bap, rice is scrubbed in water and rinsed several times. It is then soaked for thirty minutes before boiling, which helps the grains cook evenly, with unpolished brown rice and bigger grains such as Jobs tears, it is necessary to soak the grains for several hours to overnight to avoid under-cooking. In a regular heavy bottomed pot, rice can be cooked over high heat with the lid on for about ten minutes, stirred. The scorched rice in the bottom of the pot or cauldron, nurungji, the most basic bap made of rice is called ssalbap, or often just bap. As rice itself occurs in other than white, the bap made of all white rice is called huinssal-bap or ssalbap. When black rice is mixed, it is called heungmi-bap, when cooked with all brown rice or white rice mixed with brown rice, it is called hyeonmi-bap, while bap cooked with all glutinous rice or white rice mixed with glutinous rice is called chapssal-bap. Unpolished glutinous rice can also be used to cook bap, in case it is called hyeonmi-chapssal-bap. Bap made of regular non-glutinous white rice can be referred to as baekmi-bap when compared to hyeonmibap, bap made of rice mixed with various other grains is called japgok-bap. When rice is mixed with one grain, the bap is named after the mixed ingredient. The examples are, Some grains can be cooked without rice, bap made of barley without rice is called kkong-bori-bap, while bap made of both rice and barley is called bori-bap. Byeolmi-bap or byeolbap can be made by mixing in special ingredients such as vegetables, seafood, for example, namul-bap is made of rice mixed with namul vegetables. Some popular byeolmibap varieties include, bibimbap – rice topped with seasoned vegetables, meat, mushrooms, eggs, seasonings, yakbap – steamed glutinous rice mixed with honey, jujubes, soy sauce, sesame oil, chestnuts, pine nuts, etc. List of rice dishes Steamed rice
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Bibimbap
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Bibimbap, sometimes anglicized as bi bim bap or bi bim bop, is a Korean dish. The word literally means mixed rice, Bibimbap is served as a bowl of warm white rice topped with namul and gochujang, soy sauce, or doenjang. A raw or fried egg and sliced meat are common additions, the hot dish is stirred together thoroughly just before eating. In South Korea, Jeonju, Jinju, and Tongyeong are especially famous for their versions of bibimbap, in 2011, it was listed at number 40 on the Worlds 50 most delicious foods readers poll compiled by CNN Travel. The name bibimbap was adopted in the early 20th century, from the Joseon Period until the 20th century, Bibimbap was called goldongban, which means rice made by mixing various types of food. This dish was eaten on the eve of the lunar new year as the people at that time felt that they had to get rid of all of the leftover side dishes before the new year. The solution to this problem was to put all of the leftovers in a bowl of rice, Bibimbap is also thought to have been eaten by farmers during farming season as it was the easiest way to make food for a large amount of people. Bibimbap was served to the king usually as a lunch or a between-meal snack, Bibimbap is first mentioned in the Siuijeonseo, an anonymous cookbook from the late 19th century. There its name is given as 부븸밥, some scholars assert that bibimbap originates from the traditional practice of mixing all the food offerings made at an ancestral rite in a bowl before partaking in it. Since the late 20th century, bibimbap has become widespread in different countries and it is also served on many airlines connecting to South Korea. Vegetables commonly used in bibimbap include julienned cucumber, zucchini, mu, mushrooms, doraji, and gim, as well as spinach, soybean sprouts, and gosari. Dubu, either plain or sautéed, or a leaf of lettuce may be added, for visual appeal, the vegetables are often placed so adjacent colors complement each other. In the South Korean version, sesame oil, red pepper paste, the bowl is so hot that anything that touches it sizzles for minutes. Before the rice is placed in the bowl, the bottom of the bowl is coated with oil, making the layer of the rice touching the bowl cook to a crisp. This variation of bibimbap is typically served to order, with the egg and other ingredients mixed in the pot just prior to consumption. The city of Jeonju, the capital of the North Jeolla Province of South Korea, is famous throughout the nation for its version of bibimbap, the term hoe in the word means raw fish. The dish is popular along the coasts of Korea where fish are abundant, there are numerous other kinds of bibimbap as well, such as sprout bibimbap, wild herb bibimbap, and brass bowl bibimbap. Bibimbap ingredients are rich in symbolism, black or dark colours represent North and the kidneys – for instance, shiitake mushrooms, bracken ferns or laver
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Stew
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A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables or meat, especially tougher meats suitable for slow-cooking, poultry, sausages, and seafood are also used. While water can be used as the liquid, wine, stock. Seasoning and flavourings may also be added, stews are typically cooked at a relatively low temperature, allowing flavors to mingle. Stewing is suitable for the least tender cuts of meat become tender. This makes it popular in low-cost cooking, cuts having a certain amount of marbling and gelatinous connective tissue give moist, juicy stews, while lean meat may easily become dry. Stews may be thickened by reduction or with flour, either by coating pieces of meat with flour before searing, or by using a roux or beurre manié, thickeners like cornstarch or arrowroot may also be used. Stews are similar to soups, and in some there may not be a clear distinction between the two. Generally, stews have less liquid than soups, are much thicker, while soups are almost always served in a bowl, stews may be thick enough to be served on a plate with the gravy as a sauce over the solid ingredients. Stews have been made since ancient times, herodotus says that the Scythians put the flesh into an animals paunch, mix water with it, and boil it like that over the bone fire. The bones burn very well, and the paunch easily contains all the meat once it has been stripped off, in this way an ox, or any other sacrificial beast, is ingeniously made to boil itself. Amazonian tribes used the shells of turtles as vessels, boiling the entrails of the turtle, other cultures used the shells of large mollusks to boil foods in. There is archaeological evidence of these practices going back 8,000 years or more, there are recipes for lamb stews and fish stews in the Roman cookery book Apicius, believed to date from the 4th century AD. Le Viandier, one of the oldest cookbooks in French, written in the early 14th century by the French chef known as Taillevent, has ragouts or stews of various types in it, the first written reference to Irish stew is in Byrons The Devils Drive, The Devil. A rebel or so in an Irish stew, stew is traditionally known as an English dish and has been a household favorite for centuries. In meat-based stews, white stews, also known as blanquettes or fricassées, are made with lamb or veal that is blanched, or lightly seared without browning, and cooked in stock. Brown stews are made with pieces of red meat that are first seared or browned, before a browned mirepoix and sometimes browned flour, stock and wine are added
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Dutch oven
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A Dutch oven is a thick-walled cooking pot with a tight-fitting lid. Dutch ovens are made of seasoned cast iron, however some Dutch ovens are instead made of cast aluminium. Some metal varieties are enameled rather than being seasoned, Dutch ovens have been used as cooking vessels for hundreds of years. They are called casserole dishes in English speaking countries other than the United States and they are similar to both the Japanese tetsunabe and the Sač, a traditional Balkan cast-iron oven, and are related to the South African Potjie and the Australian Bedourie oven. During the late 17th century, the Dutch system of producing these cast metal cooking vessels was more advanced than the English system, the Dutch used dry sand to make their molds, giving their pots a smoother surface. Consequently, metal cooking vessels produced in the Netherlands were imported into Britain, in 1704, an Englishman named Abraham Darby decided to go to the Netherlands to observe the Dutch system for making these cooking vessels. Four years later, back in England, Darby patented a casting procedure similar to the Dutch process and began to produce cast-metal cooking vessels for Britain, thus the term “Dutch oven” has endured for over 300 years, since at least 1710. American Dutch ovens changed over time during the colonial era and these changes included a shallower pot, legs to hold the oven above the coals, and a lid flange to keep the coals on the lid and out of the food. Paul Revere is credited with the design of the lid with a ridge for holding coals as well as the addition of legs to the pots. Colonists and settlers valued cast-iron cookware because of its versatility and durability, cooks used them to boil, bake, stew, fry, and roast. The ovens were so valuable that wills in the 18th and 19th centuries frequently spelled out the desired inheritor and this bequest included several Dutch ovens. Westward bound settlers took Dutch ovens with them, a Dutch oven was among the gear Lewis and Clark carried when they explored the great American Northwest in 1804–1806. Mormon pioneers who settled the American West also took along their Dutch ovens, in fact, a statue raised to honor the Mormon handcart companies who entered Utah’s Salt Lake Valley in the 1850s proudly displays a Dutch oven hanging from the front of the handcart. The Dutch oven is also the official state cooking pot of Texas, Utah, mountain men exploring the great American frontier used Dutch ovens into the late 19th century. Chuck wagons accompanying western cattle drives also carried Dutch ovens from the century into the early 20th century. In the Netherlands, a Dutch oven is called a braadpan, the design most used today is a black enameled steel pan, that is suitable for gas and induction heating. The model was introduced in 1891 by BK, a well known Dutch manufacturer of cookware, cheaper and lighter in weight than cast iron, it proved to be a revolution in the kitchen. A braadpan is mainly used for frying meat only, but it can also be used for making traditional stews such as hachée, cast iron models exist, but are used less frequently
34.
Fish kettle
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A fish kettle is a kind of large, oval-shaped kettle used for cooking whole fish. Owing to their necessarily unwieldy size, fish kettles usually have racks and handles, larousse Gastronomique describes the fish kettle as a long, deep cooking receptacle with two handles, a grid, and a lid. The fish kettle is used to cook whole fish, such as hake, salmon, pike, the removable grid enables the fish to be taken out without breaking it
35.
French tian
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A tian is an earthenware vessel of Provence used both for cooking and serving. It is also the name of the dish prepared in it, the classic vessel is a truncated cone, flattened at the base and flaring outward to a wide rim. It is traditionally glazed on the inside, and unglazed on the outside and it is shallower than the cassole, the earthenware vessel characteristic of the Camargue and Languedoc. The shape has become less definitive, though the body remains key. The dish called tian has also changed over time, an 18th century dictionary describes it as a lean stew. Modern tian is described as having no added liquid, the ingredients being cooked until their naturally inherent liquid or moisture has evaporated, in Provence, the dish may be made with vegetables alone, but also with lamb, fish, or egg added to vegetables. Goat cheese is a common ingredient, tian can be described as a gratin in the Provençal style. Typical ingredients in tian are more associated with Provence than with other regions of France
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Earthenware
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Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery which has normally been fired below 1200°C. Porcelain, bone china and stoneware, all fired at high temperatures to vitrify, are the main other important types of pottery. Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29, 000–25,000 BCE, outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century, and then initially as an expensive luxury. Earthenware, when fired, is opaque and non-vitreous, soft, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities describes it as being made of selected clays sometimes mixed with feldspars and varying amounts of other minerals and white or light-colored. Generally, earthenware bodies exhibit higher plasticity than most whiteware bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, due to its porosity, earthenware, with a water absorption of 5-8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, darker-colored terracotta earthenwares, typically orange or red, due to a comparatively high content of iron oxide are widely used for flower pots, tiles and some decorative and oven wares. A general body formulation for contemporary earthenware is 25% kaolin, 25% ball clay, 35% quartz and 15% feldspar. Modern earthenware may be fired to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,150 °C and glost-fired to between 950 to 1,050 °C, the usual practice in factories and some studio potteries. Some studio potters follow the practice, with a low-temperature bisque firing. The firing schedule will be determined by the raw materials used, historically, such high temperatures were unattainable in most cultures and periods until modern times, though Chinese ceramics were far ahead of other cultures in this respect. Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C, much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C, giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. After firing most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red, for red earthenware, the firing temperature affects the color of the clay body. Lower temperatures produce a red terracotta color, higher temperatures will make the clay brown or even black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat, an Introduction to the Technology Of Pottery. Whitewares, Production, Testing And Quality Control, the Potters Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers Limited, London, England, Third Edition,1991
37.
Provence
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The largest city of the region is Marseille. The Romans made the region into the first Roman province beyond the Alps and called it Provincia Romana and it was ruled by the Counts of Provence from their capital in Aix-en-Provence until 1481, when it became a province of the Kings of France. While it has been part of France for more than five hundred years, it retains a distinct cultural and linguistic identity. The coast of Provence has some of the earliest known sites of habitation in Europe. Primitive stone tools dated to 1 to 1.05 million years BC were found in the Grotte du Vallonnet near Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, tools dating to the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic were discovered in the Observatory Cave, in the Jardin Exotique of Monaco. The Paleolithic period in Provence saw great changes in the climate, with the arrival, at the beginning of the Paleolithic period, the sea level in western Provence was 150 meters higher than it is today. By the end of the Paleolithic, it had dropped 100 to 150 metres lower than sea level. The cave dwellings of the inhabitants of Provence were regularly inundated by the rising sea or left far from the sea. The changes in the sea led to one of the most remarkable discoveries of signs of early man in Provence. In 1985, a diver named Henri Cosquer discovered the mouth of a submarine cave 37 metres below the surface of the Calanque de Morgiou near Marseille, the entrance led to a cave above sea level. Inside, the walls of the Cosquer Cave are decorated with drawings of bison, seals, auks, horses and outlines of human hands, dating to between 27,000 and 19,000 BC. The end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the Neolithic period saw the sea settle at its present level, a warming of the climate and the retreat of the forests. The disappearance of the forests and the deer and other easily hunted game meant that the inhabitants of Provence had to survive on rabbits, snails, since they were settled in one place they were able to develop new industries. Inspired by the pottery from the eastern Mediterranean, in about 6000 BC they created the first pottery to be made in France. Around 6000 BC, a wave of new settlers from the east and they were farmers and warriors, and gradually displaced the earlier pastoral people from their lands. They were followed in about 2500 BC by another wave of people, also farmers, known as the Courronniens, traces of these early civilisations can be found in many parts of Provence. A Neolithic site dating to about 6,000 BC was discovered in Marseille near the Saint-Charles railway station, and a dolmen from the Bronze Age can be found near Draguignan. Between the 10th and 4th century BC the Ligures were found in Provence from Massilia as far as modern day Liguria and they were of uncertain origin, they may have been the descendants of the indigenous neolithic peoples
38.
Frying pan
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A frying pan, frypan, or skillet is a flat-bottomed pan used for frying, searing, and browning foods. It is typically 200 to 300 mm in diameter with relatively low sides that flare outwards, a long handle, larger pans may have a small grab handle opposite the main handle. A pan of similar dimensions, but with less flared vertical sides, while a sauté pan can be used like a frying pan, it is designed for lower heat cooking methods, namely sautéing. Copper frying pans were used in ancient Mesopotamia, frying pans were also known in ancient Greece where they were called tagēnon and Rome, where they were called patella or sartago. The word pan derives from the Old English panna, cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular, this period of the late 19th century saw the introduction of the flat cast iron skillet. A versatile pan that combines the best of both the pan and the frying pan has higher, sloping sides that are often slightly curved. This pan is called a sauteuse, an evasée, or a fait-tout, most professional kitchens have several of these utensils in varying sizes. A grill pan is a pan with very low sides. A grill pan cooks food with radiant heat on a stovetop and it is referred to as a griddle pan in British English. A rappie pan is a pan used to make rappie pie, the pan is made from Aluminum or Stainless Steel. Traditionally, frying pans were made of cast iron, although cast iron is still popular today, especially for outdoor cooking, most frying pans are now made from metals such as aluminium or stainless steel. Frying pans made from bare cast iron or carbon steel can also gain non-stick properties through seasoning, a process for bonding Teflon to chemically roughened aluminum was patented in France by Marc Gregoire in 1954. In 1956 he formed a company to market non-stick cookware under the Tefal brand name, the durability of the early coatings were poor, but improvements in manufacturing have made these products a kitchen standard. The surface is not as tough as metal and the use of metal utensils can permanently mar the coating and degrade its non-stick property. For some cooking preparations a non-stick frying pan is inappropriate, especially for deglazing, since little or no residue can stick to the surface, the sauce will fail for lack of its primary flavoring agent. Non-stick frying pans featuring teflon coatings may give off toxic fumes, such temperatures can be reached within minutes on gas or electric ranges using high heat. An electric frying pan or electric skillet incorporates an electric heating element into the pan itself. Accordingly, it has heat-insulated legs for standing on a countertop, electric frying pans are common in shapes that are unusual for unpowered frying pans, notably square and rectangular
39.
Tava
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A tava, tawa, tapa, saj, or sac is a large, flat or concave or convex disc-shaped frying pan made from metal, usually sheet iron, cast iron, sheet steel or aluminium. It is used in South, Central, and West Asia, as well as in Caucasus, for cooking a variety of flatbreads and it also sometimes refers to ceramic frying pan. In West Asia, tava/saj are invariably convex, while in South Asia, in nearly all Indo-Aryan languages such as Punjabi, Hindi and Urdu tawaa means cooking pan and is used in South Asia, including India and Pakistan. The word tava is also used in Bosnian, Croatian, Romanian and Turkish, in Bulgaria, flat ceramic сач or сачѐ are used for table-top cooking of thin slices of vegetables and meat, тава, on the other hand, are metal baking dishes with sides. In Pashto it is popularly known as Tabakhey. A tava or saj is used to bake a variety of leavened and unleavened flatbreads and pancakes across the region, pita, naan, saj bread, roti, chapati, paratha, dosa. In Pakistan, especially in areas, large convex saj are used to cook several breads at a same time or to make rumali roti. In South Asia, tavas are also used to fry foods called chaat, pav bhaji, taka tak bhaji, tawa bhaji, tava fry, tawa masala, meat is also cooked on a saj. The traditional Georgian chicken tapaka is cooked on a tapa, sač, a cooking utensil used in the Balkans with a saj-shaped lid Mongolian barbecue, a Taiwanese grill dish sometimes using a saj-like frying pan. Comal, a similar utensil in Mexican cuisine Mittad
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