1.
Pico de Orizaba
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Pico de Orizaba, also known as Citlaltépetl, is a stratovolcano, the highest mountain in Mexico and the third highest in North America, after Denali of the United States and Mount Logan of Canada. It rises 5,636 metres above sea level in the end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The volcano is currently dormant but not extinct, with the last eruption taking place during the 19th century and it is the second most prominent volcanic peak in the world after Africas Mount Kilimanjaro. Pico de Orizaba overlooks the valley and city of Orizaba, from which it gets its name, the name Citlaltépetl is not used by Nahuatl speakers of the Orizaba area, who instead call it Istaktepetl, or White Mountain. In the earliest mention of the volcano, it was referred to by the natives during the Pre-Columbian Era as Poyautécatl, Citlaltépetl was the common name in the Náhuatl language when the Spanish arrived in Mexico. Citlaltépetl comes from the Náhuatl citlalli and tepētl and thus means Star Mountain and this name is thought to be based on the fact that the snow-covered peak can be seen year round for hundreds of kilometers throughout the region. A legend from the city of Coscomatepec tells of how the planet Venus can be seen settling into the crater of Citlaltépetl, during the colonial era, the volcano was also known as Cerro de San Andrés due to the nearby settlement of San Andrés Chalchicomula at its base. A third name, Poyauhtecatl, which means the one that colors or illuminates, has also been recorded and this name was given by the Tlaxcaltecas in memory of their lost country. The peak of Citlaltépetl rises dramatically to an elevation of 5,636 m above sea level, it has a topographic prominence of 4,922 m. Regionally dominant, Pico de Orizaba is the highest peak in Mexico, Orizaba is ranked 7th in the world in topographic prominence. It is the second most prominent volcanic peak in the world after Africas Mount Kilimanjaro, the topography of Pico de Orizaba is asymmetrical from the center of the crater, the eastern face is the steepest side of the volcano and the northwestern face the most gradual side. The gradual slopes of the face of the volcano allows for the presence of large glaciers and is the most traveled route to take for hikers traveling to the summit. Pico de Orizaba is one of three volcanoes in México that continue to support glaciers and is home to the largest glacier in Mexico. Orizaba has nine known glaciers, Gran Glaciar Norte, Lengua del Chichimeco, Jamapa, Toro, Glaciar de la Barba, Noroccidental, Occidental, Suroccidental, the equilibrium line altitude is not known for Orizaba. Snow on the south and southeast sides of the volcano melts quickly because of solar radiation, the insolation angle and wind redeposition on the northwest and north sides allow for constant accumulation of snow providing a source for the outlet glaciers. On the north side of Orizaba, the Gran Glaciar Norte fills the elongated highland basin and is the source for seven outlet glaciers. The main glacier extends 3.5 km north of the rim, has a surface area of about 9.08 km2 descending from 5,650 m to about 5,000 m. It has an irregular and stepped profile that is caused in part by the configuration of the bedrock
2.
Stratovolcano
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A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a profile and periodic explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far due to high viscosity, the magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high-to-intermediate levels of silica, with lesser amounts of less-viscous mafic magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as 15 km, stratovolcanoes are sometimes called composite volcanoes because of their composite layered structure built up from sequential outpourings of eruptive materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes, two famous stratovolcanoes are Krakatoa, best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883 and Vesuvius, famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 CE. Both eruptions claimed thousands of lives, in modern times, Mount Saint Helens and Mount Pinatubo have erupted catastrophically. Existence of stratovolcanoes has not been proved on other bodies of the solar system with one exception. Their existence was suggested for some isolated massifs on Mars, e. g. Zephyria Tholus, stratovolcanoes are common at subduction zones, forming chains along plate tectonic boundaries where oceanic crust is drawn under continental crust or another oceanic plate. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed dewatering, and occurs at pressures and temperatures for each mineral. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, when the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a magma chamber under or within the volcano. There, the low pressure allows water and other volatiles dissolved in the magma to escape from solution, as occurs when a bottle of carbonated water is opened. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle of the cone is overcome. In recorded history, explosive eruptions at subduction zone volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations. Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna and Mount Pinatubo, typically erupt with explosive force, as a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the chamber, the magma degasses explosively. The gases and water out with speed and force. Since 1600 CE, nearly 300,000 people have killed by volcanic eruptions. Most deaths were caused by flows and mudflows, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes
3.
Puebla
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Puebla, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Puebla is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 217 municipalities and its capital city is Puebla and it is located in East-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Veracruz to the north and east, Hidalgo, México, Tlaxcala and Morelos to the west, and Guerrero and Oaxaca to the south. The origins of the lie in the city of Puebla. By the end of the 18th century, the area had become a province with its own governor. It is home to five major groups, Nahuas, the Totonacs, the Mixtecs, the Popolocas and the Otomi, which can mostly be found in the far north. The state is located on the highlands of Mexico between the Sierra Nevada and the Sierra Madre Oriental. It has a triangular shape with its narrow part to the north. It borders the states of Veracruz, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Morelos, State of Mexico, Tlaxcala, the state has a territory of 33, 919km2 and ranks 20th out of 31 states in size, and 4,930 named communities. Most of its mountains belong to the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, some of the highest elevations include Apulco, Chichat, Chignahuapan, Soltepec and Tlatlaquitepec. In the south of the state, the elevations are the Sierra de Atenahuacán, Zapotitlán, Lomerio al Suroeste. Dividing much of the state from Veracruz is a chain of mountains called the Sierra Madre del Golfo. The Huasteco Plateau and the Llanuras y Lomeríos zone are located in the north and northeast, with the Lagos y Volcanes del Anáhuc in the center, together, they account for over 50% of the state. The east and northeast are occupies by the Chiconquiaco and Llanudras y Sierras de Querétaro e Hidalgo areas, the Cordillera del Sur and Mixteca Alta are located in the west and southwest covering less than 2. 5% of the state. The Sur de Puebla is in the southwest and accounts for 26% of the state, other southern subregions include the Sierras y Valles Guerrerenses, the Sierras Centrales de Oaxaca and the Sierras Orientales. Together, they account for about 15% of the state, the hydrology of Puebla is formed by three major river systems. This river receives water from tributaries such as the Acateno, Atila, Amacuzac, Molinos. The river has one dam called Valsequllo or Manuel Avila Camacho
4.
Veracruz
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It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez. This state is located in Eastern Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north, San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo to the west, Puebla to the southwest, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south, and Tabasco to the southeast. On its east, Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico, the state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the city, the states largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río. The full name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, Veracruz was named after the city of Veracruz, which was originally called the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos, the state’s seal was authorized by the state legislature in 1954, adapting the one used for the port of Veracruz and created by the Spanish in the early 16th century. The state is a strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Its total area is 78,815 km2, accounting for about 3. 7% of Mexico’s total territory and it stretches about 650 km north to south, but its width varies from between 212 km to 36 km, with an average of about 100 km in width. Veracruz shares common borders with the states of Tamaulipas, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Tabasco, and Puebla, Hidalgo, Veracruz has 690 km of coastline with the Gulf of Mexico. The topography changes drastically, rising from the coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba, Mexico’s highest peak at 5,636 m above sea level, the coast consists of low sandy strips interspersed with tidewater streams and lagoons. Most of the coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons. The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, major peaks include Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote, Cerro de Tecomates, Cerro del Vigía Alta and Cerro de 3 Tortas. The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round, the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter, major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés. All of the rivers and streams cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa. The largest in terms of discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable, two of Mexicos most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state
5.
Elevation
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GIS or geographic information system is a computer system that allows for visualizing, manipulating, capturing, and storage of data with associated attributes. GIS offers better understanding of patterns and relationships of the landscape at different scales, tools inside the GIS allow for manipulation of data for spatial analysis or cartography. A topographical map is the type of map used to depict elevation. In a Geographic Information System, digital models are commonly used to represent the surface of a place. Digital terrain models are another way to represent terrain in GIS, USGS is developing a 3D Elevation Program to keep up with growing needs for high quality topographic data. 3DEP is a collection of enhanced elevation data in the form of high quality LiDAR data over the conterminous United States, Hawaii, there are three bare earth DEM layers in 3DEP which are nationally seamless at the resolution of 1/3,1, and 2 arcseconds. This map is derived from GTOPO30 data that describes the elevation of Earths terrain at intervals of 30 arcseconds and it uses color and shading instead of contour lines to indicate elevation. Hypsography is the study of the distribution of elevations on the surface of the Earth, the term originates from the Greek word ὕψος hypsos meaning height. Most often it is used only in reference to elevation of land, related to the term hypsometry, the measurement of these elevations of a planets solid surface are taken relative to mean datum, except for Earth which is taken relative to the sea level. In the troposphere, temperatures decrease with altitude and this lapse rate is approximately 6.5 °C/km. S
6.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
7.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
8.
Geoid
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The geoid is the shape that the surface of the oceans would take under the influence of Earths gravity and rotation alone, in the absence of other influences such as winds and tides. This surface is extended through the continents, all points on a geoid surface have the same gravity potential energy. The geoid can be defined at any value of gravitational potential such as within the earths crust or far out in space and it does not correspond to the actual surface of Earths crust, but to a surface which can only be known through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations. It is often described as the true figure of the Earth. The surface of the geoid is higher than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a gravity anomaly. The geoid surface is irregular, unlike the ellipsoid which is a mathematical idealized representation of the physical Earth. Although the physical Earth has excursions of +8,848 m and −429 m, If the ocean surface were isopycnic and undisturbed by tides, currents, or weather, it would closely approximate the geoid. The permanent deviation between the geoid and mean sea level is called ocean surface topography, If the continental land masses were criss-crossed by a series of tunnels or canals, the sea level in these canals would also very nearly coincide with the geoid. This means that when traveling by ship, one does not notice the undulations of the geoid, the vertical is always perpendicular to the geoid. Likewise, spirit levels will always be parallel to the geoid, a long voyage, indicate height variations, even though the ship will always be at sea level. This is because GPS satellites, orbiting about the center of gravity of the Earth, to obtain ones geoidal height, a raw GPS reading must be corrected. Conversely, height determined by spirit leveling from a tidal measurement station, as in land surveying. Modern GPS receivers have a grid implemented inside where they obtain the height over the World Geodetic System ellipsoid from the current position. Then they are able to correct the height above WGS ellipsoid to the height above WGS84 geoid, in that case when the height is not zero on a ship it is due to various other factors such as ocean tides, atmospheric pressure and local sea surface topography. The gravitational field of the earth is neither perfect n If that perfect sphere were then covered in water, instead, the water level would be higher or lower depending on the particular strength of gravity in that location. Spherical harmonics are used to approximate the shape of the geoid. The current best such set of spherical harmonic coefficients is EGM96, the geoid is a particular equipotential surface, and is somewhat involved to compute. The gradient of this also provides a model of the gravitational acceleration
9.
Topographic prominence
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It is a measure of the independence of a summit. A peaks key col is a point on this contour line. By convention, the prominence of Mount Everest, the Earths highest mountain, is taken to equal the elevation of its summit above sea level, if the peaks prominence is P metres, to get from the summit to any higher terrain one must descend at least P metres. Together with the convention for Mount Everest, this implies that the prominence of any island or continental highpoint is equal to its elevation above sea level, for every ridge connecting the peak to higher terrain, find the lowest point on the ridge. The key col is defined as the highest of these cols, the prominence is the difference between the elevation of the peak and the elevation of the key col. The following mental exercise may illustrate the meaning of topographic prominence, imagine you are standing at the top of a peak and imagine that an imaginary sea level rises to your feet. Now slowly lower the sea level and an imaginary island appears beneath your feet. Your island will grow and will merge with other islands that emerge, the parent peak may be either close or far from the subject peak. The summit of Mount Everest is the parent peak of Aconcagua at a distance of 17,755 km, the key col may also be close or far from the subject peak. The key col for Aconcagua is the Bering Strait at a distance of 13,655 km, the key col for the South Summit of Mount Everest is about 100 m distant. Prominence is interesting to many mountaineers because it is a measurement that is strongly correlated with the subjective significance of a summit. Peaks with low prominences are either subsidiary tops of some higher summit or relatively insignificant independent summits, peaks with high prominences tend to be the highest points around and are likely to have extraordinary views. Only summits with a sufficient degree of prominence are regarded as independent mountains, for example, the worlds second-highest mountain is K2. While Mount Everests South Summit is taller than K2, it is not considered an independent mountain because it is a subsummit of the main summit, many lists of mountains take topographic prominence as a criterion for inclusion, or cutoff. John and Anne Nuttalls The Mountains of England and Wales uses a cutoff of 15 m, in the contiguous United States, the famous list of fourteeners uses a cutoff of 300 ft /91 m. Also in the U. S.2000 feet of prominence has become a threshold that signifies that a peak has major stature. This generates lists of peaks ranked by prominence, which are different from lists ranked by elevation. Such lists tend to emphasize isolated high peaks, such as range or island high points, one advantage of a prominence-ranked list is that it needs no cutoff, since a peak with high prominence is automatically an independent peak
10.
Topographic isolation
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The topographic isolation of a summit is the minimum great-circle distance to a point of equal elevation, representing a radius of dominance in which the peak is the highest point. It can be calculated for small hills and islands as well as for major mountain peaks, the following sortable table lists the Earths 40 most topographically isolated summits. The nearest peak to Germanys highest mountain, the 2, 962-metre-high Zugspitze, the distance between the Zugspitze and this contour is 25.8 km, the Zugspitze is thus the highest peak for a radius of 25.8 km around. Its isolation is thus 25.8 km, because there are no higher mountains than Mount Everest, it has no definitive isolation. Many sources list its isolation as the circumference of the earth over the poles or – questionably, after Mount Everest the Aconcagua, highest mountain of the American continents, has the greatest isolation of all mountains. There is no land for 16,534 kilometres when its height is first exceeded by Tirich Mir in the Hindu Kush. Mont Blanc is the highest mountain of the Alps, the geographically nearest higher mountains are all in the Caucasus. The Kukurtlu, which rises near the Elbrus, is the peak for Mont Blanc. com Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia peakbagger. com peaklist. org peakware. com World Mountain Encyclopedia summitpost. org
11.
Administrative divisions of Mexico
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The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence
12.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
13.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
14.
Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, also known as the Transvolcanic Belt and locally as the Sierra Nevada, is a volcanic belt that covers central-southern Mexico. Several of its highest peaks have snow all year long, and during clear weather, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt spans across Central-Southern Mexico from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico between 18°30N and 21°30N, resting on the southern edge of the North American Plate. This approximately 1000 kilometer long, 90–230 km broad structure is an east-west, active, continental volcanic arc, encompassing an area of approximately 160,000 km2. Over several million years, the subduction of the Rivera and Cocos plates beneath the North American Plate along the end of the Middle America Trench formed the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. In addition to the complexities, igneous compositions vary—dominant subduction related products contrast with intraplate geo-chemical signatures. These features are related to the reactivation of early fault systems during the Trans-Mexican Volcanic belts evolution. The main brittle fault systems geometry, kinematics, and age define an array of what could be multiple factors affecting the deformation of the belt. It exhibits many features, not limited to large stratovolcanoes, including monogenetic volcano cones, shield volcanoes, lava dome complexes. Prior to the formation of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, an older, but related volcanic belt, from the Late Eocene to the Middle Miocene, counterclockwise rotation of the volcanic arc transitioned the once active Sierra Madre Occidental to a now active Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. By the Middle Miocene, the transition from the silicic to more mafic compositions was complete, due to the orthogonal orientation of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in relation to the trend of Mexican tectonic provinces, its Pre-Cretaceous basement is highly heterogeneous. The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt east of 101°W rests upon Precambrian terranes, assembled into the Oaxaquia microcontinent, assemblage of these basement rocks results with a thickness of 50–55 km east of 101°W and 35–40 km west of 101°W. The subducting plates originated from the breakup of the Farallon Plate at approximately 23 Ma, the Rivera Plate was the last fragment detached from the Cocos Plate, becoming a microplate at around 10 Ma. This small plate is bounded by the Rivera fracture zone, the East Pacific Rise, the Tamayo fracture zone, and the Middle American Trench. The larger Cocos Plate is bordered by the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate to the northeast, the Pacific Plate to the west, the Cocos and Rivera are relatively young oceanic plates that are subducting along the Middle American Trench at different convergence rates. Middle Miocene adakitic rocks are found furthest from the trench and along the front of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt during the Pliocene-Quaternary. It has been suggested that slab melting contributed to the imprint on the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The plate boundary geometry and sub-horizontal subducting slabs thermal structure are the factors for initial arc volcanism. The oldest rocks of this age may be exposed near the volcanic front
15.
State of Mexico
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The State of Mexico is one of the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is the most populous, as well as the most densely populated state and it is divided into 125 municipalities and its capital city is Toluca de Lerdo. The State of Mexico is often abbreviated to Edomex from Estado de México in Spanish and it is located in South-Central Mexico. The state’s origins are in the territory of the Aztec Empire, after Independence, Mexico City was chosen as the capital of the new nation, its territory was separated out of the state. Years later, parts of the state were broken off to form the states of Hidalgo, Guerrero and Morelos. The state name is simply México according to the 1917 Constitution of the United Mexican States, the demonym used to refer to people and things from the state is mexiquense, distinct from mexicano, that describes the people or things from the country as a whole. Mēxihco was originally the Nahuatl name for the Valley of Mexico where in the cities of the Mexica were located, as such, the district that became Mexico City was properly known as Mexico-Tenochtitlan in the years shortly before and after Spanish conquest. There are two origins for the name “Mexico. ”The first is that it derives from metztli. This comes from the old Aztec idea that the craters on the form a rabbit figure with one crater imitating a navel. The other possible origin is that it is derived from “Mextictli” an alternate name for the god Huitzilopochtli, Anáhuac was the proper term for all territories dominated by the Aztec Empire, from Cem Anáhuac, the entire earth or surrounded by waters e. g. The earliest evidence of habitation in current territory of the state is a quartz scraper and obsidian blade found in the Tlapacoya area. They are dated to the Pleistocene era which dates human habitation back to 20,000 years, stone age implements have been found all over the territory from mammoth bones, to stone tools to human remains. Most have been found in the areas of Los Reyes Acozac, Tizayuca, Tepexpan, San Francisco Mazapa, El Risco, between 20,000 and 5000 BCE, the people here eventually went from hunting and gathering to sedentary villages with farming and domesticated animals. The main crop was corn, and stone tools for the grinding of this grain become common, later crops include beans, chili peppers and squash grown near established villages. Evidence of ceramics appears around 2500 BCE with the earliest artifacts of these appearing in Tlapacoya, Atoto, Malinalco, Acatzingo, currently some scholars attribute an age of 11 thousand years, others 8 thousand, and some have suggested 5 thousand years old. This individual was identified as a male, but recent research confirms a female identity. Sacrum bone found in Tequixquiac is considered a work of prehistoric art, the town was inhabited in 35,000 BCE by primitive men who had crossed the Bering Strait from Asia. These people were nomadic, hunting large animals such as mammoths, the first native settlers of Tequixquiac were the Aztecs and Otomi, who decided to settle here permanently for the abundance of rivers and springs
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Morelos
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Morelos, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Morelos, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 33 municipalities and its capital city is Cuernavaca and it is located in South-Central Mexico. It is bordered by the states of México to the north-east and north-west, Puebla to the east, Mexico City is situated north of Morelos. Morelos is the second-smallest state in the nation, just after Tlaxcala, most of the state enjoys a warm climate year-round, which is good for the raising of sugar cane and other crops. Morelos has attracted visitors from the Valley of Mexico since Aztec times, today, many people from Mexico City spend weekends in the state or own second homes there, especially in the Cuernavaca area. The state is known for the Chinelos, a type of costumed dancer that appears at festivals, especially Carnival. It is also home to the Monasteries on the slopes of Popocatépetl, evidence of the first human inhabitants in what is now Morelos dates back to 6000 BCE and shows these people as nomadic hunters and gatherers in the areas of Yautepec and Chimalacatlan. The first agriculturally based settlements appeared around 1500 BCE in Tamoachán, other early finds include clay jars and figures in the Gaulupita neighborhood of Cuernavaca and three mounds in Santa María Ahuacatitlán, which are probably the remains of houses. The earliest identified culture is the Olmec, which was dominant from 200 BCE to about 500 CE, evidence of this culture is found in reliefs such as those found in the Cantera Mountain in Chalcatzingo and clay figures. After the Olmec period, the area was invaded by several waves of migration from the Valley of Mexico in the north, the settlement of Mazatepec is founded in 603 by the Toltecs. A second wave of Toltecs established the city-state of Xochicalco and their influence is evident in Teotihuacan at the temple of Quetzalcoatl, but there are also signs of Mayan, Mixtec and Zapotec influences. The last wave of Toltecs arrived in the 12th century, there are two groups from this wave. The first to arrive were the Xochimilcas, who settled in such as Tetela, Hueyapan, Tepoztlán. Shortly afterwards the Tlahuicas arrived and has settled in an around Cuauhnáhuac or Cuernavaca by 1250, the Tlahuicas are believed to be an offshoot of the Toltec-Chichimec group of Nahuatl-speaking peoples who have occupied the area since the seventh century. The Tlahuica eventually became the dominant ethnic group in Morelos and they were organized into about fifty small city-states each with a hereditary ruler. Each Tlahuica city-state consisted of a town, with its temple, plaza, palace. The largest of these were Cuernavaca and Huaxtepec and these people had advanced knowledge of astronomy and a highly developed agricultural system. They were especially known for growing cotton, which was planted wherever the land could be irrigated, Tlahuica women spun and wove cloth, which became an important item for exchange and for paying tribute
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Iztaccihuatl
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Iztaccíhuatl, is a 5,230 m dormant volcanic mountain in Mexico located on the border between the State of Mexico and Puebla. It is the third highest, after Pico de Orizaba 5,636 m. The name Iztaccíhuatl is Nahuatl for White woman, reflecting the four individual snow-capped peaks which depict the head, chest, knees, Iztaccíhuatl lies to the north of Popocatépetl, to which it is connected by the high altitude Paso de Cortés. Depending on atmospheric conditions the dormant volcano is visible much of the year from Mexico City some 70 km to the northwest, the first recorded ascent was made in 1889, though archaeological evidence suggests the Aztecs and previous cultures climbed it previously. It is the lowest peak containing permanent snow and glaciers in Mexico, the summit ridge of the massive 450 km3 volcano is a series of overlapping cones constructed along a NNW-SSE line to the south of the Pleistocene Llano Grande caldera. Andesitic and dacitic Pleistocene and Holocene volcanism has taken place from vents at or near the summit, areas near the El Pecho summit vent are covered in flows and tuff beds post-dating glaciation approximately 11 ka. The most recent vents are located at El Pecho and a depression at 5,100 m along the summit ridge midway between that summit and Los Pies, in Aztec mythology, Iztaccíhuatl was a princess who fell in love with one of her fathers warriors, Popocatépetl. The emperor sent Popocatépetl to war in Oaxaca, promising him Iztaccíhuatl as his wife when he returned, Iztaccíhuatl was falsely told Popocatépetl had died in battle, and believing the news, she died of grief. When Popocatépetl returned to find his dead, he took her body to a spot outside Tenochtitlan. The gods covered them with snow and changed them into mountains, iztaccíhuatls mountain is called White Woman because it resembles a woman lying on her back, and is often covered with snow. (The peak is sometimes nicknamed La Mujer Dormida Popocatépetl became an active volcano, iztaccihuatl is usually listed at 5,286 m. SRTM data and the Mexican national mapping survey assert that a range of 5,220 to 5,230 m is more accurate, the Global Volcanism Program cites 5,230 m
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Nevado de Toluca
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Nevado de Toluca is a large stratovolcano in central Mexico, located about 80 kilometres west of Mexico City near the city of Toluca. It is generally cited as the fourth highest of Mexicos peaks, after Pico de Orizaba, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, although by some measurements, recently other evidence regarding the etymologies of this mountain have surfaced and after many archeology discoveries in and around the area. It has been concluded that its etymology is Chicnauhtecatl meaning nine lakes as the top of the cone has various deep lakes. The volcano has a 1. 5-kilometre wide summit caldera which is open to the east. The highest summit,4, 680-metre Pico del Fraile, is on the southwest side of the crater and the second highest,4, 640-metre Pico del Aguila, is on the northwest. There are two lakes on the floor of the basin at about 4,200 m, the larger Lago del Sol and the smaller. A road formerly ran into the caldera to the lakes, making perhaps the most accessible major Mexican peak. The road is now gated 2 km before the lakes, the last major eruption of Nevado de Toluca occurred about 10,500 years ago, as the volcano erupted a total estimated volume of 14 km3 for a VEI strength of 6. The eruption emplaced 1.5 m of pebble-sized pumice in the City of Toluca region, distal lahar deposits derived from the Upper Toluca Pumice event incorporated mammoth bones and other mammals in the basin of Mexico. A future event of magnitude would disrupt the lives of 30 million people now living in these cities. From the southeast, Nevado de Toluca looks flat-topped, like shoulders without a head, a Nahuatl legend provides a mythical explanation. The volcano and the area around it is now a national park, near the summit, Nevado de Toluca has a cold alpine climate with cold temperatures year round. There is little variation in the temperatures and frost and snow can occur in any month, the dry season covers from November to March and precipitation is low, averaging 12.4 millimetres in March, the driest month. Temperatures during this time are cold, averaging 2.3 °C in January, the wet season spans from May to October and precipitation is very high, averaging 243.5 millimetres in July. The summit is often foggy, averaging 110 days with fog, the wettest record month was July 2008 when 513.5 millimetres of precipitation fell and the wettest recorded day was July 16,1999 when 90.5 millimetres of precipitation fell. The highest temperature recorded was 23 °C on August 16,1993. There are 18 registered archeological sites in the park, as this was a ritual center during pre-Hispanic periods, bernardino de Sahagún wrote about the lakes as a place where the indigenous held ceremonies and sacrifices. The lakes themselves are considered to be two sites, as a number of offerings, especially copal, were deposited in the lakes
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Sierra Negra
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Sierra Negra is an extinct volcano located in the Mexican state of Puebla, close to the border with Veracruz. At officially 4,580 metres above sea level, it is the fifth highest peak in Mexico, however, because it is overshadowed by nearby Pico de Orizaba, it is not too well known and often left out of lists of Mexicos mountains. Sierra Negra is located within the Pico de Orizaba National Park, the summit is the site for one of the worlds premier astronomical instruments, the Large Millimeter Telescope. Therefore, the access to the mountain is restricted and has to be applied for at least a week in advance, the service road for this facility is claimed to be the highest road in North America. A part of the facility is visible as a white dot in the first picture below. The Spanish word sierra is usually applied to mountain ranges or ridges, however, a few mountains were given the name sierra after the Conquest, like Sierra de Tlaxcala or Sierra de Tolocan. As listed by the Mexican geographical institute INEGI, the name for the Sierra Negra is Cerro La Negra. The Nahuatl names Tliltépetl or Atlitzin are sometimes attached, speakers of Orizaba Nahuatl called the mountain Iztactepetl Icni. The mountain range to the east of the city of Tehuacán, with such towns as Zoquitlán and Coyomeapan, is also known as the Sierra Negra. The Large Millimeter Telescope Peakbagger. com, Sierra Negra Pico de Orizaba
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Malinche (volcano)
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La Malinche mountain, also known as Matlalcueye or Malintzin, is an inactive volcano located in Tlaxcala and Puebla states, in Mexico. Officially, its summit reaches 4,461 metres above sea level, though it is considered to be closer to 4,440 metres. Its height makes it the highest peak in Tlaxcala, the fifth-highest in Puebla, the sixth-highest in Mexico, the 23rd-highest in North America, and the 252nd-highest in the world. Its height above nearby cities varies from 1,908 metres above Huamantla,2,461 metres above Villa Vicente Guerrero,2,221 metres above Tlaxcala to 2,299 metres above Puebla. The summit is 22.4 kilometres from Tlaxcala,28.3 kilometres from Puebla, the climate is cold on the summit and mild on its lower slopes. The Tlaxcaltecs named it Matlalcueitl, which translates to Blue Skirt, the Spanish named it simply Sierra de Tlaxcala. The current name Malinche or Malintzin, in honor of the woman who helped Hernán Cortés as an interpreter during the conquest of the Aztec Empire, became popular during the 17th century. Located within the Parque Nacional La Malinche at the border of Tlaxcala and Puebla states, the park is the fifth largest of the 85 parks in México. It covers an area of 458.52 square kilometres, of roughly two thirds belong to Tlaxcala and one third to Puebla. The diameter of the park is approximately 24 kilometres, La Malinche is an inactive stratovolcano which began to form in the middle of the Paleogene period, 30-35 million years ago. Since that time it has grown through eruptions, the last of which is believed to have occurred ca.3,100 years ago. La Malinche is mostly isolated from the ranges, some nearby mountains and hills are El Pinal, El Tintero, Cuatlapanga, Huintitépetl. On lower slopes are farmlands which grow mostly field dent corn and forests which transition from alders and various types of oak to Montezuma pines, the summit is covered by snow part of the year and is considered to be the coldest location in Tlaxcala. On the lower slopes the climate is mild year round, the soils consist of crushed volcanic rock and sand with an underlying layer of clay and sand called tepetate at an average depth of about a meter. The dark and porous forest soils were formed from volcanic ash, from La Malinche streams flow in all directions forming small gorges in places which fill and run rapidly when torrential rains occur. At the base of the mountain emerge many springs, some of drinkable water, La Malinche shares, like Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, legends about its formation. According to the most famous legend, Matlalcueye was a girl engaged to Cuatlapanga. Time went by, and the lover took so long to come back that the girl died of sorrow, when the warrior came back, badly hurt on the head, he received the bad news
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Tlaxcala
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Tlaxcala, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tlaxcala, is one of the 31 states which along with the Federal District make up the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 60 municipalities and its capital city is Tlaxcala and it is located in East-Central Mexico, in the altiplano region, with the eastern portion dominated by the Sierra Madre Oriental. It is bordered by the states of Puebla to the north, east and south, México to the west and it is the smallest state of the republic, accounting for only 0. 2% of the country’s territory. The state is named after its capital, Tlaxcala, which was also the name of the Pre-Columbian city, the Tlaxcalans allied themselves with the Spanish to defeat the Aztecs, with concessions from the Spanish that allowed the territory to remain mostly intact throughout 300 years of colonial period. After Mexican Independence, Tlaxcala was declared a territory, until 1857 when it was admitted as a state of the federation. Most of the economy is based on agriculture, light industry. The tourist industry is rooted in Tlaxcala’s long history with major attractions being archeological sites such as Cacaxtla and colonial constructions in and around Tlaxcala city. The name “Tlaxcala” pre-dates the state by centuries, it derives from the name of the capital city, the Aztec glyph that referred to this place has both elements, two green hills and two hands holding a corn tortilla. The state’s coat of arms is based on the coat of arms that was granted to the city in 1535. The letter I refers to Joanna of Castile, the mother of Carlos V, the letter K represents the name of the king himself, and the letter F belongs to Felipe, the human skulls and cross-bones represent those who died during the Conquest. The state of Tlaxcala is located slightly east of center of Mexico between 97°37´07´´ and 98°42´51´´W and 19º05´43´´ and 19°44´07´´N and it is bordered by the states of Hidalgo, Puebla and Mexico State. It is the smallest state in terms of territory with only about 4,061 km2, the state is divided into 60 municipalities, the largest of which are Tlaxcala, Apizaco, Huamantla, Zacatelco, Calpulalpan, Chiautempan and Tlaxco. The political heart of the state is its capital, Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala lies at the foot of the northwestern slope of the La Malinche volcano in the Sierra Madre Oriental. It is one of the oldest cities in Mexico, founded as a civilization before the 15th century. The Spanish political entity was founded by Hernán Cortés between 1520 and 1525 and given the Spanish name of New City of Our Lady of the Assumption. Its economy is based on the traditional enterprises of agriculture, textiles. Other important cities include Santa Ana Chiautempan, the most populous city in the state, Apizaco, noted for its production and Huamantla. Tlaxcala is a state situated on the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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Jalisco
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Jalisco, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Jalisco, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is located in Western Mexico and divided into 125 municipalities, Jalisco is one of the most important states in Mexico because of its natural resources as well as its history. Many of the traits of Mexican culture, particularly outside Mexico City, are originally from Jalisco, such as mariachi, ranchera music, birria, tequila, jaripeo. Hence, the motto, Jalisco es México. Economically, it is ranked third in the country, with industries centered in the Guadalajara metropolitan area, the state is home to two significant indigenous populations, the Huichols and the Nahuas. There is also a significant foreign population, mostly retirees from the United States and Canada, living in the Lake Chapala, with a total area of 78,599 square kilometers, Jalisco is the seventh-largest state in Mexico, accounting for 4. 1% of the countrys territory. Jalisco is made up of a terrain that includes forests, beaches, plains. Altitudes in the state vary from 0 to 4,300 meters above sea level, over 52% of the bird species found in Mexico live in the state, with 525, 40% of Mexicos mammals with 173 and 18% of its reptile species. There are also 7,500 species of veined plants, one reason for its biodiversity is that is lies in the transition area between the temperate north and tropical south. Its five natural regions are, Northwestern Plains and Sierras, Sierra Madre Occidental, Central Plateau, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which covers most of the state, and it has an average altitude of 1,550 meters MASL, but ranges from 0–4,300 m. Most of the territory is semi-flat between 600–2,050 m, followed by rugged terrain of between 900–4,300 m and a percentage of flat lands between 0–1,750 m. Jalisco has several river basins with the most notable being that of the Lerma/Santiago River, the Lerma River enters extends from the State of Mexico and empties into Lake Chapala on the east side. On the west, water flows out in the Santiago River, tributaries to the Santiago River include the Zula, the Verde River, the Juchipila and the Bolaños. About three quarters of the population lives near this river system. In the southwest of the state, there are a number of rivers that empty directly into the Pacific Ocean. The most important of these is the Ameca, with its one main tributary and this river forms the state’s border with Nayarit and empties into the Ipala Bay. The Tomatlán, San Nicolás, Purificación, Marabasco-Minatitlán, Ayuquila, Tuxcacuesco, Armería and Tuxpan rivers flow almost perpendicular to the Pacific Ocean, another river of this group is the Cihuatlán River, which forms the boundary between Jalisco and Colima emptying into the Barra de Navidad Bay. The southeastern corner belongs to the Balsas River basin and this includes the Ayuqila and Tuxcacuesco, which join to form the Armería and the Tuxpan
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Cofre de Perote
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Cofre de Perote, originally Naupa-Tecutépetl, is known also as Nauhcampatépetl. Both Nahuatl names mean something like Place of Four Mountain or Mountain of the Lord of Four Places. This extinct volcano is located in the Mexican state of Veracruz, at the point where the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt, home to all of Mexicos highest peaks, joins the Sierra Madre Oriental. This volcano is shaped differently from the strato-volcanic Pico de Orizaba. A cofre is a coffer, and the name alludes to an outcropping on the shield. It is outlined against the clouds in the picture, and is easily visible in the picture below. To the north of the Cofre is the town of Perote, Cofre de Perote is also the name of a Mexican national park where the volcano is located. The Nauhcampatépetl is an excellent place for camping, hiking and other outdoor activities, List of mountain peaks of North America List of mountain peaks of Mexico List of volcanoes in Mexico Cofre de Perote. Programa de manejo del Parque nacional Cofre de Perote, Universidad Veracruzana
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Chiapas
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Chiapas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas, is one of the 31 states that, with the Federal District, make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 122 municipalities and its capital city is Tuxtla Gutiérrez, other important population centers in Chiapas include Ocosingo, Tapachula, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán and Arriaga. Chiapas has a coastline along the Pacific Ocean to the south, in general, Chiapas has a humid, tropical climate. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, in the past, natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely to give way to agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas. Chiapas is home to the ancient Mayan ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilán, Bonampak and it is also home to one of the largest indigenous populations in the country with twelve federally recognized ethnicities. Much of the history is centered on the subjugation of these peoples with occasional rebellions. The last of these rebellions was the 1994 Zapatista uprising, which succeeded in obtaining new rights for indigenous people, the official name of the state is Chiapas. The name derives from Chiapan or Tepechiapan, the name of an indigenous population, the term, from Nahuatl, may mean sage seed hill or water below the hill. After the Spanish arrived, they established two cities called Chiapas de los Indios and Chiapas de los Españoles, with the name of Provincia de Chiapas for the area around the cities, the first coat of arms of the region dates from 1535 as that of the Ciudad Real. Chiapas painter Javier Vargas Ballinas designed the coat of arms. Hunter gatherers began to occupy the valley of the state around 7000 BCE. The oldest archaeological remains in the seat are located at the Santa Elena Ranch in Ocozocoautla whose finds include tools, in the pre Classic period from 1800 BCE to 300 CE, agricultural villages appeared all over the state although hunter gather groups would persist for long after the era. There is speculation that these were the forefathers of the Olmec, migrating across the Grijalva Valley and onto the plain of the Gulf of Mexico to the north. One of these peoples ancient cities is now the site of Chiapa de Corzo. This is three hundred years before the Mayans developed their calendar, the descendants of Mokaya are the Mixe-Zoque. During the pre Classic era, it is known that most of Chiapas was not Olmec, olmec-influenced sculpture can be found in Chiapas and products from the state including amber, magnetite, and ilmenite were exported to Olmec lands. The Olmecs came to what is now the northwest of the looking for amber with one of the main evidences for this called the Simojovel Ax
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Guatemala
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With an estimated population of around 15.8 million, it is the most populated state in Central America. Guatemala is a democracy, its capital and largest city is Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The territory of modern Guatemala once formed the core of the Maya civilization, most of the country was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century, becoming part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Guatemala attained independence in 1821 as part of the Federal Republic of Central America, from the mid to late 19th century, Guatemala experienced chronic instability and civil strife. Beginning in the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by the United Fruit Company, in 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to sweeping social and economic reforms. A U. S. -backed military coup in 1954 ended the revolution, from 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of the Maya population perpetrated by the military. As of 2014, Guatemala ranks 31st of 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries in terms of the Human Development Index, Guatemalas abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes a large number of endemic species and contributes to Mesoamericas designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The country is known for its rich and distinct culture. The name Guatemala comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān, or place of many trees and this was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory. The first evidence of habitation in Guatemala dates back to 12,000 BC. Evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in parts of the country. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation had been developed by 3500 BC. Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in the Quiché region in the Highlands, archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period, the Classic period, and the Postclassic period. Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded as a period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts. This period is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states and this lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine. The cause of the collapse is debated, but the Drought Theory is gaining currency, supported by such as lakebeds, ancient pollen. A series of prolonged droughts, among other such as overpopulation, in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya
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Sierra Madre de Chiapas
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The Sierra Madre de Chiapas is a major mountain range in Central America. The range runs northwest–southeast from the state of Chiapas in Mexico, across western Guatemala, into El Salvador, most of the volcanoes of Guatemala, part of the Central America Volcanic Arc, are within the range. A narrow coastal plain lies south the range, between the Sierra Madre and the Pacific Ocean, the range forms the main drainage divide between the Pacific and Atlantic river systems. On the Pacific side the distance to the sea is short, a few of the streams of the Pacific slopes rise in the Guatemalan Highlands, and force a way through the Sierra Madre at the bottom of deep ravines. On the eastern side a number of the rivers of the Atlantic slopes attain a considerable volume and it is known near Guatemala city as the Sierra de las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the Sierra de Istatan. Its summit is not a well-defined crest, but is rounded or flattened into a table-land. The base of many of the volcanic igneous peaks rests among the foothills in the southern region of the range. Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to directly from the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they tower. East of the Guatemalan border, the forms the boundary between El Salvador and Honduras. In El Salvador, the form a line well south of the range. Between the Sierra Madre and the Volcanic line lies a central plateau, geography of Mesoamerica Sierra Madre de Chiapas topics This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
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Ajusco
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Ajusco is a 3,930 m lava dome volcano located just south of Mexico City, Mexico, in the Tlalpan borough of the city. It is the highest point in the city, ajusco is a Náhuatl word variously translated as source of waters or watered grove, and the Lerma River and Balsas River draw some of their source waters from this area. Also, the flow from all of the remaining strong springs in the adjacent to the peak are captured to augment Mexico Citys water supply. Ajusco is a complex of Pliocene-Pleistocene age, surrounded by block-and-ash flow deposits. Ajusco is part of the chain of volcanic origin known as Sierra del Ajusco-Chichinauhtzin, among which Xitle, Tláloc, Pelado. This range is part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt which crosses central Mexico, parts of this range account for about half of the area of the Mexican Federal District, the rest of which is occupied by Mexico City. The area is important for conservation of local ecosystems, in its oak, pine and fir forests there are unique endemic species like the teporingo rabbit and the volcano mouse. The area around the peak is a destination for residents of Mexico City and tourists, with activities such mountain biking. The area is one of the few around Mexico City where it may snow in the winter, atop the volcano is a pre-Hispanic site where artifacts have been discovered
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Federal District (Brazil)
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The Federal District is one of 27 federative units of Brazil. The capital — the seat of the three branches of the government of Brazil — is the main attraction of this dry area. During the dry season, the humidity can reach critical levels, the artificial Paranoá Lake, with almost 40 km2 and 500 million cubic metres of water, was built to minimize the severe dry, climatic conditions of winter in the Cerrado vegetation. The capital of Brazil was transferred from Rio de Janeiro to Brasília on 21 April 1960, after the transfer the old Federal District became Guanabara state, the only city-state Brazil ever had so far. This existed from 1960 until 1975 when it merged with Rio de Janeiro state, with the merge, the capital was transferred back from Niterói to Rio de Janeiro, as it was until 1834 when the empire created the Neutral Municipality. According to the IBGE of 2007, there were 2,393,000 people residing in the Federal District, the population density was 410.9 inhabitants per square kilometre. In area, the Federal District is more than double the size of Tokyo or the island of Maui and it is slightly larger than French Polynesia, the US State of Rhode Island, or Cape Verde. It is slightly smaller than Bali or Trinidad and Tobago, the Parque da Cidade Located in Brasília, the Parque da Cidade, which is named after the wife of Brazilian president Juscelino Kubitschek, extends over four million square meters. It includes landscape works of Burle Marx, and wall tiles that decorate restrooms in the park designed by Athos Bulcão, the parks main entrance is located in the Monumental Axis South, but there are secondary exits that lead to other areas in the citys south wing. The Metropolitan Cathedral of Brasilia Designed by Oscar Niemeyer, it was inaugurated in 1970 and its shape is circular horizontally and structured around 16 curved pillars, forming a crown filled with futuristic and/or spatial stained-glass works in a triangular shape. The pillars evoke reversed praying hands that deconstruct the traditional church window pattern. The curves present in many of Niemeyers works pay homage to the beautifully built bodies of Brazilian women, the stained-glasses were designed by Marianne Peretti. Their disposition ensures natural lighting into the aisle, which was built below street level, around the church, in the outside area, visitors can see Alfredo Ceschiattis sculptures — the four evangelists — and inside, suspended angels. There are also paintings by Emiliano Di Cavalcanti, representing the stages of the Passion of Christ, the Cathedral is located in the Eixo Monumental mall, at the entry to the Esplanada dos Ministerios, or Ministries Sector. The Square also hosts, the Panteão da Pátria, the Lúcio Costa Space and three important sculptures — Pombal, by Niemeyer, Justice, by Alfredo Ceschiatti, and Os Candangos, by Bruno Giorgi. In the central plaza, a giant Brazilian national flag 286 square meters is supported by a triangular black 100-meter and it is located at the end of the Esplanada dos Ministerios. Vehicles,910,502 Mobile phones,2.7 million Telephones,884 thousand Cities,31 The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 92. 5%, Federal District exports, soybean 77. 1% and gold 16. 4%. The Federal Districts share of the Brazilian economy is 3. 7% as of 2005, because of its strategic location it is considered a civil aviation hub for the rest of the country
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Colima
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Colima, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Colima, is one of the 32 states that make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It shares its name with its capital and main city, Colima, Colima is a small state of Western Mexico on the central Pacific coast, with the four oceanic Revillagigedo Islands. Mainland Colima shares borders with the states of Jalisco and Michoacán, in addition to the capital city of Colima, the main cities are Manzanillo and Tecomán. Colima is the fourth smallest state in Mexico and has the smallest population, the state is in the middle of Mexico’s Pacific coast, bordered by the Pacific Ocean and the states of Jalisco and Michoacán. Colima’s territory includes the Revillagigedo Islands—Socorro, San Benedicto, Clarión and these are under federal jurisdiction but are considered part of the municipality of Manzanillo. Politically, the state is divided into ten municipalities, natural geography divides the state into a northern and southern region. The north has a cooler climate due to the higher mountains, the south is hotter and includes the Pacific Ocean coastline. The Revillagigedo Islands, of origin, are dispersed along the 19° north parallel over an area of about 400 km2—with a total landmass of 205 km2. The altitude varies from sea level to 3,839 m at the crater of the Volcán de Colima, the state is in an offshoot of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range and geographically consists of four mountain systems. The most important of these is the Cerro Grande and its related peaks of Jurípicho-Juluapan, Los Juanillos, La Astilla, El Ocote, El Peón, El Barrigón, San Diego, and La Media Luna. The third is located between the Armería and Salado Rivers and includes the Alcomún y Partida, San Miguel y Comala and San Gabriel/Callejones peaks. The last is between the Salado and Naranjo or Coahuayana Rivers and contains mountain chains such as the Piscila, Volcancillos, La Palmera, El Camichín. Three quarters of the state is covered by mountains and hills, at the very north of the state, the border is marked by two volcanoes. The Colima Volcano, also called the Volcán de Fuego, is active, the Nevado de Colima is taller at 4,271 m and gives its name to the national park that surrounds it. The Colima Volcano,3825 m, has a peak, in contrast to the other. The last major eruptions of the Colima Volcano occurred in 1998 and 1999, the Salado is another important river, which flows entirely within Colima before emptying into the Coahuayana. Many of the streams and arroyos empty into the Salado. Colima has a short coastline, at 139 km
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Coahuila
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The state is located in Northeastern Mexico on the US border. Coahuila borders the Mexican states of Nuevo León to the east, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí to the south, and Durango and Chihuahua to the west. To the north, Coahuila accounts for a 512 kilometres stretch of the Mexico–United States border, with an area of 151,563 square kilometres, it is the nations third-largest state. In 2010, Coahuilas population is 2,748,391 inhabitants, the Spanish explored the north of Mexico some decades after their victory in Tenochtiitlán the capital of the Aztecs. Such exploration was delayed because the climate was harsher and there was no gold. The first Spanish settlement in the now called Coahuila was at Minas de la Trinidad in 1577. Saltillo was settled in 1586, to part of the province of Nueva Vizcaya of the Vice-royalty of New Spain. Later it became one of the first provinces of Nueva Extremadura to be explored by Europeans, Coahuila and Texas was one of the constituent states of the newly independent United Mexican States under their 1824 Constitution, and included Texas, Coahuila and Nuevo León. Later in the same year Nuevo León was detached, but Texas remained a part of the state until 1836, Monclova was the capital of the state from 1833 to 1835. In 1840 Coahuila briefly became a member of the short lived Republic of the Rio Grande, on February 19,1856, Santiago Vidaurri annexed Coahuila to his state, Nuevo León, but it regained its separate status in 1868. During the Mexican Revolution, Francisco Villa attacked the city of Torreón, on April 4,2004, the border city of Piedras Negras was flooded. More than 30 people died and more than 4,000 lost their homes, in 2007 Coahuila became the first state in Mexico to offer civil unions to same-sex couples. The Sierra Madre Oriental runs northwest to southeast through the State, the northernmost fingers of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra del Burro and the Sierra del Carmen, reach to the border with the United States at the Rio Grande. East of the range, the land slopes gently toward the Rio Grande, and is drained by rivers, including the Salado and its tributary. The Tamaulipan mezquital, a dry shrubland ecoregion, occupies the portion of the State. The portion of the State west of the Sierra Madre Oriental lies on the Mexican Plateau, the Bolsón de Mapimí is a large endorheic basin which covers much of the western portion of the State and extends into adjacent portions of Chihuahua, Durango, and Zacatecas. The Nazas River, which flows east from Durango, and the Aguanaval River, Torreón, the most populous city in the State, lies on the Nazas in the irrigated Laguna Region, the, which straddles the border of Coahuila and Durango. Maderas del Carmen lies on the border of the State
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Sierra Madre Oriental
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The Sierra Madre Oriental is a mountain range in northeastern Mexico. The northernmost are the Sierra del Burro and the Sierra del Carmen which reach the border with the United States at the Rio Grande, north of the Rio Grande, the range continues northwestward into Texas and beyond as the Davis and Guadalupe Ranges. Mexicos Gulf Coastal Plain lies to the east of the range, the Mexican Plateau, which averages 1,100 metres in elevation, lies between the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre Occidental further west. The climate of the Sierra Madre Oriental is drier than the rainforest areas further south. The highest point is Cerro San Rafael, at 3,700 metres above sea level, is the highest point of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the state of Coahuila and the second in Mexico in isolation. This long range of mountains is noted for its abundant biodiversity and large number of endemic species of plants and wildlife. The Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests are found at elevations in the range. Much of the wildlife can also be found in the Sierra Madre Occidental, which runs parallel to these mountains along western Mexico. Pine-oak forests are dominated by species of pine, such as Pinus nelsonii, P. cembroides, P. pseudostrobus, and P. arizonica. Matorral is characterized by woody shrubs, small trees, cacti, montane chaparral is found above 1,700 m and is home to species in the genera Quercus, Arbutus, Yucca, Cercocarpus and Bauhinia. Piedmont scrub occurs below 2,000 m and is composed of plants 3 to 5 m in height such as Helietta parvifolia, birds of the forest include the Mexican chickadee, Montezuma quail, Stricklands woodpecker, zone-tailed hawk and several species of jay. Pine-oak forests in Coahuila are part of the route of monarch butterflies. Original habitats have been reduced by clearance for livestock grazing and logging over hundreds of years. Protected areas include the Cumbres de Monterrey National Park in Mexico, the El Cielo Biosphere in Tamaulipas preserves the northernmost tropical Veracruz moist forests in Mexico and extensive temperate cloud forests. Mountain peaks of Mexico Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests
32.
Oaxaca
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Oaxaca, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca, is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, make up the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 570 municipalities, of which 418 are governed by the system of Usos y costumbres with recognized forms of self governance. Its capital city is Oaxaca de Juárez, Oaxaca is located in Southwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Guerrero to the west, Puebla to the northwest, Veracruz to the north, to the south, Oaxaca has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean. The state is best known for its indigenous peoples and cultures, the most numerous and best known are the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, but there are sixteen that are officially recognized. These cultures have survived better than most others in Mexico due to the states rugged, most live in the Central Valleys region, which is also an important area for tourism, attracting people for its archeological sites such as Monte Albán, native culture and crafts. Another important tourist area is the coast, which has the major resort of Huatulco, Oaxaca is also one of the most biologically diverse states in Mexico, ranking in the top three, along with Chiapas and Veracruz, for numbers of reptiles, amphibians, mammals and plants. The name of the state comes from the name of its capital city and this name comes from the Nahuatl word Huaxyacac, which refers to a tree called a guaje found around the capital city. The name was applied to the Valley of Oaxaca by Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs. The modern state was created in 1824, and the seal was designed by Alfredo Canseco Feraud. Nahuatl word Huaxyacac was transliterated as Oaxaca using Medieval Spanish orthography, in which the x represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative, however, during the sixteenth century the voiceless fricative sound evolved into a voiceless velar fricative, and Oaxaca began to be pronounced. Most of what is known about pre-historic Oaxaca comes from work in the Central Valleys region, evidence of human habitation dating back to about 11,000 years BC has been found in the Guilá Naquitz cave near the town of Mitla. More finds of nomadic peoples date back to about 5000 BC, by 2000 BC, agriculture had been established in the Central Valleys region of the state, with sedentary villages. The diet developed around this time would remain until the Spanish Conquest, consisting primarily of harvested corn, beans, chocolate, tomatoes, chili peppers, squash, meat was generally hunted and included tepescuintle, turkey, deer, peccary, armadillo and iguana. The oldest known settlements, such as Yanhuitlán and Laguna Zope are located in this area as well. The latter settlement is known for its small figures called pretty women or baby face, between 1200 and 900 BC, pottery was being produced in the area as well. This pottery has been linked with work done in La Victoria. Other important settlements from the time period include Tierras Largas, San José Mogote and Guadalupe
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Sierra Madre del Sur
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The Sierra Madre del Sur is a mountain range in southern Mexico, extending 1,000 kilometres from southern Michoacán east through Guerrero, to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in eastern Oaxaca. The mountains highest point is 3,703 metres, located at 17°33′N 100°18′W in central Guerrero, the range is noted for its very high biodiversity and large number of endemic species. The Sierra Madre del Sur pine-oak forests ecoregion occupies the higher reaches of the range and these forests are part of a chain of Mesoamerican pine-oak forests that stretch from the Southwestern United States to Costa Rica along the American Cordillera. Lower elevations of the range are covered by tropical dry forests, the Jalisco dry forests occupy the western end of the ranges Pacific slope. The Southern Pacific dry forests occupy most of the Pacific slope of the range, from Michoacan in the west through Guerrero, the basin of the Balsas River, north of the Sierra, is home to the Balsas dry forests. Sierra Madre del Sur pine-oak forests, Sierra Madre del Sur pine-oak forests. Archived from the original on 2010-03-08
34.
Guerrero
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Guerrero, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Guerrero, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 81 municipalities and its capital city is Chilpancingo and it is located in Southwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Michoacán to the north and west, México and Morelos to the north, Puebla to the northeast and Oaxaca to the east. The state was named after Vicente Guerrero, one of the most prominent leaders in the Mexican War of Independence and it is the only Mexican state named after a president. The modern entity did not exist until 1849, when it was carved out of territories from the states of Mexico, Puebla and Michoacán. In addition to the city, the states largest cities include Acapulco, Petatlan, Ciudad Altamirano, Taxco, Iguala, Ixtapa, Zihuatanejo. Today, it is home to a number of communities, including the Nahuas, Mixtecs. It is also home to communities of Afro-Mexicans in the Costa Chica region, geographically, the state is mountainous and rugged with flat areas limited to small mesas and the coast line. Tourism is the single most important economic factor of the state, however, other sources of employment are scarce in the state, which has caused its ranking as number one in the emigration of workers to the United States. The first humans in the territory were nomadic hunter-gatherers who left evidence of their existence in various caves starting about 20,000 years ago. After that, settlements appeared near the coast because of fishing, at these sites, evidence of weaving, ceramics, basketry and other crafts have been found. Around this time, a grain called teocintle, or the forerunner to corn, Olmec influences can be seen in cave paintings such as those found in Juxtlahuaca and well as stone tools and jade jewelry from the time period. Recent evidence indicates that ancient Guerrero cultures may have influenced the development of the Olmecs. Eventually, the peoples of the Mexcala River area developed their own distinctive culture and it is characterized by its own sculpture and ceramics, distinguished by its simplicity. Olmec influence remained with this culture, especially evident in the grouping of villages, construction of ceremonial centers, later, the culture assimilated aspects of the Teotihuacan model, which included the Mesoamerican ball game. In the 8th century, Toltec influence was felt as they traveled the many routes through here in search of tropical bird plumage. From the 12th century to the 15th, the peoples of the state were influence by the Chichimecas. In the 11th century, new migrations entered the area from the north, which included the Nahuas, who occupied what is now the center of the state, the Nahuas established themselves in Zacatula, Atoyac and Tlacotepec, later conquering the areas occupied by the Chontals and Matlatzincas
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Mexican Plateau
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The Central Mexican Plateau, also known as the Mexican Altiplano, is a large arid-to-semiarid plateau that occupies much of northern and central Mexico. A low east-west mountain range in the state of Zacatecas divides the plateau into northern and southern sections and these two sections, called the Northern Plateau and Central Plateau, are now generally regarded by geographers as sections of one plateau. The Mexican Plateau is mostly covered by deserts and xeric shrublands, with forests covering the surrounding mountain ranges. The Mexican Altiplano is one of six distinct sections of the Basin and Range Province. In phytogeography, the Sonoran Desert is within the Sonoran Floristic Province of the Madrean Region in southwestern North America, various narrow, isolated ridges cross the Mesa del Norte and numerous depressions also dot the region, the largest of which is the Bolsón de Mapimí. The Río Bravo del Norte and its tributary, the Río Conchos, drain portions of the plateau. Both drain to the Gulf of Mexico, much of the northern plateau comprises internal drainage basins that do not drain to the sea. The Mesa Central or southern plateau is higher than its northern counterpart, the southern plateau contains numerous valleys originally formed by ancient lakes. It extends across the states of Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Michoacán, México, several of Mexicos most prominent cities, including Mexico City and Guadalajara, are located in the valleys of the southern plateau. Much of the plateau is drained by the Río Grande de Santiago and its tributaries, including the Río Lerma. Tributaries of the Río Pánuco drain the eastern portion of the southern plateau, the Central Mexican matorral covers much of the southern plateau, with the subtropical Bajío dry forests occupying the lower portions of the Lerma–Río Grande de Santiago basin. Higher altitudes are covered by Mixed Forests, then Temperate Coniferous Forests and this article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/. Ricketts, Taylor H. Eric Dinerstein, David M. Olson, Colby J. Loucks, terrestrial Ecoregions of North America, a Conservation Assessment. Image Science and Analysis Laboratory, NASA-Johnson Space Center, earth from Space - Image Information
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