1.
Telecommunication
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Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
2.
MCI Inc.
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MCI, Inc. was an American telecommunication corporation, currently a subsidiary of Verizon Communications, with its main office in Ashburn, Virginia. The company traded on NASDAQ as WCOM and MCIP, for a time WorldCom was the United Statess second largest long distance telephone company. WorldCom grew largely by acquiring other companies, most notably MCI Communications. It also owned the Tier 1 ISP UUNET, a part of the internet backbone. It was headquartered in Clinton, Mississippi, before being relocated to Virginia, the company began as Long Distance Discount Services, Inc. during 1983, based in Jackson, Mississippi. In 1985 LDDS selected Bernard Ebbers to be its CEO, the company became traded publicly as a corporation in 1989 as a result of a merger with Advantage Companies Inc. The company name was changed to LDDS WorldCom in 1995, and relocated to Clinton, the company grew rapidly in the 1990s. Among the companies that were bought or merged with WorldCom were Advanced Communications Corp, resurgens Communications Group, IDB Communications Group, Inc, Williams Technology Group, Inc. and MFS Communications Company, and MCI in 1998. The acquisition of MFS included UUNET Technologies, Inc. which had acquired by MFS shortly before the merger with WorldCom. In February 1998, WorldCom purchased—by a complex transaction—online pioneer company CompuServe from its parent company H&R Block, WorldCom then retained the CompuServe Network Services Division, sold its online service to America Online, and received AOLs network division, ANS. On November 4,1997, WorldCom and MCI Communications announced their US$37 billion merger to form MCI WorldCom, making it the largest corporate merger in U. S. history. On September 15,1998, the new company, MCI WorldCom, opened for business, on October 5,1999, Sprint Corporation and MCI WorldCom announced a $129 billion merger agreement between the two companies. Had the deal been completed, it would have been the largest corporate merger in history, the merged company would have surpassed AT&T as the largest communications company in the United States. However, the deal floundered due to opposition from the U. S. Department of Justice, on July 13,2000, the boards of directors of both companies terminated the merger. Later that year, MCI WorldCom renamed itself simply WorldCom, CEO Bernard Ebbers became very wealthy from the increasing price of his holdings in WorldCom common stock. However, in the year 2000 the telecommunications industry was in decline, WorldCom’s aggressive growth strategy suffered a serious setback when, in July 2000, it was forced by the U. S. Justice Department to abandon its proposed merger with Sprint. By that time, WorldCom’s stock price was decreasing, and banks were placing increasing demands on Ebbers to cover margin calls on his WorldCom stock that were used to finance his other businesses. In 2001, Ebbers persuaded WorldCom’s board of directors to provide him corporate loans, the board hoped that the loans would avert the need for Ebbers to sell substantial amounts of his WorldCom stock, as his doing so would result in a further decrease of the stocks price
3.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
AT&T Corporation
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Founded in 1885 as the original American Telephone and Telegraph Company, it was at times the worlds largest telephone company, the worlds largest cable television operator, and a regulated monopoly. At its peak in the 1950s and 1960s, it employed one million people, in 2005, AT&T was purchased by Baby Bell and former subsidiary SBC Communications for more than $16 billion. SBC then changed its name to AT&T Inc, AT&T started with Bell Patent Association, a legal entity established in 1874 to protect the patent rights of Alexander Graham Bell after he invented the telephone system. Originally a verbal agreement, it was formalized in writing in 1875 as Bell Telephone Company, in 1880 the management of American Bell had created what would become AT&T Long Lines. The project was the first of its kind to create a nationwide long-distance network with a commercially viable cost-structure, the project was formally incorporated in New York State as a separate company named American Telephone and Telegraph Company on March 3,1885. With this assets transfer, AT&T became the parent of both American Bell and the Bell System. AT&T was involved mainly in the business and, although it was a partner with RCA, was reluctant to see radio grow because such growth might diminish the demand for wired services. It established station WEAF in New York as what was termed a toll station, AT&T could provide no programming, but anyone who wished to broadcast a message could pay a toll to AT&T and then air the message publicly. The original studio was the size of a telephone booth, the idea, however, did not take hold, because people would pay to broadcast messages only if they were sure that someone was listening. As a result, WEAF began broadcasting entertainment material, drawing amateur talent found among its employees, throughout most of the 20th century, AT&T held a monopoly on phone service in the United States and Canada through a network of companies called the Bell System. At this time, the company was nicknamed Ma Bell, on April 30,1907, Theodore Newton Vail became President of AT&T. Vail believed in the superiority of one system and AT&T adopted the slogan One Policy, One System. This would be the philosophy for the next 70 years. Under Vail, AT&T began buying up many of the telephone companies including Western Union telegraph. Anxious to avoid action from government antitrust suits, AT&T and the government entered into an agreement known as the Kingsbury Commitment. These actions brought unwanted attention from antitrust regulators, in the Kingsbury Commitment, AT&T and the government reached an agreement that allowed AT&T to continue operating as a monopoly. While AT&T periodically faced scrutiny from regulators, this state of affairs continued until the breakup in 1984. The United States Justice Department opened the case United States v. AT&T in 1974 and this was prompted by suspicion that AT&T was using monopoly profits from its Western Electric subsidiary to subsidize the cost of its network, a violation of anti-trust law
6.
Verizon Communications
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The company is based at 1095 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, but is incorporated in Delaware. Bell Atlantic came into existence in 1984 with a footprint from New Jersey to Virginia, as part of the rebranding that the Baby Bells took in the mid-1990s, all of the operating companies assumed the Bell Atlantic name. In 1997, Bell Atlantic expanded into New York and the New England states by merging with fellow Baby Bell NYNEX, although Bell Atlantic was the surviving company, the merged company moved its headquarters from Philadelphia to NYNEXs old headquarters in New York City. In 2000, Bell Atlantic merged with GTE, which operated telecommunications companies across most of the rest of the country that was not already in Bell Atlantics footprint, Bell Atlantic, the surviving company, changed its name to Verizon, a portmanteau of veritas and horizon. As of 2016, Verizon is one of three companies that had their roots in the former Baby Bells, the other two, like Verizon, exist as a result of mergers among fellow former Baby Bell members. One, SBC Communications, bought out its former parent AT&T Corporation, the other, CenturyLink, was formed initially in 2011 by the acquisition of Qwest. Bell Atlantic Corporation was created as one of the original Regional Bell Operating Companies in 1984, in 1994, Bell Atlantic became the first RBOC to entirely drop the original names of its original operating companies. In 1996, CEO and Chairman Raymond W. Smith orchestrated Bell Atlantics merger with NYNEX, when it merged, it moved its corporate headquarters from Philadelphia to New York City. NYNEX was consolidated into this name by 1997, the approval came with 25 stipulations to preserve competition between local phone carriers, including investing in new markets and broadband technologies. The new venture was headed by co-CEOs Charles Lee, formerly the CEO of GTE, upon its inception, Verizon became the largest local telephone company in the United States, operating 63 million telephone lines in 40 states. The company also inherited 25 million mobile phone customers, additionally, Verizon offered internet services and long-distance calling in New York, before expanding long-distance operations to other states. The name Verizon derives from the combination of the words veritas, Latin for truth, the name was chosen from 8,500 candidates and the company spent $300 million on marketing the new brand. The companies established Verizon Wireless as its own business operated by Bell Atlantic, Vodafone retained 45% of the company. The deal was valued at approximately $70 billion and created a mobile carrier with 23 million customers, Verizon Wireless merged Bell Atlantics wireless network, Vodafones AirTouch and PrimeCo holdings, and the wireless division of GTE. Due to its size, Verizon Wireless was able to offer national coverage at competitive rates, in another partnership with MSN in 2002, Verizon Wireless launched the mobile content service VZW with MSN and a phone that utilized the Microsoft Windows operating system. In August 2000, approximately 85,000 Verizon workers went on an 18-day labor strike after their contracts expired. The strike affected quarterly revenues, resulting in Verizon Wireless postponement of the companys IPO, Verizon launched 3G service in 2002, which doubled the Internet speeds of the time to 144kb a second. In August 2002, Verizon began offering local, long-distance, and mobile calling, as well as Internet service and it was initially only available to customers in New York and Massachusetts
7.
Microwave transmission
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Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are measured in small numbers of centimetre, these are called microwaves. This part of the spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz to 300 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down to 0.1 cm, communication satellites which transferred data between ground stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in the 1960s. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other, a disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation, they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can. Microwave radio transmission is used in point-to-point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications. Other parts of the radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems. Radio waves in this band are usually strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in it, also, in wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. Wireless transmission of power Proposed systems e. g, in microwave radio relay, microwaves are transmitted between the two locations with directional antennas, forming a fixed radio connection between the two points. The requirement of a line of sight limits the distance between stations to 30 or 40 miles. Beginning in the 1950s, networks of microwave links, such as the AT&T Long Lines system in the U. S. carried long distance telephone calls. The first system, dubbed TD-2 and built by AT&T, connected New York and these included long daisy-chained series of such links that traversed mountain ranges and spanned continents. Much of the traffic is now carried by cheaper optical fibers and communication satellites. Antennas must be highly directional, these antennas are installed in elevated locations such as radio towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances. Typical types of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic antennas, dielectric lens, and horn-reflector antennas, highly directive antennas permit an economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite long transmission distances. Because of the frequencies used, a line-of-sight path between the stations is required. Additionally, in order to avoid attenuation of the beam an area around the beam called the first Fresnel zone must be free from obstacles, obstacles in the signal field cause unwanted attenuation. In the planning process, it is essential that path profiles are produced, multipath fades are usually deep only in a small spot and a narrow frequency band, so space and/or frequency diversity schemes can be applied to mitigate these effects. Rare events of temperature, humidity and pressure profile versus height, may produce large deviations and distortion of the propagation and affect transmission quality
8.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
9.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
10.
St. Louis
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
11.
Missouri
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Missouri is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1821. With over six million residents, it is the eighteenth most populous state, the largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. The capitol is in Jefferson City on the Missouri River, the state is the twenty-first most extensive by area and is geographically diverse. The Northern Plains were once covered by glaciers, then tallgrass prairie, in the South are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation. The Mississippi River forms the border of the state, eventually flowing into the swampy Missouri Bootheel. Humans have inhabited the land now known as Missouri for at least 12,000 years, the Mississippian culture built cities and mounds, before declining in the 1300s. When European explorers arrived in the 1600s they encountered the Osage, the French established Louisiana, a part of New France, and founded Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764, after a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Americans from the Upland South, including enslaved African Americans, rushed into the new Missouri Territory, many from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri. Soon after, heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland, Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States, as memorialized by the Gateway Arch. The Pony Express, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, as a border state, Missouris role in the American Civil War was complex and there were many conflicts within. After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business, today, the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis. Missouris culture blends elements from the Midwestern and Southern United States, the musical styles of ragtime, Kansas City jazz, and St. Louis Blues, developed in Missouri. The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue, and lesser known St. Louis-style barbecue can be found across the state, St. Louis is also a major center of beer brewing, Anheuser-Busch is the largest producer in the world. Missouri wine is produced in the nearby Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks, Missouris alcohol laws are among the most permissive in the United States. Outside of the large cities popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks, U. S. President Harry S. Truman is from Missouri. Other well known Missourians include Mark Twain, Walt Disney, Chuck Berry, some of the largest companies based in the state include Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, and OReilly Auto Parts. Missouri has been called the Mother of the West and the Cave State, however, Missouris most famous nickname is the Show Me State, the state is named for the Missouri River, which was named after the indigenous Missouri Indians, a Siouan-language tribe
12.
U.S. Route 66
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U. S. Route 66, also known as the Will Rogers Highway, the Main Street of America or the Mother Road, was one of the original highways within the U. S. Highway System. US66 was established on November 11,1926, with signs erected the following year. It was recognized in popular culture by both the hit song Route 66 and the Route 66 television show in the 1960s. US66 served as a path for those who migrated west, especially during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. Portions of the road passed through Illinois, Missouri, New Mexico, and Arizona have been designated a National Scenic Byway of the name Historic Route 66. Several states have adopted significant bypassed sections of the former US66 into the road network as State Route 66. His secondary orders were to test the feasibility of the use of camels as pack animals in the southwestern desert and this road became part of US66. Parts of the original Route 66 from 1913, prior to its naming and commissioning. The paved road becomes a road, south of Cajon. Before a nationwide network of numbered highways was adopted by the states, the route that would become US66 was covered by three highways. The Lone Star Route passed through St. Louis on its way from Chicago to Cameron, Louisiana, the transcontinental National Old Trails Road led via St. Again, a shorter route was taken, here following the Postal Highway between Oklahoma City and Amarillo. Finally, the National Old Trails Road became the rest of the route to Los Angeles, the original inspiration for a roadway between Chicago and Los Angeles was planned by entrepreneurs Cyrus Avery of Tulsa, Oklahoma and John Woodruff of Springfield, Missouri. The pair lobbied the American Association of State Highway Officials for the creation of a following the 1925 plans. The numerical designation 66 was assigned to the Chicago-to-Los Angeles route on April 30,1926 in Springfield, Louis streets and on Route 266 to Halltown, Missouri. Avery was adamant that the highway have a number and had proposed number 60 to identify it. A controversy erupted over the number 60, largely from delegates from Kentucky who wanted a Virginia Beach–Los Angeles highway to be US60, arguments and counterarguments continued throughout February, including a proposal to split the proposed route through Kentucky into Route 60 North and Route 60 South. The final conclusion was to have US60 run between Virginia Beach, Virginia, and Springfield, Missouri, and the Chicago–L. A. Avery and highway engineer John Page settled on 66, which was unassigned, because he thought the number would be easy to remember as well as pleasant to say
13.
Illinois Waterway
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The Illinois Waterway system consists of 336 miles of water from the mouth of the Calumet River to the mouth of the Illinois River at Grafton, Illinois. It is a system of rivers, lakes, and canals which provide a connection from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico via the Illinois. The Illinois and Michigan Canal opened in 1849, in 1900, the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal replaced it and reversed the flow of the Chicago River so it no longer flowed into Lake Michigan. The United States Army Corps of Engineers maintains a 9-foot-deep navigation channel in the waterway, the waterways complex northern section is referred to in various contexts for study and management as the Chicago Area Waterway System. A series of eight locks, managed by the Army Corps of Engineers, oBrien, is 7 miles from Lake Michigan on the Calumet River and the last lock is 90 miles upstream from the Mississippi River at the LaGrange lock and dam. The amount of released into the Illinois often is a sore point among lake. When Lake Michigan water levels are high, lake interests want to increase the flow, and that is why an international treaty regulates the flow, as Canada also has an interest in Lake Michigan levels which eventually flow into the Lakes Erie, Huron, and Ontario. Primary cargoes are coal to powerplants, chemicals and petroleum upstream and corn, some winters ice floes, especially around the locks and dams, preclude towboats and barges from navigating the Illinois. The schematic below illustrates the drop of the Illinois Waterway from 578 feet above sea level at Lake Michigan to 419 feet at the Mississippi River at Grafton, the eight locks and dams on the waterway provide the lift for traffic along the waterway. US Army Corp of Engineers Illinois Waterway Fact Sheet Hay, Jerry, Illinois Waterway Guidebook, 1st Edition, ISBN 978-1-60743-856-4 Historic American Engineering Record No
14.
Federal Communications Commission
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The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the media, public safety and homeland security, and modernizing itself. The FCC was formed by the Communications Act of 1934 to replace the radio regulation functions of the Federal Radio Commission, the FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission. The FCCs mandated jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, the FCC also provides varied degrees of cooperation, oversight, and leadership for similar communications bodies in other countries of North America. The FCC is funded entirely by regulatory fees and it has an estimated fiscal-2016 budget of US$388 million. Consistent with the objectives of the Act as well as the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act and these are, Broadband All Americans should have affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services. Competition Competition in the provision of services, both domestically and overseas, supports the Nations economy. The competitive framework for communications services should foster innovation and offer consumers reliable, Media The Nations media regulations must promote competition and diversity and facilitate the transition to digital modes of delivery. Public Safety and Homeland Security Communications during emergencies and crisis must be available for public safety, health, defense, the Nations critical communications infrastructure must be reliable, interoperable, redundant, and rapidly restorable. The FCC is directed by five appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate for five-year terms. The U. S. President designates one of the commissioners to serve as chairman, only three commissioners may be members of the same political party. None of them may have a financial interest in any FCC-related business, importantly, commissioners may continue serving until the appointment of their replacements, but may not serve beyond the end of the next session of Congress following term expiration. In practice, as of 2016 this means that commissioners may serve up to 1 1/2 years beyond the term expiration dates listed above if no replacement is appointed. The Consumer & Governmental Affairs Bureau develops and implements the FCCs consumer policies, CGB serves as the public face of the FCC through outreach and education, as well as through their Consumer Center, which is responsible for responding to consumer inquiries and complaints. CGB also maintains partnerships with state, local, and tribal governments in such areas as emergency preparedness. The Enforcement Bureau is responsible for enforcement of provisions of the Communications Act 1934, FCC rules, FCC orders, major areas of enforcement that are handled by the Enforcement Bureau are consumer protection, local competition, public safety, and homeland security. S. The International Bureau also oversees FCC compliance with the international Radio Regulations, the Media Bureau also handles post-licensing matters regarding direct broadcast satellite service. The Wireless Telecommunications Bureau regulates domestic wireless telecommunications programs and policies, the Wireline Competition Bureau develops policy concerning wire line telecommunications. The Wireline Competition Bureaus main objective is to promote growth and economical investments in technology infrastructure, development, markets
15.
Carterfone
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The Carterfone is a device invented by Thomas Carter. It manually connects a radio system to the telephone system. This makes it a predecessor to todays autopatch. The device was acoustically, but not electrically, connected to the switched telephone network. It was electrically connected to the station of the mobile radio system. All electrical parts were encased in bakelite, an early plastic, when someone on a two-way radio wished to speak to someone on phone, or landline, the station operator at the base would dial the telephone number. When callers on the radio and on the telephone were both in contact with the station operator, the handset of the operators telephone was placed on a cradle built into the Carterfone device. A separate speaker was attached to the Carterfone to allow the station operator to monitor the conversation, adjust the voice volume. This particular device was involved in a landmark United States regulatory decision related to telecommunications, in 1968, the Federal Communications Commission allowed the Carterfone and other devices to be connected directly to the AT&T network, as long as they did not cause harm to the system. This ruling created the possibility of selling devices that could connect to the system using a protective coupler. The decision is often referred to as any device, allowing later innovations like answering machines, fax machines. However, on 1 April 2008, FCC chairman Kevin Martin indicated that he would oppose Skypes request, on April 17,2015 this petition for rulemaking was dismissed without prejudice by the FCC at the request of Skypes current owner, Microsoft Corporation
16.
United States courts of appeals
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The United States courts of appeals are the intermediate appellate courts of the United States federal court system. A court of appeals decides appeals from the courts within its federal judicial circuit. The United States courts of appeals are considered among the most powerful, because of their ability to set legal precedent in regions that cover millions of Americans, the United States courts of appeals have strong policy influence on U. S. law. The Ninth Circuit in particular is influential, covering 20% of the American population. There are currently 179 judges on the U. S. courts of appeals authorized by Congress in 28 U. S. C. §43 pursuant to Article III of the U. S. Constitution. These judges are nominated by the President of the United States and they have lifetime tenure, earning an annual salary of $215,400. The eleven numbered circuits and the D. C. Circuit are geographically defined, the thirteenth court of appeals is the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has nationwide jurisdiction over certain appeals based on their subject matter. All of the courts of appeals also hear appeals from some administrative decisions and rulemaking. Decisions of the U. S. courts of appeals have been published by the private company West Publishing in the Federal Reporter series since the courts were established, only decisions that the courts designate for publication are included. The unpublished opinions are published separately in Wests Federal Appendix, more recently, court decisions have also been made available electronically on official court websites. However, there are also a few federal court decisions that are classified for security reasons. The number of judges that the U. S. Congress has authorized for each circuit is set forth by law in 28 U. S. C. §44, while the places where those judges must regularly sit to hear appeals are prescribed in 28 U. S. C, the current courts of appeals system was established in the Judiciary Act of 1891, also known as the Evarts Act. Because the courts of appeals possess only appellate jurisdiction, they do not hold trials, instead, appeals courts review decisions of trial courts for errors of law. Accordingly, a court considers only the record from the trial court. These arguments, which are presented in form and can range in length from dozens to hundreds of pages, are known as briefs. Sometimes lawyers are permitted to add to their written briefs with oral arguments before the appeals judges, at such hearings, only the parties lawyers speak to the court. The rules that govern the procedure in the courts of appeals are the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure, in a court of appeals, an appeal is almost always heard by a panel of three judges who are randomly selected from the available judges
17.
Stock
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The stock of a corporation is constituted of the equity stock of its owners. A single share of the stock represents fractional ownership of the corporation in proportion to the number of shares. In liquidation, the stock represents the residual assets of the company that would be due to stockholders after discharge of all senior claims such as secured and unsecured debt. Stockholders equity cannot be withdrawn from the company in a way that is intended to be detrimental to the companys creditors, the stock of a corporation is partitioned into shares, the total of which are stated at the time of business formation. Additional shares may subsequently be authorized by the shareholders and issued by the company. In some jurisdictions, each share of stock has a certain declared par value, in other jurisdictions, however, shares of stock may be issued without associated par value. Shares represent a fraction of ownership in a business, a business may declare different types of shares, each having distinctive ownership rules, privileges, or share values. Ownership of shares may be documented by issuance of a stock certificate. A stock certificate is a document that specifies the amount of shares owned by the shareholder. Stock typically takes the form of shares of common stock or preferred stock. As a unit of ownership, common stock typically carries voting rights that can be exercised in corporate decisions, shares of such stock are called convertible preferred shares. New equity issue may have specific legal clauses attached that differentiate them from previous issues of the issuer. Some shares of stock may be issued without the typical voting rights, for instance, or some shares may have special rights unique to them. Often, new issues that have not been registered with a governing body may be restricted from resale for certain periods of time. Preferred stock may be hybrid by having the qualities of bonds of fixed returns and they also have preference in the payment of dividends over common stock and also have been given preference at the time of liquidation over common stock. They have other features of accumulation in dividend, Rule 144 Stock is an American term given to shares of stock subject to SEC Rule 144, Selling Restricted and Control Securities. Under Rule 144, restricted and controlled securities are acquired in unregistered form, investors either purchase or take ownership of these securities through private sales from the issuing company or from an affiliate of the issuer. Investors wishing to sell these securities are subject to different rules than those selling traditional common or preferred stock and these individuals will only be allowed to liquidate their securities after meeting the specific conditions set forth by SEC Rule 144
18.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
19.
Initial public offering
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Through this process, a privately held company transforms into a public company. Initial public offerings are used by companies to raise the expansion of capital, possibly to monetize the investments of early private investors. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors, after the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, money passes between public investors. The IPO process is known as going public. Details of the offering are disclosed to potential purchasers in the form of a lengthy document known as a prospectus. Most companies undertake an IPO with the assistance of an investment banking firm acting in the capacity of an underwriter, underwriters provide several services, including help with correctly assessing the value of shares and establishing a public market for shares. Alternative methods such as the dutch auction have also been explored, in terms of size and public participation, the two most notable examples of this method is the Google IPO and Snapchats parent company Snap Inc. China has recently emerged as a major IPO market, with several of the largest IPOs taking place in that country, the earliest form of a company which issued public shares was the case of the publicani during the Roman Republic. Like modern joint-stock companies, the publicani were legal bodies independent of their members whose ownership was divided into shares, there is evidence that these shares were sold to public investors and traded in a type of over-the-counter market in the Forum, near the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The shares fluctuated in value, encouraging the activity of speculators, mere evidence remains of the prices for which partes were sold, the nature of initial public offerings, or a description of stock market behavior. Publicanis lost favor with the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire, the first modern IPO occurred in March 1602 when the Dutch East India Company offered shares of the company to the public in order to raise capital. All the shares were tradable, and the shareholders received receipts for the purchase, a share certificate documenting payment and ownership such as we know today was not issued but ownership was instead entered in the companys share register. In the United States, the first IPO was the offering of Bank of North America around 1783. An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap into a pool of potential investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of debt. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors. Those investors must endure the unpredictable nature of the market to price. After the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, for early private investors who choose to sell shares as part of the IPO process, the IPO represents an opportunity to monetize their investment. This type of offering is not dilutive, since no new shares are being created, once a company is listed, it is able to issue additional common shares in a number of different ways, one of which is the follow-on offering
20.
Western Union
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The Western Union Company is an American financial services and communications company. Its North American headquarters is in Meridian, Colorado, though the designation of nearby Englewood is used in its mailing address. Up until it discontinued the service in 2006, Western Union was the best-known U. S. company in the business of exchanging telegrams, Western Union has several divisions, with products such as person-to-person money transfer, money orders, business payments and commercial services. They offered standard Cablegrams, as well as more products such as Candygrams, Dollygrams. Western Union, as a monopoly, dominated the telegraph industry in the late 19th century. It was the first communications empire and set a pattern for American-style communications businesses as they are known today, meanwhile, Ezra Cornell had bought back one of his bankrupt companies and renamed it the New York & Western Union Telegraph Company. Originally fierce competitors, by 1856 both groups were convinced that consolidation was their only alternative for progress. The merged company was named the Western Union Telegraph Company at Cornells insistence, Western Union bought out smaller companies rapidly, and by 1860 its lines reached from the East Coast to the Mississippi River, and from the Great Lakes to the Ohio River. In 1861 it opened the first transcontinental telegraph, in 1865 it formed the Russian–American Telegraph in an attempt to link America to Europe, via Alaska, into Siberia, to Moscow. The company enjoyed phenomenal growth during the few years. Under the leadership of presidents Jeptha Wade and William Orton its capitalization rose from $385,700 in 1858 to $41 million in 1876. However it was top-heavy with stock issues, and faced growing competition from several firms, in 1881 Gould took control of Western Union. It introduced the first stock ticker in 1866, and a time service in 1870. The next year,1871, the company introduced its money transfer service, in 1879, Western Union left the telephone business, having lost a patent lawsuit with Bell Telephone Company. As the telephone replaced the telegraph, money transfer would become its primary business, when the Dow Jones Transportation Average stock market index for the New York Stock Exchange was created in 1884, Western Union was one of the original eleven all-American companies tracked. By 1900, Western Union operated a million miles of telegraph lines, the company continued to grow, acquiring more than 500 smaller competitors. Its monopoly power was almost complete in 1943 when it bought Postal Telegraph, in 1914, Western Union offered the first charge card for consumers, in 1923 it introduced teletypewriters to join its branches. Singing telegrams followed in 1933, intercity fax in 1935, in 1958, it began offering Telex service to customers in New York City
21.
Xerox
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Xerox Corporation /ˈzɪərɒks/ is an American global corporation that sells document solutions and services, and document technology products in more than 160 countries. Xerox is headquartered in Norwalk, Connecticut, though its largest population of employees is based around Rochester, New York, the company purchased Affiliated Computer Services for $6.4 billion in early 2010. As a large developed company, it is placed in the list of Fortune 500 companies. Xerox completed the separation of Conduent Incorporated effective on Dec.31,2016, creating two market-leading, publicly- traded companies. In connection with the spin-off, Xerox received a transfer from Conduent of $1.8 billion. Xerox continues to trade on the NYSE under the ticker symbol “XRX”, researchers at Xerox and its Palo Alto Research Center invented several important elements of personal computing, such as the desktop metaphor GUI, the computer mouse and desktop computing. These concepts were frowned upon by the board of directors. The concepts were adopted by Apple and, later, Microsoft, with the help of these innovations, Apple and Microsoft came to dominate the personal computing revolution of the 1980s, whereas Xerox was not a major player. Xerox was founded in 1906 in Rochester as The Haloid Photographic Company, in 1938 Chester Carlson, a physicist working independently, invented a process for printing images using an electrically charged photoconductor-coated metal plate and dry powder toner. However, it would more than 20 years of refinement before the first automated machine to make copies was commercialized, using a document feeder, scanning light. Wilson, credited as the founder of Xerox, took over Haloid from his father and he saw the promise of Carlsons invention and, in 1946, signed an agreement to develop it as a commercial product. Wilson remained as President/CEO of Xerox until 1967 and served as Chairman until his death in 1971, looking for a term to differentiate its new system, Haloid coined the term Xerography from two Greek roots meaning dry writing. Haloid subsequently changed its name to Haloid Xerox in 1958 and then Xerox Corporation in 1961, before releasing the 914, Xerox tested the market by introducing a developed version of the prototype hand-operated equipment known as the Flat-plate 1385. The 1385 was not actually a viable copier because of its speed of operation and it was little more than a high quality, commercially available plate camera mounted as a horizontal rostrum camera, complete with photo-flood lighting and timer. The glass film/plate had been replaced with an aluminum plate. Clever electrics turned this into a developing and reusable substitute for film. A skilled user could produce fast, paper and metal printing plates of a higher quality than almost any other method, having started as a supplier to the offset lithography duplicating industry, Xerox now set its sights on capturing some of offsets market share. The 1385 was followed by the first automatic xerographic printer, the Copyflo, the Copyflo was a large microfilm printer which could produce positive prints on roll paper from any type of microfilm negative
22.
Westchester County, New York
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Westchester County is a county in the U. S. state of New York. It is the second-most populous county on the mainland of New York, according to the 2010 Census, the county had a population of 949,113, estimated to have increased by 2. 9% to 976,396 by 2015. Situated in the Hudson Valley, Westchester covers an area of 450 square miles, consisting of 6 cities,19 towns, established in 1683, Westchester was named after the city of Chester, England. The county seat is the city of White Plains, the annual per capita income for Westchester was $47,813 in 2011. The 2011 median household income of $77,006 was the fifth highest in New York, by 2014, the countys median household income had risen to $83,422. Westchester County ranks second in the state after New York County for median income per person, Westchester County is one of the centrally located counties within the New York metropolitan area. They called the region Lenapehoking, which consisted of the area around, the first European explorers to visit the Westchester area were Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 and Henry Hudson in 1609. Dutch settlers began arriving in the 1620s, followed by settlers from England in the 1640s, Westchester County was one of the original twelve counties of the Province of New York, created by an act of the New York General Assembly in 1683. At the time it included present day Bronx County, and abutted then-Dutchess County to the north, by 1775, Westchester was the richest and most populous county in the colony of New York. Although the Revolutionary War devastated the county, recovery after the war was rapid, in 1788, five years after the end of the war, the county was divided into 20 towns. In 1798, the first federal census recorded a population of 24,000 for the county. Two developments in the first half of the 19th century – the construction of the first Croton Dam and Aqueduct, and the coming of the railroad – had enormous impacts on the growth of Westchester. The Croton Dam and Aqueduct was begun in 1837 and completed in 1842, now a National Historic Landmark, the Croton Aqueduct is considered one of the great engineering achievements of the 19th century. In the 1840s, the first railroads were built in Westchester, and included the New York and Harlem Railroad, the Hudson River Railroad, the railroads often determined the growth of a town, and the population shifted from Northern to Southern Westchester. By 1860, the county population was 99,000. The period following the American Civil War enabled entrepreneurs in the New York area to create fortunes, during the latter half of the 19th century, Westchesters transportation system and labor force attracted a manufacturing base, particularly along the Hudson River and Nepperhan Creek. In 1874, the portion of the present Bronx County was transferred to New York County. These would later split from Manhattan to form their own county, during the 20th century, the rural character of Westchester would transform into the suburban county known today
23.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
24.
Michael Milken
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Michael Robert Milken is an American former financier and philanthropist. Milken was indicted for racketeering and securities fraud in 1989 in an insider trading investigation, as the result of a plea bargain, he pleaded guilty to securities and reporting violations but not to racketeering or insider trading. Milken was sentenced to ten years in prison, fined $600 million and his sentence was later reduced to two years for cooperating with testimony against his former colleagues and for good behavior. His critics cited him as the epitome of Wall Street greed during the 1980s, supporters, like George Gilder in his book, Telecosm, state that Milken was a key source of the organizational changes that have impelled economic growth over the last twenty years. Most striking was the productivity surge in capital, as Milken. and others took the vast sums trapped in old-line businesses, since his release from prison, Milken has funded medical research. He is co-founder of the Milken Family Foundation, chairman of the Milken Institute, a prostate cancer survivor, Milken has devoted significant resources to research on the disease. In a November 2004 cover article, Fortune magazine called him The Man Who Changed Medicine for changes in approach to funding and results that he initiated. Milkens compensation, while head of the bond department at Drexel Burnham Lambert in the late 1980s, exceeded $1 billion in a four-year period. With an estimated net worth of around $2 billion as of 2010, Milken was born into a middle-class Jewish family in Encino, California. He graduated from Birmingham High School where he was the head cheerleader and his classmates included actresses Sally Field and Cindy Williams. In 1968, he graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a B. S. with highest honors where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and was a member of the Sigma Alpha Mu fraternity. He received his MBA from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, while at Berkeley, Milken was influenced by credit studies authored by W. Through his Wharton professors, Milken landed a job at Drexel Harriman Ripley. After completing his MBA, he joined Drexel as director of low-grade bond research and he was also given some capital and permitted to trade. Over the next 17 years, he would have four down months. Drexel merged with Burnham and Company in 1973 to form Drexel Burnham, Milken was one of the few prominent holdovers from the Drexel side of the merger, and became the merged firms head of convertibles. He persuaded his new boss, fellow Wharton alumnus Tubby Burnham, by 1976, Milkens income at what was now Drexel Burnham Lambert was estimated at $5 million a year. In 1978, Milken moved the high-yield bond operation to Century City in Los Angeles, by the mid-1980s, Milkens network of high-yield bond buyers had reached a size which enabled him to raise large amounts of money very quickly
25.
Drexel Burnham Lambert
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At its height, it was the fifth-largest investment bank in the United States. I. W. Tubby Burnham, a 1931 graduate of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, founded the firm in 1935 as Burnham and Company, a small New York City–based retail brokerage. Burnham started the firm with $100,000 of capital, $96,000 of which was borrowed from his grandfather and it became one of the more successful brokerages in the country, eventually building its capital to $1 billion. Burnham eventually branched out into investment banking, however, the companys ability to expand was limited by the structure of the investment banking industry of that time. A strict unwritten set of rules assured the dominance of a few large firms by controlling the order in which their names appeared in advertisements for an underwriting, Burnham, as a sub-major firm, needed to connect with a major or special firm in order to further expand. Burnham found a partner in Drexel Firestone, an ailing Philadelphia-based firm with a rich history. Drexel Firestone traced its history to 1838, when Francis Martin Drexel founded Drexel & Company and his son, Anthony Joseph Drexel, became a partner in the firm at age 21, in 1847. The company made money in the created by mid-century gold finds in California. The company was involved in financial deals with the federal government during the Mexican–American War. A. J. Drexel took over the firm when his father died in 1863 and he partnered with J. P. Morgan and created one of the largest banking companies in the world, Drexel, Morgan & Co. In 1940, several former Drexel partners and associates formed an investment bank and assumed the rights to the Drexel, the new Drexel grew slowly, coasting on its predecessors historic ties to the larger securities issuers. By the early 1960s, it found itself short on capital and it merged with Harriman, Ripley and Company in 1965, and renamed itself Drexel Harriman Ripley. In the mid-1970s, it sold a 25 percent stake to Firestone Tire and Rubber Company, renaming itself Drexel Firestone. Despite having only two major clients by the dawn of the 1970s it was considered a major firm. However, it was a shell of its former self, as evidenced in 1973, Drexel management soon realized that a prominent name was not nearly enough to survive, and was very receptive to a merger offer from Burnham. Even though Burnham was the partner in the merger, the more powerful investment banks insisted that the Drexel name come first as a condition of joining the major bracket. Thus, Drexel Burnham and Company, headquartered in New York, was born in 1973 with $44 million in capital, in 1976, it merged with William D. Witter, a small research boutique that was the American arm of Belgian-based Groupe Bruxelles Lambert. The firm was renamed Drexel Burnham Lambert, and incorporated that year after 41 years as a limited partnership, the enlarged firm was privately held, Lambert held a 26 percent stake and received six seats on the board of directors
26.
Hybrid security
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Hybrid securities are a broad group of securities that combine the elements of the two broader groups of securities, debt and equity. Hybrid securities pay a rate of return or dividend until a certain date. Therefore, unlike a share of stock the holder has a cash flow. More common examples include convertible and converting preference shares, a hybrid security is structured differently and while the price of some securities behave more like fixed interest securities, others behave more like the underlying shares into which they convert. A convertible bond is a bond that can be converted into shares of the issuer. A convertible bond can be valued as a combination of a straight bond, an income security is a hybrid between a stock and a bond. The bond portion pays interest, and the stock portion pays dividends, income securities are popular in Canada. Discount, A discount is offered to the share price at the time of conversion. Reset/resettable, At the reset date the terms of the security may change, the holder can elect to accept the new reset terms or convert into shares. Cumulative/non-cumulative This refers to the event of missed dividend payments, cumulative, missed dividend payments are added to the next dividend payment. Non-cumulative, missed dividend payments are forgone, redeemable/non-redeemable Redeemable, At certain times the holder may have the option to sell the securities back to the company at the face value/issue price. Non-redeemable / irredeemable, The company is not offering to buy the securities back, traditional hybrids were usually structured in a way that leads the securities to react to the underlying share price. E. g.1 hybrid converts into 1 underlying share Note, in addition, some of these securities include minimum and maximum conversion terms, effectively giving the holder a put and call option if the share price reaches a certain prices. Most of the securities issued since 2005 are very bond-like. g. 5% the conversion ratio is into an amount of shares. E. g. Hybrid securities have skyrocketed in popularity since Moodys released a new set of guidelines for treating debt-equity hybrids in February 2005, the new guidelines establish a debt-equity continuum and allow institutions to classify part of the hybrid security as equity and part as debt. This change allowed companies to issue hybrid securities at a time of low interest rates. The most popular hybrid among financial institutions is the Basket D security, Basket D is a reference to a point on Moodys debt-equity continuum scale that treats the hybrid as 75% equity and 25% debt
27.
Balance sheet
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Assets, liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is often described as a snapshot of a companys financial condition, of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business calendar year. A standard company balance sheet has two sides, assets, on the left and financing, which itself has two parts, liabilities and ownership equity, on the right, the main categories of assets are usually listed first, and typically in order of liquidity. Assets are followed by the liabilities, another way to look at the balance sheet equation is that total assets equals liabilities plus owners equity. Looking at the equation in this way shows how assets were financed, balance sheets are usually presented with assets in one section and liabilities and net worth in the other section with the two sections balancing. A business operating entirely in cash can measure its profits by withdrawing the entire bank balance at the end of the period, however, many businesses are not paid immediately, they build up inventories of goods and they acquire buildings and equipment. In other words, businesses have assets and so they cannot, even if they want to, often, these businesses owe money to suppliers and to tax authorities, and the proprietors do not withdraw all their original capital and profits at the end of each period. In other words, businesses also have liabilities, a balance sheet summarizes an organization or individuals assets, equity and liabilities at a specific point in time. Two forms of balance sheet exist and they are the report form and the account form. Individuals and small businesses tend to have simple balance sheets, larger businesses tend to have more complex balance sheets, and these are presented in the organizations annual report. Large businesses also may prepare balance sheets for segments of their businesses, a balance sheet is often presented alongside one for a different point in time for comparison. Securities and real values are listed at market value rather than at historical cost or cost basis. Personal net worth is the difference between a total assets and total liabilities. Contingent liabilities such as warranties are noted in the footnotes to the balance sheet, the small businesss equity is the difference between total assets and total liabilities. Guidelines for balance sheets of public entities are given by the International Accounting Standards Board. The standard used by companies in the USA adhere to U. S, balance sheet account names and usage depend on the organizations country and the type of organization. Government organizations do not generally follow standards established for individuals or businesses, if applicable to the business, summary values for the following items should be included in the balance sheet, Assets are all the things the business owns. This will include property, tools, vehicles, furniture, machinery, bearer biological assets are plants or animals which bear agricultural produce for harvest, such as apple trees grown to produce apples and sheep raised to produce wool
28.
Fiber-optic network
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An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
29.
Bell System
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On December 31,1983, the system was broken up into independent companies by a U. S. Justice Department mandate. Ma Bell is also used to refer to the female voices behind recordings for the Bell System, Mary Moore, Jane Barbe. In 1877, the American Bell Telephone Company, named after Alexander Graham Bell, opened the first telephone exchange in New Haven, within a few years local exchange companies were established in every major city in the United States. In 1899, American Telephone & Telegraph acquired the assets of its parent, originally American Bell had created AT&T to provide long-distance calls between New York and Chicago and beyond. AT&T became the parent of American Bell, and thus the head of the Bell System, because regulatory and tax rules were leaner in New York than in Boston, after 1934, AT&T was regulated by the Federal Communication Commission. Receiving a U. S. patent for the invention of the telephone on March 7,1876, Alexander Graham Bell formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877, on April 30,1907, Theodore Newton Vail returned as President of AT&T. Vail believed in the superiority of one system and AT&T adopted the slogan One Policy, One System. This would be the philosophy for the next 70 years. Under Vail, AT&T began buying up many of the telephone companies including Western Union telegraph. Anxious to avoid action from government antitrust suits, AT&T entered into an agreement known as the Kingsbury Commitment with the federal government. S. The Bell trademark pictured here was used from 1921 through 1939 by both the AT&T corporation and the regional operating corporations to co-brand themselves under a single Bell System trademark, the regional operating corporations name was placed where name of associated company appears in this template version of the trademark. Bell system telephones and related equipment were made by Western Electric, member telephone companies paid a fixed fraction of their revenues as a license fee to Bell Labs. As a result of this monopoly, by 1940 the Bell System effectively owned most telephone service in the United States, from local. This allowed Bell to prohibit their customers from connecting phones not made or sold by Bell to the system without paying fees, Northern Electric was spun off in 1956 by Western Electric, but AT&T did not spin off Bell Canada until 1975. The Bell Systems Caribbean regional operating companies were sold to the ITT Corporation, before 1956, the Bell Systems reach was truly gargantuan. The 1984 Bell System divestiture brought an end to the branded as the Bell System. The suit was settled on January 8,1982, superseding the former restrictions that AT&T and the DOJ had agreed upon in 1956. Currently, the word mark Bell, the logo, and other related trademarks, are held by each of the remaining Bell companies, namely AT&T, Verizon, CenturyLink, and Cincinnati Bell
30.
Competition law
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Competition law is a law that promotes or seeks to maintain market competition by regulating anti-competitive conduct by companies. Competition law is implemented through public and private enforcement, Competition law is known as anti-trust law in the United States, and as anti-monopoly law in China and Russia. In previous years it has known as trade practices law in the United Kingdom. In the European Union, it is referred to as both antitrust and competition law, the history of competition law reaches back to the Roman Empire. The business practices of market traders, guilds and governments have always been subject to scrutiny, since the 20th century, competition law has become global. The two largest and most influential systems of regulation are United States antitrust law and European Union competition law. National and regional competition authorities across the world have formed international support, modern competition law has historically evolved on a country level to promote and maintain fair competition in markets principally within the territorial boundaries of nation-states. National competition law usually does not cover activity beyond territorial borders unless it has significant effects at nation-state level, countries may allow for extraterritorial jurisdiction in competition cases based on so-called effects doctrine. The protection of competition is governed by international competition agreements. These obligations were not included in GATT, but in 1994, with the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of GATT Multilateral Negotiations, the Agreement Establishing the WTO included a range of limited provisions on various cross-border competition issues on a sector specific basis. Competition law, or antitrust law, has three elements, prohibiting agreements or practices that restrict free trading and competition between business. This includes in particular the repression of trade caused by cartels. Banning abusive behavior by a firm dominating a market, or anti-competitive practices that tend to lead to such a dominant position, Practices controlled in this way may include predatory pricing, tying, price gouging, refusal to deal, and many others. Supervising the mergers and acquisitions of large corporations, including joint ventures. Substance and practice of competition law varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, protecting the interests of consumers and ensuring that entrepreneurs have an opportunity to compete in the market economy are often treated as important objectives. In recent decades, competition law has been viewed as a way to better public services. An early example of competition law can be found in Roman law, the Lex Julia de Annona was enacted during the Roman Republic around 50 B. C. To protect the trade, heavy fines were imposed on anyone directly, deliberately
31.
BT Group
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BT Group plc is a holding company which owns British Telecommunications plc, a British multinational telecommunications services company with head offices in London, United Kingdom. It has operations in around 180 countries, BTs origins date back to the founding of the Electric Telegraph Company in 1846 which developed a nationwide communications network. In 1912, the General Post Office, a government department, the Post Office Act of 1969 led to the GPO becoming a public corporation. British Telecommunications, trading as British Telecom, was formed in 1980, British Telecommunications was privatised in 1984, becoming British Telecommunications plc, with some 50 percent of its shares sold to investors. The Government sold its stake in further share sales in 1991 and 1993. BT has a listing on the London Stock Exchange, a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange. BT controls a number of large subsidiaries, BT announced in February 2015 that it had agreed to acquire EE for £12.5 billion, and received final regulatory approval from the Competition and Markets Authority on 15 January 2016. The transaction was completed on 29 January 2016, BTs origins date back to the establishment of the first telecommunications companies in Britain. Among them was the first commercial service, the Electric Telegraph Company. As these companies amalgamated and were taken over or collapsed, the companies were transferred to state control under the Post Office in 1912. These companies were merged and rebranded as British Telecom, in January 1878 Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his recently developed telephone to Queen Victoria at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. John Hudson, with his premises in nearby Shudehill. As the number of installed telephones across the country grew it became sensible to consider constructing telephone exchanges to allow all the telephones in each city to be connected together, the first exchange was opened in London in August 1879, closely followed by the Lancashire Telephonic Exchange in Manchester. From 1878, the service in Britain was provided by private sector companies such as the National Telephone Company. In 1896, the National Telephone Company was taken over by the General Post Office, in 1912 it became the primary supplier of telecommunications services, after the Post Office took over the private sector telephone service in GB, except for a few local authority services. Those services all folded within a few years, the exception being Kingston upon Hull. Converting the Post Office into an industry, as opposed to a governmental department, was first discussed in 1932 by Lord Wolmer. In 1932 the Bridgeman Committee produced a report that was rejected, in 1961, more proposals were ignored
32.
GTE
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GTE Corporation, formerly General Telephone & Electric Corporation, was the largest independent telephone company in the United States during the days of the Bell System. The company operated from 1926, with roots tracing further back than that, until 2000, when it merged with Bell Atlantic, the combined company took the name Verizon. The company was founded in 1918 as the Associated Telephone Utilities Company, it went bankrupt in 1933 during the Great Depression, in 1991, it acquired the third largest independent, Continental Telephone. It owned Automatic Electric, an equipment supplier similar in many ways to Western Electric, and Sylvania Lighting. The company acquired BBN Planet, one of the earliest Internet service providers, GTE operated in Canada via large interests in subsidiary companies such as BC Tel and Quebec-Téléphone. When foreign ownership restrictions on telecommunications companies were introduced, GTEs ownership was grandfathered, when BC Tel merged with Telus to create BCT. Telus, GTEs Canadian subsidiaries were merged into the new parent, making it the second-largest telecommunications carrier in Canada. In the Caribbean, CONTEL purchased several major stakes in the independent countries of the British West Indies. In 1920, the three formed a corporation, Commonwealth Telephone Company, with Odegard as president, Pratt as vice-president. Richland Center Telephone became part of Commonwealth Telephone, which quickly purchased telephone companies in three nearby communities, in 1922, Pratt resigned as vice-president and was replaced by Clarence R. Brown, a former Bell System employee. By the mid-1920s, Commonwealth Telephone had extended beyond Wisconsin borders and it also diversified into other utilities by acquiring two small Wisconsin electrical companies. An aggressive acquisition program was launched in eastern, midwestern. During its first six years, Associated Telephone Utilities acquired 340 telephone companies, by the time the stock market bottomed out in October 1929, Associated Telephone Utilities was operating about 500,000 telephones with revenues approaching $17 million. In January 1930, a new subsidiary, Associated Telephone Investment Company, was established, designed to support its parents acquisition program, the new companys primary business was buying company stock in order to bolster its market value. Within two years, the investment company had incurred losses, and a $1 million loan had to be negotiated. Associated Telephone Investment was dissolved but not before its parents financial plight had become irreversible, the company was reorganized that same year and resurfaced in 1935 as General Telephone Corporation, operating 12 newly consolidated companies. John Winn, a 26-year veteran of the Bell System, was named president, in 1936, General Telephone created a new subsidiary, General Telephone Directory Company, to publish directories for the parents entire service area. Following the war, General Telephone reactivated an acquisitions program that had been dormant for more than a decade, in 1950, General Telephone purchased its first telephone-equipment manufacturing subsidiary, Leich Electric Company, along with the related Leich Sales Corporation. General Telephone’s holdings included 15 telephone companies across 20 states by 1951, power was named president of the company under chairman and long-time GT executive Morris F. LaCroix, replacing the retiring Harold Bozell
33.
Sprint Corporation
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Sprint Corporation, commonly referred to as Sprint, is an American telecommunications holding company that provides wireless services and is an internet service provider. It is the fourth largest mobile operator in the United States. The company is headquartered in Overland Park, Kansas, Sprint traces its origins to the Brown Telephone Company, which was founded in 1899 to deploy telephone service to the rural area around Abilene, Kansas. In 2006, Sprint exited the local telephone business, spinning those assets off into a newly created company named Embarq. The company continues to be one of the largest long distance providers in the United States, prior to 2005, the company was also known as the Sprint Corporation, but took the name Sprint Nextel Corporation when it merged with Nextel Communications that year. In 2013, following the shutdown of the Nextel network and concurrent with the acquisition by SoftBank, in July 2013, as part of the SoftBank transactions, Sprint acquired the remaining shares of wireless broadband carrier Clearwire Corporation which it did not already own. On August 6,2014, it was announced that CEO Dan Hesse would be replaced by Marcelo Claure, Claure is the founder and former CEO of wireless supplier Brightstar. Sprint Corporation traces its origins to the Brown Telephone Company, which was founded in 1899 by Cleyson Brown and Jacob Brown to deploy telephone service to the area around Abilene. The Browns installed their first long-distance circuit in 1900 and chartered their own company in October 1902, in March 1903, they joined with 14 other Kansas independents to incorporate the Union Telephone and Telegraph Company, which would provide long-distance service to Kansas City. Brown formed United Telephone and Electric in 1925 in order to stock in subsidiary companies across widely scattered geographical areas. Browns UT&E eventually controlled more than 68 other companies, more than two-thirds of which were telephone companies, the Great Depression caused more than three million telephone subscribers to give up their phone service between 1931 and 1933. Consequently, UT&E suffered severe financial strain and had to seek protection to reorganize under bankruptcy laws, all but six of UT&Es 85 companies survived, with some showing profits again in 1936. During the reorganization, a number of companies were merged and later phased out, the reorganization plan received final approval in late 1937. UT&E was dissolved, and its assets were placed in a newly formed company, United Utilities, Incorporated, when Paul H. Henson became president of United Utilities in 1964, he almost immediately reorganized the company in accordance with C. L. Brown’s belief that some of the company’s functions would result in greater efficiency, cost reductions. In 1972, United Utilities changed its name to United Telecommunications, in 1980, United Telecom launched a national X.25 data service, Uninet. To enter the long-distance voice market, United Telecom acquired ISACOMM in 1981, in 1983, United Telecom began offering cellular telephone services in their territories under the brand name Telespectrum. Southern Pacific Communications Company, a unit of the Southern Pacific Railroad, SPC was headquartered on Adrian Court in Burlingame, California, where Sprint still maintains its Sprint Applied Research & Advanced Technology Labs
34.
Satellite Business Systems
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SBS was founded on December 15,1975 by the aforementioned companies with the goal of providing a digital satellite communications network for business and other professional clients. In late 1970, MCI Communications created a company named MCI Satellite. The idea was that satellites could provide long service from anywhere to anywhere without having to build thousands of miles of terrestrial network facilities. A year later, MCI and Lockheed sought a source of funding. In need of cash, MCI sold its share of the venture to IBM Corporation in 1974, IBM and Comsat brought in Aetna Insurance Company as a third partner and renamed the company Satellite Business Systems. The original concept was for a corporation to install SBS earth stations at each of its major sites. This strategy limited SBS addressable market to corporations with enough concentrated voice, earth stations were generally not shared by SBS customers. Data communications protocols of the period were not efficient over satellite links, one SBS customer, ISACOMM, extended the business model to smaller corporate customers and provided offnet connectivity as well. The high initial costs of deploying earth stations, along with the success and expansion of terrestrial competitors like MCI and Sprint. Excess transponders on SBS satellites were leased to companies, and SBS adopted some of ISACOMMs marketing tactics. This was opposed to then-current satellites using the C band of RF spectrum, however, Ku signals suffered more from rain fade. The SBS earth station was designed by IBM and it consisted of a highly modified IBM8100 and a TDMA modem. All earth stations were managed from the SBS central network operations facility located in McLean, VA, the first use of the NASA Shuttle for commercial purposes was the deployment of the SBS3 satellite in November,1982 from STS-5. SBS engineers designed the cradle that sat in the bay of the shuttle and spun up to 50 RPM. In July 1984, Comsat left SBS, and exactly a year later, MCI migrated the voice and data traffic of most SBS customers to its terrestrial network. During the sale of SBS to MCI, four satellites were then in orbit, in 1987, SBS fleet was sold off. In April 1990, Hughes Communications Inc, a subsidiary of Hughes Aircraft bought STLC from IBM, sometime later SBS3 was sold to Comsat. Due to the divestiture of its fleet, SBS no longer exists as an entity, with the last satellite left of its fleet, SBS6, being de-commissioned in July 2007, list of feeds on SBS6 from lyngsat. com
35.
Rockwell Collins
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Arthur Collins founded Collins Radio Company in 1933 in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. It designed and produced both shortwave radio equipment and equipment for the burgeoning AM Broadcast industry, Collins was solicited by the military, the scientific community and by the larger AM radio stations for special equipment. Collins supplied the equipment to establish a link with the South Pole expedition of Rear Admiral Richard Byrd in 1933. In 1936, Collins had begun production of the 12H audio console, 12X portable field announcers box, throughout World War II, the 212A1 and 212B1 replaced the 12H design. Collins became the supplier of radio and navigation equipment used in the military. In the post war years, the Collins Radio Company expanded its work in all phases of the field while broadening its technology. This moved Arthur Collins into an active role as CEO guiding department leaders holding significant responsibilities. New developments such as flight instruments, radio communication devices. Collins communications equipment was used for Projects Mercury, Gemini and Apollo, in 1973, the U. S. Skylab Program used Collins equipment to provide communication from the astronauts to earth. After facing financial difficulties, the Collins Radio Company was purchased by Rockwell International in 1973, in 2001 the avionics division of Rockwell International was spun off to form the current Rockwell Collins, Inc. retaining its name. Rockwell Collins is highly concentrated in the defense and commercial avionics markets, the Collins mechanical filter is still in production and does, however, find consumer and commercial use. On December 20,2000, Rockwell Collins expanded its services to commercial, on April 28,2000, Rockwell International Corp and its Rockwell Collins unit agreed to acquire Sony Corps Sony Trans Com for undisclosed terms. The company has acquired companies, including Hughes-Avicoms in-flight entertainment business, Sonys in-flight entertainment business. NLX in 2003, portions of Evans & Sutherland, TELDIX GmbH, IP Unwired, Air Routing International in 2010, Computing Technologies for Aviation in 2011, and ARINC in 2014. The company is among the suppliers of in-flight entertainment on board aircraft. Rockwell Collins key competitors in this industry include Panasonic Avionics Corporation, Thales Group, as of 2010, the company employs over 20,000 people and has an annual turnover of 4.665 billion US dollars. Its non-executive chairman is Anthony Carbone following the retirement of Clayton M. Jones, in September 2012, Kelly Ortberg was appointed as president of the company. In August 2013, Kelly Ortberg was appointed CEO of Rockwell Collins, in 2016, Rockwell Collins entered the cabin interiors market through acquisition of B/E Aerospace for $8.3 billion
36.
Single-mode optical fiber
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In fiber-optic communication, a single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber designed to carry light only directly down the fiber - the transverse mode. Modes are the solutions of the Helmholtz equation for waves, which is obtained by combining Maxwells equations. These modes define the way the wave travels through space, i. e. how the wave is distributed in space, waves can have the same mode but have different frequencies. Although the ray travels parallel to the length of the fiber, the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Charles K. Kao for his theoretical work on the single-mode optical fiber. In September 1970, they announced they had made single-mode fibers with attenuation at the 633-nanometer helium-neon line below 20 dB/km, professor Huang Hongjia of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, developed coupling wave theory in the field of microwave theory. He led a team that successfully developed Single-mode optical fiber in 1980. Like multi-mode optical fibers, single mode fibers do exhibit modal dispersion resulting from multiple spatial modes, Single mode fibers are therefore better at retaining the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances than multi-mode fibers. For these reasons, single-mode fibers can have a higher bandwidth than multi-mode fibers, equipment for single mode fiber is more expensive than equipment for multi-mode optical fiber, but the single mode fiber itself is usually cheaper in bulk. A typical single mode optical fiber has a diameter between 8 and 10.5 µm and a cladding diameter of 125 µm. Data rates are limited by polarization mode dispersion and chromatic dispersion, as of 2005, data rates of up to 10 gigabits per second were possible at distances of over 80 km with commercially available transceivers. By using optical amplifiers and dispersion-compensating devices, state-of-the-art DWDM optical systems can span thousands of kilometers at 10 Gbit/s, and several hundred kilometers at 40 Gbit/s. The solution of Maxwells equations for the lowest order bound mode will permit a pair of orthogonally polarized fields in the fiber, in step-index guides, single-mode operation occurs when the normalized frequency, V, is less than or equal to 2.405. For power-law profiles, single-mode operation occurs for a frequency, V, less than approximately 2.405 g +2 g. In practice, the orthogonal polarizations may not be associated with degenerate modes, oS1 and OS2 are standard single-mode optical fiber used with wavelengths 1310 nm and 1550 nm with a maximum attenuation of 1 dB/km and 0.4 dB/km. OS1 is defined in ISO/IEC11801, and OS2 is defined in ISO/IEC24702, Optical fiber connectors are used to join optical fibers where a connect/disconnect capability is required. The basic connector unit is a connector assembly, a connector assembly consists of an adapter and two connector plugs. However, the assembly and polishing operations involved can be performed in the field, Optical fiber connectors are used in telephone company central offices, at installations on customer premises, and in outside plant applications. Outside plant applications may involve locating connectors underground in subsurface enclosures that may be subject to flooding, on outdoor walls, or on utility poles
37.
Multi-mode optical fiber
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Multi-mode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber mostly used for communication over short distances, such as within a building or on a campus. Typical multi-mode links have data rates of 10 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s over link lengths of up to 600 meters, Multi-mode fiber has a fairly large core diameter that enables multiple light modes to be propagated and limits the maximum length of a transmission link due to modal dispersion. The equipment used for communications over multi-mode optical fiber is less expensive than that for optical fiber. Typical transmission speed and distance limits are 100 Mbit/s for distances up to 2 km,1 Gbit/s up to 1000 m, because of its high capacity and reliability, multi-mode optical fiber generally is used for backbone applications in buildings. An increasing number of users are taking the benefits of closer to the user by running fiber to the desktop or to the zone. Because of the core and also the possibility of large numerical aperture. However, compared to single-mode fibers, the multi-mode fiber bandwidth–distance product limit is lower, because multi-mode fiber has a larger core-size than single-mode fiber, it supports more than one propagation mode, hence it is limited by modal dispersion, while single mode is not. The LED light sources sometimes used with multi-mode fiber produce a range of wavelengths and this chromatic dispersion is another limit to the useful length for multi-mode fiber optic cable. In contrast, the used to drive single-mode fibers produce coherent light of a single wavelength. Due to the dispersion, multi-mode fiber has higher pulse spreading rates than single mode fiber. Single-mode fibers are used in high-precision scientific research because restricting the light to only one propagation mode allows it to be focused to an intense. Jacket color is used to distinguish multi-mode cables from single-mode ones. The standard TIA-598C recommends, for applications, the use of a yellow jacket for single-mode fiber. Some vendors use violet to distinguish higher performance OM4 communications fiber from other types, Multi-mode fibers are described by their core and cladding diameters. Thus,62. 5/125 µm multi-mode fiber has a size of 62.5 micrometres. The transition between the core and cladding can be sharp, which is called a profile, or a gradual transition. The two types have different dispersion characteristics and thus different effective propagation distance, Multi-mode fibers may be constructed with either graded or step-index profile. In addition, multi-mode fibers are described using a system of classification determined by the ISO11801 standard — OM1, OM2, OM4 was finalized in August 2009, and was published by the end of 2009 by the TIA
38.
Marketing
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Marketing is the study and management of exchange relationships. Marketing is used to create the customer, to keep the customer, with the customer as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that Marketing is one of the premier components of Business Management - the other being Innovation. Other services and management activities such as Operations, Human Resources, Accounting, Law, the term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. The Chartered Institute of Marketing defines marketing as the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably, a similar concept is the value-based marketing which states the role of marketing to contribute to increasing shareholder value. Marketing practice tended to be seen as an industry in the past. The overall process starts with marketing research and goes through market segmentation, business planning and execution, ending with pre and it is also related to many of the creative arts. The marketing literature is also adept at re-inventing itself and its vocabulary according to the times, the term marketing concept pertains to the fundamental premise of modern marketing. This concept proposes that in order to satisfy its organizational objectives, Marketing and marketing concepts are directly related. An orientation, in the context, relates to a perception or attitude a firm holds towards its product or service. There exist several common orientations, A firm employing a product orientation is chiefly concerned with the quality of its own product, a firm would also assume that as long as its product was of a high standard, people would buy and consume the product. A firm using a sales orientation focuses primarily on the selling/promotion of a particular product, consequently, this entails simply selling an already existing product, and using promotion techniques to attain the highest sales possible. Such an orientation may suit scenarios in which a firm holds dead stock, or otherwise sells a product that is in high demand, a firm focusing on a production orientation specializes in producing as much as possible of a given product or service. Thus, this signifies a firm exploiting economies of scale, until the minimum efficient scale is reached, a production orientation may be deployed when a high demand for a product or service exists, coupled with a good certainty that consumer tastes do not rapidly alter. The marketing orientation is perhaps the most common used in contemporary marketing. It involves a firm essentially basing its marketing plans around the marketing concept, the marketing orientation often has three prime facets, which are, A firm in the market economy can survive by producing goods that persons are willing and able to buy. Consequently, ascertaining consumer demand is vital for a firms future viability, in this sense, a firms marketing department is often seen as of prime importance within the functional level of an organization. Information from a marketing department would be used to guide the actions of other departments within the firm. As an example, a department could ascertain that consumers desired a new type of product
