1.
Publishing
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback
2.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
3.
Debian Free Software Guidelines
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The DFSG is part of the Debian Social Contract. Allowing for modifications and derived works, integrity of the authors source code. No discrimination against persons or groups, no discrimination against fields of endeavor, like commercial use. The license needs to apply to all to whom the program is redistributed, license must not be specific to a product. License must not restrict other software, the GNU GPL, BSD, and Artistic licenses are examples of licenses considered free. The DFSG was first published together with the first version of the Debian Social Contract in July 1997, the Open Source Definition was created by modifying the text of the DFSG soon afterwards. DFSG was preceded by Free Software Foundations Free Software Definition, once the DFSG became the Open Source Definition, Richard Stallman saw the need to differentiate free software from open source and promoted the Free Software Definition. Published versions of FSFs Free Software Definition existed as early as 1986 and it is worth noting that the core of the Free Software Definition is the Four Freedoms, which clearly preceded the drafting and promulgation of the DFSG, but were unknown to its authors. In November 1998, Ian Jackson and others proposed several changes in a draft versioned 1.4, Jackson stated that the problems were loose wording and the patch clause. As of 2011, the document has never been revised, nevertheless, there were changes made to the Social Contract which were considered to affect the parts of the distribution covered by the DFSG. The Debian General Resolution 2004-003, titled Editorial amendments to the social contract, the proposer Andrew Suffield stated, The rule is this resolution only changes the letter of the law, not the spirit. Mostly it changes the wording of the contract to better reflect what it is supposed to mean. This prompted another General Resolution, 2004-004, in which the developers voted overwhelmingly against immediate action, most discussions about the DFSG happen on the debian-legal mailing list. When a Debian Developer first uploads a package for inclusion in Debian, the team sometimes confers with the debian-legal list in difficult cases. Also, the existence of PostScript, executable scripts, sourced documents, thus, to break the confusion, in June 2004 the Debian project decided to explicitly apply the same principles to software documentation, multimedia data and other content. The non-program content of Debian began to comply with the DFSG more strictly in Debian 4.0 and this assertion is the end result of a long discussion and the General Resolution 2006-001. Due to the GFDL invariant sections, content under this license must be contained in an additional non-free repository which is not officially considered part of Debian. The debian-legal mailing list subscribers have created some tests to check whether a license violates the DFSG, the common tests are the following, The Desert Island test
4.
Free Software Foundation
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The FSF was incorporated in Massachusetts, USA, where it is also based. From its founding until the mid-1990s, FSFs funds were used to employ software developers to write free software for the GNU Project. Since the mid-1990s, the FSFs employees and volunteers have worked on legal and structural issues for the free software movement. Consistent with its goals, the FSF aims to use free software on its own computers. The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985 as a non-profit corporation supporting free software development and it continued existing GNU projects such as the sale of manuals and tapes, and employed developers of the free software system. Since then, it has continued these activities, as well as advocating for the free software movement, the FSF is also the steward of several free software licenses, meaning it publishes them and has the ability to make revisions as needed. The FSF holds the copyrights on many pieces of the GNU system, as holder of these copyrights, it has the authority to enforce the copyleft requirements of the GNU General Public License when copyright infringement occurs on that software. From 1991 until 2001, GPL enforcement was done informally, usually by Stallman himself, often with assistance from FSFs lawyer, typically, GPL violations during this time were cleared up by short email exchanges between Stallman and the violator. In the interest of promoting copyleft assertiveness by software companies to the level that the FSF was already doing, in 2004 Harald Welte launched gpl-violations. org. In late 2001, Bradley M. Kuhn, with the assistance of Moglen, David Turner, from 2002-2004, high-profile GPL enforcement cases, such as those against Linksys and OpenTV, became frequent. GPL enforcement and educational campaigns on GPL compliance was a focus of the FSFs efforts during this period. In March 2003, SCO filed suit against IBM alleging that IBMs contributions to free software, including FSFs GNU. While FSF was never a party to the lawsuit, FSF was subpoenaed on November 5,2003, during 2003 and 2004, FSF put substantial advocacy effort into responding to the lawsuit and quelling its negative impact on the adoption and promotion of free software. From 2003 to 2005, FSF held legal seminars to explain the GPL, usually taught by Bradley M. Kuhn and Daniel Ravicher, these seminars offered CLE credit and were the first effort to give formal legal education on the GPL. In 2007, the FSF published the version of the GNU General Public License after significant outside input. In December 2008, FSF filed a lawsuit against Cisco for using GPL-licensed components shipped with Linksys products, Cisco was notified of the licensing issue in 2003 but Cisco repeatedly disregarded its obligations under the GPL. The GNU project The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software, the organization developed the GNU operating system as an example of this. GNU licenses The GNU General Public License is a widely used license for software projects
5.
Open Source Initiative
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The Open Source Initiative is an organization dedicated to promoting open-source software. Later, in August 1998, the added a board of directors. Raymond was president from its founding until February 2005, followed briefly by Russ Nelson and then Michael Tiemann. In May 2012, the new board elected Simon Phipps as president, as a campaign of sorts, open source was launched in 1998 by Jon maddog Hall, Larry Augustin, Eric S. Raymond, Bruce Perens, and others. The group adopted the Open Source Definition for open-source software, based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines and they also established the Open Source Initiative as a steward organization for the movement. However, they were unsuccessful in their attempt to secure a trademark for open source to control the use of the term, public information indicates that the group included Bradley M. Kuhn, Karl Fogel, Jim Blandy, Chamindra da Silva, Lawrence Rosen, and David Ascher. Then-OSI Board member Danese Cooper was the moderator of osi-discuss. Kuhn later recollected that the Charter Membership was a brouhaha and took no action, in 2009, the OSI was temporarily suspended from operation as a California corporation, apparently in response to a complaint concerning tax paperwork from earlier years. In 2012, under the leadership of OSI director and then-president Simon Phipps, the OSI initiated an Affiliate Membership program for government-recognized non-profit charitable and not-for-profit industry associations and academic institutions anywhere in the world. Subsequently, the OSI announced an Individual Membership program and listed a number of Corporate Sponsors, on November 8,2013, OSI appointed Patrick Masson as its General Manager. As early as 1999, OSI co-founder Perens objected to the schism that was developing between supporters of Stallmans Free Software Foundation and the OSI because of their disparate approaches. Stallman has sharply criticized the OSI for its focus and for ignoring what he considers the central ethical imperative
6.
GNU General Public License
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The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license
7.
Copyleft
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Copyleft software licenses are considered protective or reciprocal, as contrasted with permissive free software licenses. Copyleft is a form of licensing, and can be used to maintain copyright conditions for works ranging from software, to documents. In general, copyright law is used by an author to prohibit recipients from reproducing, adapting, Copyleft licenses for software require that information necessary for reproducing and modifying the work must be made available to recipients of the binaries. The source code files will usually contain a copy of the license terms, Copyleft type licenses are a novel use of existing copyright law to ensure a work remains freely available. The GNU General Public License, originally written by Richard Stallman, was the first software license to see extensive use. Creative Commons, an organization founded by Lawrence Lessig, provides a similar license provision condition called share-alike. Copyleft is a licensing scheme in which an author surrenders some. Under copyleft, derived works may be produced provided they are released under the compatible copyleft scheme, the underlying principle is that one benefits freely from the work of others, but any modifications one makes public must be released under similar terms. For this reason some copyleft licenses are also known as reciprocal licenses, under fair use, however, the copyleft license may be superseded, just like regular copyrights. Therefore, any person utilizing a copyleft-licensed source for their own work is free to any other license provided they meet the fair use standard. According to Free Software Foundation compliance engineer David Turner, the term viral license creates a misunderstanding and a fear of using copylefted free software. If the firm actually copied code from a GPLd program, such a suit would be a perfectly ordinary assertion of copyright, which most private firms would defend if the shoe were on the other foot. Richard Stallman has described this view with an analogy, saying, The GPLs domain does not spread by proximity or contact and it spreads like a spider plant, not like a virus. In particular, permissive free licenses such as BSD allow re-distributors to remove some or all these rights. Reuses of open source software which subvert the freedom of the software by adding extra restrictions are called open source hijacking, other forms of open source licensing are susceptible to hijacking, so creators who desire that their work remain free may choose to use copyleft. The Open Directory Project, which is created and maintained entirely by volunteer editors, since all of the top search engines use DMOZ, it is an extremely important public commodity which is entirely built by volunteer contributions. Despite this, the DMOZ has remained a product for its entire existence. The economic incentives to work on copyleft content can vary, traditional copyright law is designed to promote progress by providing economic benefits to creators
8.
Permissive software licence
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A Permissive software license, sometimes also called BSD-like or BSD-style license, is a FOSS software licence with minimal requirements about how the software can be redistributed. Examples include the MIT Licence, BSD licences and the Apache licence, as of 2016, the most popular FOSS licence is the permissive MIT licence. The Open Source Initiative defines a software license as a non-copyleft license. GitHubs choosealicense website described the MIT permissive license as, lets people do anything they want with your code as long as they provide attribution back to you, california Western School of Laws newmediarights. Copycenter is a term used to explain the modified BSD licence. The term was presented by Kirk McKusick, a computer scientist famous for his work on BSD and it is a word play on copyright, copyleft and copy center. ’ The liberty to make as many copies as you want is in fact also provided by all copyleft licenses. However, unlike both copyleft licenses and copyright law, permissive free software licenses do not control the terms that a derivative work falls under. The Copyfree Initiative defines Copyfree as a type of permissive copyright license which falls under their Copyfree Standard Definition, Copyfree licenses include the Simplified BSD licence, the Open Works license, and others, but excludes the GNU GPL or other copyleft licenses. The Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication and the WTFPL license are also considered to be copyfree, while all copyfree licenses are permissive licenses, not all permissive licenses are copyfree, because they may introduce limitations not allowed under the copyfree definition. Therefore, copyfree can be seen as subset of permissive free licenses, the Apache Licence 2.0 is an example of a non-copyfree permissive licence. Another notable example is the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, however, permissive licenses are not actually equivalent to releasing a work into the public domain. Permissive licenses often do stipulate some limited requirements, such as that the original authors must be credited, copyleft licenses enforce the publication of the source code under the copyleft license. Also permissive licenses have often an excellent licence compatibility, in comparison to copyleft licenses who cant be always freely combined and mixed, however, most GPLv2 licensed software allows to upgrade to the terms of later versions of the GPL, achieving by that a somewhat better inter-GPL compatibility. Also, some copyleft licenses have exception clauses that allow combining them with software that is under different licenses or license versions, in general permissive licenses show a good licence compatibility with most other software licenses in most situations. Due to their non-restrictiveness most permissive software licenses are compatible with copyleft licenses. Copyleft licenses dont allow the addition of additional restrictive clauses which would be required in a combined work made from copyleft code. Popular modern permissive licenses, as the MIT Licence, the 3-clause BSD licence, some licenses do not allow derived works to add a restriction that says a redistributor cannot add more restrictions. Examples include the CDDL and MsPL, however such restrictions also make the license incompatible with permissive free software licenses
9.
License compatibility
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License compatibility is a legal framework that allows for pieces of software with different software licenses to be distributed together. License compatibility can be defined differently around the concepts of collective/combined/aggregated work, a stronger definition includes the capability to change the license. As most prominent example, the copyleft licenses demand that the work combined from code under various licenses as whole is applied to the copyleft license. A combined work consists of multiple differently-licensed parts, to achieve a combined work including copyleft licensed components, proper isolation/separation needs to be applied. With individually licensed source code files multiple non-reciprocal licenses can be separated, such source code file separation is too weak for copyleft/reciprocal licenses, as they require then the complete work to be re-licensed under the reciprocal license as derivative. A slightly stronger approach is a separation on the stage with binary object code with all the components living in the resulting program in the same process and address space. This satisfies weak copyleft/standard reciprocal combined works, but not strong copyleft/strong reciprocal combined works, while commonly accepted that linking constitutes a derivative of a strong copyleftd work, there are individual alternative interpretations. For combined works with strong copyleft modules, an isolation is required. This can be achieved for instance by separating the programs by an own process, examples are Androids kernel space-to-user space separation via Bionic, or Linux distros which have proprietary binary blobs included despite having a strong copyleft kernel. While for some domains agreement exist if an isolation is suitable, there are domains in dispute, for instance, in 2015 the SFC sued VMware in an ongoing dispute whether loadable kernel modules are derivative works of the GPLed Linux kernel or not. This is despite both licenses being approved by the Open Source Initiative and Free Software Foundation, License compatibility between a copyleft license and another license is often only a one-way compatibility. This characteristic makes the copyleft GPL incompatible with commercial licenses. This one-way compatibility characteristic is for instance criticized by the Apache Foundation, non-copyleft licenses as the FOSS permissive licenses have a less complicated license interaction and often have in general better license compatibility. The resulting binary can be licensed and sold under a different license as long as the code is still available under CDDL. Many of the most common free software licenses, especially the permissive licenses, such as the original MIT/X license, BSD licenses, MPL2.0, and LGPL, are GPL-compatible. That is, their code can be combined with a program under the GPL without conflict, when it comes to copyleft software licenses, they are not inherently GPL-compatible, even the GPLv2 itself is not compatible with GPLv3 or LGPLv3. If you tried to combine code released under both these licenses, you would violate section 6 of GPLv2, resulting in the incompatibility. However, if code is released under GPL version 2 or later, the FSF-recommended GNU Free Documentation License is incompatible with the GPL, text licensed under the GFDL cannot be incorporated into GPL software
10.
GitHub
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GitHub is a web-based Git or version control repository and Internet hosting service. It offers all of the version control and source code management functionality of Git as well as adding its own features. It provides access control and several features such as bug tracking, feature requests, task management. GitHub offers both plans for private and free repositories on the account which are commonly used to host open-source software projects. As of April 2016, GitHub reports having more than 14 million users and more than 85.5 million repositories, the trademark mascot of GitHub is Octocat, an anthropomorphized cat with cephalopod limbs. Development of the GitHub platform began on 1 October 2007, the site was launched in April 2008 by Tom Preston-Werner, Chris Wanstrath, and PJ Hyett after it had been made available for a few months prior as a beta release. Projects on GitHub can be accessed and manipulated using the standard Git command-line interface, GitHub also allows registered and non-registered users to browse public repositories on the site. Multiple desktop clients and Git plugins have also created by GitHub. The site provides social networking-like functions such as feeds, followers, wikis, a user must create an account in order to contribute content to the site, but public repositories can be browsed and downloaded by anyone. With a registered account, users are able to discuss, manage, create repositories, submit contributions to others repositories. The software that runs GitHub was written using Ruby on Rails and Erlang by GitHub, Inc. developers Chris Wanstrath, PJ Hyett, GitHub is mostly used for code. Emojis GitHub Pages, small websites can be hosted from public repositories on GitHub, nested task-lists within files Visualization of geospatial data 3D render files that can be previewed using a new integrated STL file viewer that displays the files on a 3D canvas. The viewer is powered by WebGL and Three. js, photoshops native PSD format can be previewed and compared to previous versions of the same file. GitHubs Terms of Service do not require public software projects hosted on GitHub to meet the Open Source Definition. For that reason, it is advisable for users and developers intending to use a piece of software found on GitHub to read the license in the repository to determine if it meets their needs. The Terms of Service state, By setting your repositories to be viewed publicly, you agree to allow others to view, GitHub also operates other services, a pastebin-style site called Gist that is for hosting code snippets, and a slide hosting service called Speaker Deck. Tom Preston-Werner presented the then-new Gist feature at a punk rock Ruby conference in 2008, Gist builds on the traditional simple concept of a pastebin by adding version control for code snippets, easy forking, and SSL encryption for private pastes. Because each gist has its own Git repository, multiple code snippets can be contained in a single paste, further, forked code can be pushed back to the original author in the form of a patch, so gists can become more like mini-projects
11.
Free and open-source software
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Free and open-source software is computer software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright, the benefits of using FOSS can include decreasing software costs, increasing security and stability, protecting privacy, and giving users more control over their own hardware. Free, open-source operating systems such as Linux and descendents of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones, Free software licenses and open-source licenses are used by many software packages. In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s to 1980s, it was common for users to have the source code for all programs they used. Software, including source code, was shared by individuals who used computers. Most companies had a model based on hardware sales, and provided or bundled software with hardware. Organizations of users and suppliers were formed to facilitate the exchange of software, see, for example, SHARE, by the late 1960s, the prevailing business model around software was changing. In United States vs. IBM, filed 17 January 1969, while some software might always be free, there would be a growing amount of software that was for sale only. Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, an article outlining the project and its goals was published in March 1985 titled the GNU Manifesto. The manifesto included significant explanation of the GNU philosophy, Free Software Definition, the Linux kernel, started by Linus Torvalds, was released as freely modifiable source code in 1991. Initially, Linux was not released under a free or open-source software license, however, with version 0.12 in February 1992, he relicensed the project under the GNU General Public License. Much like Unix, Torvalds kernel attracted the attention of volunteer programmers, freeBSD and NetBSD were released as free software when the USL v. BSDi lawsuit was settled out of court in 1993. OpenBSD forked from NetBSD in 1995, also in 1995, The Apache HTTP Server, commonly referred to as Apache, was released under the Apache License 1.0. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this code is today better known as Mozilla Firefox and Thunderbird. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the FSFs free software ideas, the new name they chose was open source, and quickly Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others signed on to the rebranding. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and this view perfectly summarizes the initial response to FOSS by some software corporations. IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market, there has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of free and open-source software
12.
Ruby on Rails
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Ruby on Rails, or simply Rails, is a server-side web application framework written in Ruby under the MIT License. Rails is a framework, providing default structures for a database, a web service. It encourages and facilitates the use of web standards such as JSON or XML for data transfer, David Heinemeier Hansson extracted Ruby on Rails from his work on the project management tool Basecamp at the web application company also called Basecamp. Hansson first released Rails as open source in July 2004, in August 2006, the framework reached a milestone when Apple announced that it would ship Ruby on Rails with Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard, which was released in October 2007. Rails version 2.3 was released on March 15,2009 with major new developments in templates, engines, Rack, templates enable the developer to generate a skeleton application with custom gems and configurations. Engines give developers the ability to reuse application pieces complete with routes, view paths, the Rack web server interface and Metal allow one to write optimized pieces of code that route around Action Controller. Merb was merged with Rails as part of the Rails 3.0 release, Rails 3.2 was released on January 20,2012 with a faster development mode and routing engine, Automatic Query Explain and Tagged Logging. Rails 3.2. x is the last version that supports Ruby 1.8.7, Rails 4.1 was released on April 8,2014, introducing Spring, Variants, Enums, Mailer previews, and secrets. yml. Rails 4.2 was released on December 19,2014, introducing Active Job, asynchronous emails, Adequate Record, Web Console, Rails 5.0 was released on June 30,2016, introducing Action Cable, API mode, and Turbolinks 5. Like many web frameworks, Ruby on Rails uses the pattern to organize application programming. In a default configuration, a model in the Ruby on Rails framework maps to a table in a database and to a Ruby file. For example, a model class User will usually be defined in the file user. rb in the app/models directory, a controller is a server-side component of Rails that responds to external requests from the web server to the application, by determining which view file to render. The controller may also have to one or more models directly for information. A controller may provide one or more actions, in Ruby on Rails, an action is typically a basic unit that describes how to respond to a specific external web-browser request. Also, note that the controller/action will be accessible for external web requests only if a route is mapped to it. Rails encourages developers to use RESTful routes, which include such as create, new, edit, update, destroy, show. These mappings of incoming requests/routes to controller actions can be set up in the routes. rb configuration file. A view in the configuration of Rails is an erb file
13.
Node.js
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Node. js is an open-source, cross-platform JavaScript runtime environment for developing a diverse variety of server tools and applications. Although Node. js is not a JavaScript framework, many of its modules are written in JavaScript. The runtime environment interprets JavaScript using Googles V8 JavaScript engine, Node. js has an event-driven architecture capable of asynchronous I/O. These design choices aim to optimize throughput and scalability in Web applications with many input/output operations, the Node. js distributed development project, governed by the Node. js Foundation, is facilitated by the Linux Foundations Collaborative Projects program. Corporate users of Node. js software include GoDaddy, Groupon, IBM, LinkedIn, Microsoft, Netflix, PayPal, Rakuten, SAP, Voxer, Walmart, Yahoo. Node. js was originally written in 2009 by Ryan Dahl. The initial release supported only Linux and Mac OSX and its development and maintenance was led by Dahl and later sponsored by Joyent. Dahl was inspired to create Node. js after seeing a file upload progress bar on Flickr, the browser did not know how much of the file had been uploaded and had to query the Web server. Dahl demonstrated the project at the inaugural European JSConf on November 8,2009, Node. js combined Googles V8 JavaScript engine, an event loop and a low-level I/O API. The project received a standing ovation, in January 2010, a package manager was introduced for the Node. js environment called npm. The package manager makes it easier for programmers to publish and share code of Node. js libraries and is designed to simplify installation, updating. In June 2011, Microsoft and Joyent implemented a native Windows version of Node. js, the first Node. js build supporting Windows was released in July 2011. In January 2012, Dahl stepped aside, promoting coworker and npm creator Isaac Schlueter to manage the project, in January 2014, Schlueter announced that Timothy J. Fontaine would lead the project. In December 2014, Fedor Indutny started io. js, a fork of Node. js, due to the internal conflict over Joyents governance, io. js was created as an open governance alternative with a separate technical committee. Unlike Node. js, the authors planned to keep io. js up-to-date with the latest releases of the Google V8 JavaScript engine, in February 2015, the intent to form a neutral Node. js Foundation was announced. By June 2015, the Node. js and io. js communities voted to work together under the Node. js Foundation, in September 2015, Node. js v0.12 and io. js v3.3 were merged back together into Node v4.0. This brought V8 ES6 features into Node. js, and a long-term support release cycle, as of 2016, the io. js website recommends that developers switch back to Node. js and that no further releases of io. js are planned due to the merger. Node. js allows the creation of Web servers and networking tools using JavaScript, modules are provided for file system I/O, networking, binary data, cryptography functions, data streams and other core functions. Node. jss modules use an API designed to reduce the complexity of writing server applications, Node. js applications can run on Linux, macOS, Microsoft Windows, NonStop, and Unix servers
14.
JQuery
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JQuery is a cross-platform JavaScript library designed to simplify the client-side scripting of HTML. It is free, open-source software using the permissive MIT license, Web analysis indicates that it is the most widely deployed JavaScript library by a large margin. JQuerys syntax is designed to make it easier to navigate a document, select DOM elements, create animations, handle events, jQuery also provides capabilities for developers to create plug-ins on top of the JavaScript library. This enables developers to create abstractions for low-level interaction and animation, advanced effects and high-level, the modular approach to the jQuery library allows the creation of powerful dynamic web pages and Web applications. The set of jQuery core features—DOM element selections, traversal and manipulation—enabled by its engine, created a new programming style, fusing algorithms. This style influenced the architecture of other JavaScript frameworks like YUI v3 and Dojo, Microsoft and Nokia bundle jQuery on their platforms. Microsoft includes it with Visual Studio for use within Microsofts ASP. NET AJAX, jQuery, at its core, is a Document Object Model manipulation library. The DOM is a representation of all the elements of a Web page. JQuery simplifies the syntax for finding, selecting, and manipulating these DOM elements, for example, jQuery can be used for finding an element in the document with a certain property, changing one or more of its attributes, or making it respond to an event. JQuery also provides a paradigm for event handling that goes beyond basic DOM element selection and manipulation, the event assignment and the event callback function definition are done in a single step in a single location in the code. JQuery also aims to incorporate other highly used JavaScript functionality, thus, it encourages developers to completely separate JavaScript code from HTML markup. Brevity and clarity, jQuery promotes brevity and clarity with features like chainable functions, elimination of cross-browser incompatibilities, The JavaScript engines of different browsers differ slightly so JavaScript code that works for one browser may not work for another. Like other JavaScript toolkits, jQuery handles all these cross-browser inconsistencies and provides a consistent interface that works across different browsers, extensibility, New events, elements, and methods can be easily added and then reused as a plugin. JQuery was originally released in January 2006 at BarCamp NYC by John Resig and was influenced by Dean Edwards earlier cssQuery library and it is currently maintained by a team of developers led by Timmy Willison. JQuery has also a software license history. Originally under the CC BY-SA2.5, it was relicensed to the MIT license in 2006, on end of 2006 it was dual-licensed under GPL and MIT license. As this led to confusion, in 2012 the GPL was dropped and is now only MIT licensed. x and 2. x of jQuery support current-1 versions of Firefox, Chrome, Safari. Version 1. x also supports Internet Explorer 6 or higher, however, jQuery version 2. x dropped Internet Explorer 6–8 support and supports only IE9 and later versions
15.
X Window System
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The X Window System is a windowing system for bitmap displays, common on UNIX-like computer operating systems. X provides the framework for a GUI environment, drawing and moving windows on the display device and interacting with a mouse. X does not mandate the user interface – this is handled by individual programs, as such, the visual styling of X-based environments varies greatly, different programs may present radically different interfaces. X originated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1984, the protocol has been version 11 since September 1987. The X. Org Foundation leads the X project, with the current reference implementation, X. Org Server, available as free and open source software under the MIT License, X is an architecture-independent system for remote graphical user interfaces and input device capabilities. Each person using a terminal has the ability to interact with the display with any type of user input device. X provides the framework, or primitives, for building such GUI environments, drawing and moving windows on the display and interacting with a mouse. X does not mandate the user interface, individual client programs handle this, programs may use Xs graphical abilities with no user interface. As such, the styling of X-based environments varies greatly. Unlike most earlier display protocols, X was specifically designed to be used over network connections rather than on an integral or attached display device. X features network transparency, which means an X program running on a computer somewhere on a network can display its user interface on an X server running on other computer on the network. The fact that the server is applied to the software in front of the user is often surprising to users accustomed to their programs being clients to services on remote computers. Xs network protocol is based on X command primitives and this approach allows both 2D and 3D operations by an X client application which might be running on a different computer to still be fully accelerated on the X servers display. X provides no support for audio, several projects exist to fill this niche. X uses a model, an X server communicates with various client programs. The server accepts requests for graphical output and sends back user input, a client and server can even communicate securely over the Internet by tunneling the connection over an encrypted network session. An X client itself may emulate an X server by providing services to other clients. This is known as X nesting, open-source clients such as Xnest and Xephyr support such X nesting
16.
Ncurses
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Ncurses is a programming library providing an application programming interface that allows the programmer to write text-based user interfaces in a terminal-independent manner. It is a toolkit for developing GUI-like application software that runs under a terminal emulator and it also optimizes screen changes, in order to reduce the latency experienced when using remote shells. As the new version, ncurses is an emulation of the System V Release 4.0 curses. The XSI Curses standard issued by X/Open is explicitly and closely modeled on System V, the first curses library was developed at the University of California at Berkeley, for a BSD operating system, around 1980 to support a screen-oriented game. It originally used the library, which was used in other programs. The success of the BSD curses library prompted Bell Labs to release an enhanced curses library in their System V Release 2 Unix systems and this library was more powerful and instead of using termcap, it used terminfo. However, due to AT&T policy regarding source-code distribution, this improved curses library did not have much acceptance in the BSD community. Around 1982, Pavel Curtis started work on a clone of the Bell Labs curses, named pcurses. The pcurses library was improved when Zeyd Ben-Halim took over the development effort in late 1991. The new library was released as ncurses in November 1993, with version 1.8.1 as the first major release. Subsequent work, through version 1.8.8, was driven by Eric S. Raymond, since 1996, it has been maintained by Thomas E. Dickey. Most ncurses calls can be ported to the old curses. System V curses implementations can support BSD curses programs with just a recompilation, however, a few areas are problematic, such as handling terminal resizing, since no counterpart exists in the old curses. Ncurses can use either terminfo or termcap, other implementations of curses generally use terminfo, a minority use termcap. Ncurses is a part of the GNU Project and it is one of the few GNU files not distributed under the GNU GPL or LGPL, it is distributed under a permissive free software licence, similar to the MIT License. This is due to the agreement made with the Free Software Foundation at the time the developers assigned their copyright. According to the maintainer Thomas E. Dickey, this precludes relicensing to the GPL in any version, there are hundreds of programs which use ncurses. Some, such as GNU Screen and w3m, use only the termcap interface, others, such as GNU Midnight Commander and YaST, use the curses programming interface
17.
XFree86
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XFree86 was an implementation of the X Window System. It was originally written for Unix-like operating systems on IBM PC compatibles and was available for other operating systems and platforms. It is free and open source software under the XFree86 License version 1.1 and it was developed by the XFree86 Project, Inc. The lead developer was David Dawes, the last released version was 4.8.0, released December 2008. The last XFree86 CVS commit was made on May 18,2009, for most of the 1990s and early 2000s, the project was the source of most innovation in X and was the de facto steward of X development. Until early 2004, it was almost universal on Linux and the BSDs, in February 2004, with version 4.4.0, The XFree86 Project adopted a license change that the Free Software Foundation considered GPL incompatible. Most open source operating systems using XFree86 found this unacceptable and moved to a fork from before the license change, the first fork was the abortive Xouvert, but X. Org Server soon became dominant. Most XFree86 developers also moved to X. Org, while XFree86 was widely used by most UNIX-like computer operating systems before its license change with version 4.4.0, it has since then been superseded by X. org and is used rarely nowadays. The last remaining operating system distribution to use it is NetBSD, NetBSD5.0 and later releases use X. org by default on various ports, and X. org is available through NetBSD pkgsrc for architectures for which XFree86 remains the default because of better support. The XFree86 server communicates with the host operating systems kernel to drive input and output devices and these are generally managed directly by XFree86, so it includes its own drivers for all graphic cards a user might have. Some cards are supported by vendors themselves via binary-only drivers, since version 4.0, XFree86 has supported certain accelerated 3D graphics cards via the GLX and DRI extensions. Also in the version 4.0, XFree86 moved to a new driver model, because the server usually needs low level access to graphics hardware, on many configurations it needs to run as the superuser, or a user with UID0. However, on systems and configurations it is possible to run the server as a normal user. It is also possible to use XFree86 in a framebuffer device, on a typical POSIX-system, the directory /etc/X11 includes the configuration files. The basic configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config that includes variables about the screen, keyboard, the program xf86config is often used, although xf86cfg also comes with the XFree86 server and is certainly friendlier. Many Linux distributions used to include a tool that was easier to use or autodetected most settings. The project began in 1992 when David Wexelblat, Glenn Lai, David Dawes and Jim Tsillas joined forces addressing bugs in the code of the X386 X display server. This version was initially called X3861. 2E, as newer versions of the X386 were being sold under a proprietary software license by SGCS, confusion existed between the projects
18.
Berne Convention
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The Berne Convention formally mandated several aspects of modern copyright law, it introduced the concept that a copyright exists the moment a work is fixed, rather than requiring registration. It also enforces a requirement that countries recognize copyrights held by the citizens of all parties to the convention. The Berne Convention requires its parties to treat the copyright of works of authors from other parties to the convention at least as well as those of its own nationals. For example, French copyright law applies to anything published or performed in France, Copyright under the Berne Convention must be automatic, it is prohibited to require formal registration. However, when the United States joined the Convention 1 March 1989, it continued to make statutory damages and attorneys fees only available for registered works. Under Article 4, it applies to cinematic works by persons who have their headquarters or habitual residence in a party country. The Convention relies on the concept of country of origin, often determining the country of origin is straightforward, when a work is published in a party country and nowhere else, this is the country of origin. However, under Article 5, when a work is published simultaneously in several party countries, for works simultaneously published in a party country and one or more non-parties, the party country is the country of origin. For unpublished works or works first published in a non-party country, in the Internet age, unrestricted publication online may be considered publication in every sufficiently internet-connected jurisdiction in the world. It is not clear what this may mean for determining country of origin, however other U. S. courts in similar situations have reached different conclusions, e. g. Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC. The matter of determining the country of origin for digital publication remains a topic of controversy among law academics as well, countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide their own protection terms, and certain types of works may be provided shorter terms. If the author is unknown, because for example the author was deliberately anonymous or worked under a pseudonym, however, if the identity of the author becomes known, the copyright term for known authors applies. e. An author is not entitled a longer copyright abroad than at home. This is commonly known as the rule of the shorter term, not all countries have accepted this rule. As to works, protection must include every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, the Berne Convention authorizes countries to allow fair uses of copyrighted works in other publications or broadcasts. Implementations of this part of the treaty fall into the categories of fair use. This language may mean that Internet service providers are not liable for the communications of their users. Critics claim that the convention does not mention any other rights of consumers of works except for fair use, there is a legal debate about whether the U. S
19.
Apache License
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The Apache License, Version 2.0 is a permissive free software license written by the Apache Software Foundation. The Apache License requires preservation of the notice and disclaimer. This makes ALv2 a FRAND-RF license, the ASF and its projects release the software they produce under the Apache License and many non-ASF projects are also using the ALv2. A free software license is a notice that grants the recipient extensive rights to modify, Software using such a license is free software as conferred by the copyright holder. Free software licenses are applied to software in source code as also object code form. The ASF adopted the Apache License 2.0 in January 2004, the Apache License is permissive in that it does not require a derivative work of the software, or modifications to the original, to be distributed using the same license. Modifications may have appropriate copyright notices, and may provide different license terms for the modifications, in October 2012,8,708 projects located at SourceForge. net were available under the terms of the Apache License. In a blog post from May 2008, Google mentioned that over 25% of the nearly 100,000 projects then hosted on Google Code were using the Apache License, including the Android operating system. As of 2015, according to Black Duck Software and GitHub, free software license Comparison of free and open-source software licenses Software using the Apache license Apache Licenses Quick Summary of the Apache License 2.0
20.
Fedora Project
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The Fedora Project is a project sponsored by Red Hat to co-ordinate the development of the Linux-based Fedora operating system. The project was founded in 2003 as a result of a merger between the Red Hat Linux and Fedora Linux projects, the project consists not only of Red Hat employees, with community members worldwide making up 75% of all contributors within the Fedora Project. The Fedora Project was founded on 22 September 2003 when Red Hat decided to split Red Hat Linux into Red Hat Enterprise Linux and a community-based operating system, Fedora. Red Hat Professional Workstation was created at this time with the intention of filling the niche that RHL had once filled. This option quickly fell by the wayside for non-enterprise RHL users in favor of Fedora, the Fedora community continues to thrive and the Fedora distribution has a reputation as being a FOSS distribution that focuses on innovation and close work with upstream Linux communities. In August 2008 several Fedora servers were compromised, upon investigation it was found that one of the compromised servers was used for signing Fedora update packages. The Fedora Project stated that the attacker did not get the package signing key which could be used to introduce malicious software onto Fedora users systems through the update process. Project administrators performed checks on the software and did not find anything to suggest that a Trojan horse had been introduced into the software, as a precaution the Project converted to new package signing keys. Fedora published the details on 30 March 2009. The Fedora Project is not a legal entity or organization. The Fedora Council is currently the top-level community leadership and governance body, the Council is composed of a mix of representatives from different areas of the project, named roles appointed by Red Hat, and a variable number of seats connected to medium-term project goals. The previous governance structure comprised five Red Hat appointed members and five community-elected members, additionally, Fedora Project leader had a veto power over any board decision, in the current model, all voting members can block on issues, with a valid reason. The project facilitates online communication amongst its developers and community members through public mailing lists and it also coordinates an event known as the Fedora Users and Developers Conference. FUDcon is a free event held in various regions around the world
21.
Lua (programming language)
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Lua is a lightweight multi-paradigm programming language designed primarily for embedded systems and clients. Lua is cross-platform, since it is written in ANSI C, Lua was originally designed in 1993 as a language for extending software applications to meet the increasing demand for customization at the time. As Lua was intended to be a general embeddable extension language, the designers of Lua focused on improving its speed, portability, extensibility, from 1977 until 1992, Brazil had a policy of strong trade barriers for computer hardware and software. In that atmosphere, Tecgrafs clients could not afford, either politically or financially and those reasons led Tecgraf to implement the basic tools it needed from scratch. Luas historical father and mother were the data-description/configuration languages SOL and DEL and they had been independently developed at Tecgraf in 1992–1993 to add some flexibility into two different projects. There was a lack of any structures in SOL and DEL. As the languages authors wrote in The Evolution of Lua, In 1993, the only contender was Tcl. However, Tcl had unfamiliar syntax, did not offer support for data description. We did not consider LISP or Scheme because of their unfriendly syntax, Python was still in its infancy. In the free, do-it-yourself atmosphere that then reigned in Tecgraf, because many potential users of the language were not professional programmers, the language should avoid cryptic syntax and semantics. The implementation of the new language should be portable, because Tecgrafs clients had a very diverse collection of computer platforms. Finally, since we expected that other Tecgraf products would also need to embed a scripting language, Lua 1.0 was designed in such a way that its object constructors, being then slightly different from the current light and flexible style, incorporated the data-description syntax of SOL. Lua syntax for control structures was mostly borrowed from Modula, but also had influence from CLU, C++, SNOBOL. In an article published in Dr. Lua semantics have been influenced by Scheme over time, especially with the introduction of anonymous functions. Versions of Lua prior to version 5.0 were released under a similar to the BSD license. From version 5.0 onwards, Lua has been licensed under the MIT License, both are permissive free software licences and are almost identical. Lua, for instance, does not contain explicit support for inheritance, in general, Lua strives to provide simple, flexible meta-features that can be extended as needed, rather than supply a feature-set specific to one programming paradigm. As a result, the language is light – the full reference interpreter is only about 180 kB compiled –
22.
Debian Project
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The Debian Project was first announced in 1993 by Ian Murdock, Debian 0.01 was released on September 15,1993, and the first stable release was made in 1996. The Debian stable release branch is one of the most popular for personal computers and network servers, new distributions are updated continually, and the next candidate is released after a time-based freeze. As one of the earliest Operating Systems based on the Linux kernel and this decision drew the attention and support of the Free Software Foundation, which sponsored the project for one year from November 1994 to November 1995. Upon the ending of the sponsorship, the Debian Project formed the non-profit organisation Software in the Public Interest, while Debians main port, Debian GNU/Linux, uses the Linux kernel, other ports exist based on BSD kernels and the HURD microkernel. All use the GNU userland and the GNU C library, Debian has access to online repositories that contain over 50,000 software packages making it one of the largest software compilations. Debian officially contains only free software, but non-free software can be downloaded from the Debian repositories, Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice, Firefox web browser, Evolution mail, K3b disc burner, VLC media player, GIMP image editor, and Evince document viewer. Debian is a choice for web servers. Debian supports Linux officially, offered kFreeBSD for version 7 but not 8, GNU/kFreeBSD was released as a technology preview for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and lacked the amount of software available in Debians Linux distribution. Official support for kFreeBSD was removed for version 8, which did not provide a kFreeBSD-based distribution, several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port. For example, the port has flavors for IA-32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real-time computing, for older PCs. The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware without sources, although such firmware is available in non-free packages, Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo. Physical disks can also be bought from retailers, Debian offers different network installation methods. A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD, whereby Debian is installed with just a base, another option is to boot the installer from the network. Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive, the default bootstrap loader is GNU GRUB version 2, though the package name is simply grub, while version 1 was renamed to grub-legacy. This conflicts with e. g. Fedora, where grub version 2 is named grub2, the default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME, KDE Software Compilation, Xfce and LXDE, and from special disc 1 CDs. Debian offers CD images specifically built for GNOME, KDE Software Compilation, Xfce, MATE is officially supported, while Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8.0 Jessie. Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Openbox, Fluxbox, IceWM, Window Maker, the default desktop environment of version 7.0 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce, because GNOME3 did not fit on the first CD of the set. The default for the version 8.0 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013, Debian releases live install images for CDs, DVDs and USB thumb drives, for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and with a choice of desktop environments
23.
Software in the Public Interest
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Software in the Public Interest, Inc. is a US501 non-profit organization formed to help other organizations create and distribute free/open-source software and open-source hardware. Anyone is eligible to apply for membership, and contributing membership is available to those who participate actively in the software community. SPI was originally created to allow the Debian Project to accept donations and it now acts as a fiscal sponsor to many free and open source projects. SPI has hosted Wikimedia Foundation board elections and audited the tally as a third party from 2007–2011
24.
GNU Project
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The GNU Project /ɡnuː/ is a free-software, mass-collaboration project, first announced on September 27,1983 by Richard Stallman at MIT. GNU software guarantees these freedom-rights legally, and is free software. In order to ensure that the software of a computer grants its users all freedom rights, even the most fundamental and important part. Stallman decided to call this operating system GNU, basing its design on that of Unix, development was initiated in January 1984. In 1991, the kernel Linux appeared, developed outside of the GNU project by Linus Torvalds, combined with the operating system utilities already developed by the GNU project, it allowed for the first operating system that was free software, known as Linux or GNU/Linux. The projects current work includes development, awareness building, political campaigning and sharing of the new material. Richard Stallman announced his intent to start coding the GNU Project in a Usenet message in September 1983, when the GNU project first started they had an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, and a linker. The GNU system required its own C compiler and tools to be free software, by June 1987, the project had accumulated and developed free software for an assembler, an almost finished portable optimizing C compiler, an editor, and various Unix utilities. They had a kernel that needed more updates. Once the kernel and the compiler were finished, GNU was able to be used for program development, the main goal was to create many other applications to be like the Unix system. GNU was able to run Unix programs but was not identical to it, GNU incorporated longer file names, file version numbers, and a crashproof file system. The GNU Manifesto was written to support and participation from others for the project. Programmers were encouraged to take part in any aspect of the project that interested them, people could donate funds, computer parts, or even their own time to write code and programs for the project. The origins and development of most aspects of the GNU Project are shared in a narrative in the Emacs help system. It is the detailed history as at their web site. The GNU Manifesto was written by Richard Stallman to gain support, to implement these freedoms, users needed full access to code. Although most of the GNU Projects output is technical in nature, it was launched as a social, ethical, as well as producing software and licenses, the GNU Project has published a number of writings, the majority of which were authored by Richard Stallman. The GNU project uses software that is free for users to copy, edit and it is free in the sense that users can change the software to fit individual needs
25.
OpenBSD
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OpenBSD is a free and open source Unix-like computer operating system descended from Berkeley Software Distribution, a Research Unix derivative developed at the University of California, Berkeley. In late 1995, Theo de Raadt forked it from NetBSD, besides the operating system as a whole, the project maintains portable versions of many subsystems, most notably OpenSSH, which are available as packages in other operating systems. The project is known for its developers insistence on open-source code, good documentation, code correctness and it has strict policies on licensing, preferring the ISC license and other variants of the Simplified BSD License. Many of its security features are optional or absent in other operating systems and its developers frequently audit the source tree for software bugs and security holes. De Raadt coordinates the project from his home in Calgary, Alberta and its logo and mascot is a pufferfish named Puffy. In December 1994, NetBSD co-founder Theo de Raadt was asked to resign from his position as a developer and member of the NetBSD core team. The reason for this is not wholly clear, although there are claims that it was due to personality clashes within the NetBSD project, in October 1995, de Raadt founded OpenBSD, a new project forked from NetBSD1.0. The initial release, OpenBSD1.2, was made in July 1996, since then, the project has followed a schedule of a release every six months, each of which is supported for one year. Just how widely OpenBSD is used is hard to determine as its developers do not publish or collect usage statistics. OpenBSDs security enhancements, built-in cryptography, and the pf packet filter suit it for use in the security industry, such as on firewalls, intrusion-detection systems, and VPN gateways. Proprietary systems from several manufacturers are based on OpenBSD, including devices from Armorlogic, Calyptix Security, GeNUA, RTMX, later versions of Microsofts Services for UNIX, an extension to the Windows operating system providing Unix-like functionality, use large amounts of OpenBSD code. OpenBSD ships with the X Window System and is suitable for use on the desktop, packages are available for popular applications, including desktop environments such as GNOME, KDE, and Xfce, and web browsers such as Firefox and Chromium. The project also includes three window managers in the distribution, cwm, FVWM, and twm. OpenBSD used to include a fork of Apache 1.3, in the 5.6 release, Nginx was replaced with httpd, an HTTP server with FastCGI and Transport Layer Security support. As of May 2016, Apache and Nginx are still available as ports, development is continuous, and team management is open and tiered. Snapshot releases are available at frequent intervals. Maintenance patches for supported releases may be applied manually or by updating the system against the branch of the CVS repository for that release. The standard OpenBSD kernel, as maintained by the project, is recommended for end users
26.
Theo de Raadt
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Theo de Raadt is a software engineer who lives in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He is the founder and leader of the OpenBSD and OpenSSH projects, Theo de Raadt is the eldest of four children to a Dutch father and a South African mother, with two sisters and a brother. Concern over the mandatory two-year armed forces conscription in South Africa led the family to emigrate to Calgary, Alberta, in 1983, the largest recession in Canada since the Great Depression sent the family to the Yukon. Prior to the move De Raadt got his first computer, a Commodore VIC-20 and it is with these computers that he first began to develop software. In 1992 he obtained a BSc in Computer Science from the University of Calgary, the new project would centre its focus on clean, portable, correct code with the goal being to produce a unified, multi-platform, production-quality, BSD-based operating system. Because of the importance of such as the Internet in the distributed, collaborative nature of its development, De Raadt suggested the name NetBSD. The first NetBSD source code repository was established on March 21,1993 and this was derived from 386BSD0.1 plus the version 0.2.2 unofficial patchkit, with several programs from the Net/2 release missing from 386BSD re-integrated, and various other improvements. In August 1993, NetBSD0.9 was released, which contained many enhancements and this was still a PC-platform-only release, although by this time work was underway to add support for other architectures. NetBSD1.0 was released in October,1994 and this was the first multi-platform release, supporting the IBM PC compatible, HP9000 Series 300, Amiga, 68k Macintosh, Sun-4c series and PC532. Also in this release, the legally encumbered Net/2-derived source code was replaced with equivalent code from 4. 4BSD-lite, De Raadt played a vital role in the creation of the SPARC port, as together with Chuck Cranor, he implemented much of the initial code. In December 1994, De Raadt was asked to resign his position as a developer and member of the NetBSD core team. The reason for this is not wholly clear, although there are claims that it was due to personality clashes within the NetBSD project, in October 1995, De Raadt founded OpenBSD, a new project forked from NetBSD1.0. The initial release, OpenBSD1.2, was made in July 1996, since then, the project has followed a schedule of a release every six months, each of which is maintained and supported for one year. S. AUUG Conference in Melbourne, Australia and FISL in Porto Alegre, RS, after De Raadt stated his disapproval of the U. S. Funding from the grant had been used in the development of OpenSSH and OpenBSD and this resulted in criticism among some that the US military held an anti-free speech attitude. The grant termination was, however, not as bad a blow as some portrayed it, the projects supporters rallied to help and the hackathon went on almost as planned. The funding was cut mere months before the end of the grant, De Raadt is also well known for his advocacy of free software drivers. He has long been critical of developers of Linux and other platforms for their tolerance of non-free drivers
27.
Comparison of source code hosting facilities
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A source code repository is a file archive and web hosting facility where a large amount of source code, for software or for web pages, is kept, either publicly or privately. They are often used by software projects and other multi-developer projects to handle various versions. They help developers submit patches of code in an organized fashion, often these web sites support version control, bug tracking, release management, mailing lists, and wiki-based documentation. The following are open-source software hosting facilities that serve a specific narrowly focused community or technology. BerliOS - abandoned in April 2014 Google Code - closed in January 2016, javaForge - ceased operations in March 2016
28.
Free software
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The right to study and modify software entails availability of the software source code to its users. This right is conditional on the person actually having a copy of the software. Richard Stallman used the existing term free software when he launched the GNU Project—a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system—and the Free Software Foundation. The FSFs Free Software Definition states that users of software are free because they do not need to ask for permission to use the software. Free software thus differs from proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides or iWork from Apple, which users cannot study, change, freeware, which is a category of freedom-restricting proprietary software that does not require payment for use. For computer programs that are covered by law, software freedom is achieved with a software license. Software that is not covered by law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain. Proprietary software, including freeware, use restrictive software licences or EULAs, Users are thus prevented from changing the software, and this results in the user relying on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support. This situation is called vendor lock-in, Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software. Other legal and technical aspects, such as patents and digital rights management may restrict users in exercising their rights. Free software may be developed collaboratively by volunteer computer programmers or by corporations, as part of a commercial, from the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the software freedoms associated with free software, which was typically public domain software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to exchange of software. As software was written in an interpreted language such as BASIC. Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code in computer magazines and books, in United States vs. IBM, filed January 17,1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive. While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be an amount of software produced primarily for sale. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the industry began using technical measures to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software as they saw fit. In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs, Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation was founded in October 1985
29.
Gratis versus libre
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The English adjective free is commonly used in one of two meanings, for zero price and with little or no restriction. This ambiguity of free can cause issues where the distinction is important, as it often is in dealing with laws concerning the use of information, such as copyright, for example, they are used to distinguish freeware from free software. Richard Stallman summarised the difference in a slogan, Think free as in free speech, gratis in English is adopted from the various Romance and Germanic languages, ultimately descending from the plural ablative and dative form of the first-declension noun grātia in Latin. It means free of charge, at price, free, in the sense that some good or service is supplied without need for payment. Libre /ˈliːbrə/ in English is adopted from the various Romance languages, ultimately descending from the Latin word lībere and it denotes the state of being free, as in liberty or having freedom. The Oxford English Dictionary considers libre to be obsolete, but the word has come back into limited use, unlike gratis, libre appears in few English dictionaries, although there is no other English single-word adjective signifying liberty exclusively, without also meaning at no monetary cost. In software development, where the cost of production is relatively small. One of the early and basic forms of model is called freeware. With freeware, software is licensed free of charge for regular use, with the advent of the free software movement, license schemes were created to give developers more freedom in terms of code sharing, commonly called open source or free and open-source software. As the English adjective free does not distinguish between for zero price and liberty, the phrases free as in beer and free as in free speech were adopted. Many in the free software movement feel strongly about the freedom to use the software, make modifications, free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of free as in free speech, —Richard Stallman These phrases have become common, along with gratis and libre, in the software development and computer law fields for encapsulating this distinction. The distinction is similar to the made in political science between negative liberty and positive liberty. Like free beer, positive liberty promises equal access by all without cost or regard to income, like free speech, negative liberty safeguards the right to use of something without regard to whether in each case there is a cost involved for this use. The original gratis/libre distinction concerns software, with which users can potentially do two kinds of things, access and use it and modify and re-use it. Gratis pertains to being able to access and use the code, without a price-barrier, the target content of the open access movement, however, is not software but published, peer-reviewed research journal article texts. Apart from verbatim quotation, scholarly/scientific authors are not in general interested in allowing other authors to create mashups of their texts, researcher-authors are all happy to make their texts available for harvesting and indexing for search as well as data-mining, but not for re-use in altered form. The formal analogy, and the generalization of the distinction from open software to open access, have been made
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Open-source software
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Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. According to scientists who studied it, open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, a 2008 report by the Standish Group states that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year to consumers. In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other, eventually the open source notion moved to the way side of commercialization of software in the years 1970-1980. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this source code subsequently became the basis behind SeaMonkey, Mozilla Firefox, Thunderbird and KompoZer. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundations free software ideas, the new term they chose was open source, which was soon adopted by Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business, IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS, the free software movement was launched in 1983. In 1998, a group of individuals advocated that the free software should be replaced by open-source software as an expression which is less ambiguous. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open-source license, the Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open-source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by law to the copyright holder. Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition, the open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7,1998 in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscapes January 1998 announcement of a source code release for Navigator. They used the opportunity before the release of Navigators source code to clarify a potential confusion caused by the ambiguity of the free in English. Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet, since 1969, started the open source movement, the Free Software Foundation, started in 1985, intended the word free to mean freedom to distribute and not freedom from cost. Since a great deal of free software already was free of charge, such software became associated with zero cost. The Open Source Initiative was formed in February 1998 by Eric Raymond and they sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source. Perens attempted to open source as a service mark for the OSI. The Open Source Initiatives definition is recognized by governments internationally as the standard or de facto definition, OSI uses The Open Source Definition to determine whether it considers a software license open source
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Open-source software development
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Open-source software development is the process by which open-source software, or similar software whose source code is publicly available, is developed. These are software products available with its code under an open-source license to study, change. Examples of some popular software products are Mozilla Firefox, Google Chromium, Android, LibreOffice. In 1997, Eric S. Raymond wrote The Cathedral and the Bazaar, in this book, Raymond makes the distinction between two kinds of software development. The first is the conventional closed-source development and this kind of development method is, according to Raymond, like the building of a cathedral, central planning, tight organization and one process from start to finish. The latter analogy points to the involved in an open-source development process. In closed-source software development, the programmers are often spending a lot of time dealing with and creating bug reports and this time is spent on creating and prioritizing further development plans. This leads to part of the development team spending a lot of time on these issues, also, in closed-source projects, the development teams must often work under management-related constraints that interfere with technical issues of the software. In open-source software development, these issues are solved by integrating the users of the software in the development process, open-source software development can be divided into several phases. The phases specified here are derived from Sharma et al, a diagram displaying the process-data structure of open-source software development is shown on the right. In this picture, the phases of software development are displayed. This diagram is made using the meta-modeling and meta-process modeling techniques, there are several ways in which work on an open-source project can start, An individual who senses the need for a project announces the intent to develop a project in public. A developer working on a limited but working codebase, releases it to the public as the first version of an open-source program, the source code of a mature project is released to the public. A well-established open-source project can be forked by an interested outside party, Eric Raymond observed in his essay The Cathedral and the Bazaar that announcing the intent for a project is usually inferior to releasing a working project to the public. Its a common mistake to start a project when contributing to a similar project would be more effective. To start a project it is very important to investigate whats already there. The process starts with a choice between the adopting of a project, or the starting of a new project. If a new project is started, the process goes to the Initiation phase, if an existing project is adopted, the process goes directly to the Execution phase
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Device driver
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In computing, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. A driver communicates with the device through the bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device, once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program. Drivers are hardware dependent and operating-system-specific and they usually provide the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface. The main purpose of device drivers is to provide abstraction by acting as a translator between a device and the applications or operating systems that use it. Programmers can write the higher-level application code independently of specific hardware the end-user is using. For example, an application for interacting with a serial port may simply have two functions for send data and receive data. At a lower level, a device driver implementing these functions would communicate to the serial port controller installed on a users computer. Writing a device driver requires an understanding of how the hardware. In contrast, most user-level software on modern operating systems can be stopped without greatly affecting the rest of the system, even drivers executing in user mode can crash a system if the device is erroneously programmed. These factors make it difficult and dangerous to diagnose problems. The task of writing drivers thus usually falls to software engineers or computer engineers who work for hardware-development companies and this is because they have better information than most outsiders about the design of their hardware. Moreover, it was considered in the hardware manufacturers interest to guarantee that their clients can use their hardware in an optimum way. Typically, the Logical Device Driver is written by the operating system vendor, but in recent years non-vendors have written numerous device drivers, mainly for use with free and open source operating systems. In such cases, it is important that the manufacturer provides information on how the device communicates. Although this information can instead be learned by reverse engineering, this is more difficult with hardware than it is with software. Microsoft has attempted to reduce system instability due to poorly written device drivers by creating a new framework for driver development, if such drivers malfunction, they do not cause system instability. Apple has a framework for developing drivers on Mac OS X called the I/O Kit
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Free and open-source graphics device driver
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They may also control output to the display, if the display driver is part of the graphics hardware. Most free and open-source graphics device drivers are developed via the Mesa project, such a software stack comprises some compiler, some implementation of some rendering API, and finally some software, that manages access to the graphics hardware. All hardware developers provide device drivers for their products over a range of operating systems, drivers without freely available source code are commonly referred to as binary drivers. Binary drivers used in the context of operating systems that are prone to ongoing development and change, such as Linux and these problems affect system stability, overall system security, and performance and are the main reason for the independent development of free and open-source drivers. When no technical documentation is available, an understanding of the hardware is often gained by clean room reverse engineering. Based on this understanding, device drivers may be written and legally published under any chosen software license, There are rare and special cases, where manufacturers driver source code is publicly available in the Internet, but not under a free license. There are a number of objections to binary-only drivers, There are philosophical and ethical objections, with some feeling that drivers distributed without source code are against the beliefs of the free software movement. There are very pragmatic objections regarding copyright, security, reliability, furthermore, features like kernel mode-setting cannot be added to binary drivers by anyone but the vendors, which prevents their inclusion if the vendor lacks capacity or interest. In the case of binary drivers there are also due to free software philosophy. There are also concerns that the redistribution of closed-source Linux kernel modules may be illegal, by choice, the Linux kernel has never maintained a stable in-kernel Application binary interface. There are also concerns that proprietary drivers may even contain backdoors. Because all translation from API calls to actual GPU opcodes is done by the driver, it will contain a considerable amount of specialized knowledge. This takes time and involves significant financial investment, the desktop computer market was for a long time dominated by PC hardware using the x86/x86-64 instruction set, and by GPUs available for the PC. With only three competitors, Nvidia, AMD and Intel, the main competing factor was the price of hardware. The display driver is an inherent part of the card, as is the video decoder. As the market for PC hardware has been dwindling, it highly unlikely that new competitors will enter this market. Thus it is unclear how much more know-how one company could gain by seeing the source code of the drivers of the other companies, the mobile sector however, presents a different situation, The functional blocks are separate SIP blocks on the chip, since hardware devices vary substantially. For example, some portable media players require a driver that accelerates video decoding
