1.
Skara Cathedral
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Skara Cathedral is a church in the Swedish town of Skara. The cathedral is the seat for the bishop of the Church of Sweden Diocese of Skara and its history is traced from the 11th century, but its current appearance is from the 13th century. The church has a crypt that was found in 1949 after having been buried under stones since the 13th century. A grave, containing a skeleton, was found in the crypt, the church is 65 meters long and the towers reach a height of 63 meters. Wideen, Harald, nd, Skara Domkyrka, kort historik och vägledning Skara Cathedral profile
2.
Valdemar, King of Sweden
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Valdemar, was King of Sweden from 1250–1275. Valdemar was the son of the Swedish princess Ingeborg Eriksdotter and Birger Jarl, during the first sixteen years of his reign, it was Birger Jarl who was the real ruler. Birger Jarl had in fact been the de facto ruler of Sweden from 1248, before the reign of Valdemar, Valdemars mother was a daughter of Eric X and Richeza of Denmark. When King Eric XI died in 1250, Valdemar was elected king, even after the coming of age of Valdemar in 1257, Birger Jarl held a grip over the country. After Birgers death in 1266 Valdemar came into conflict with his younger brother Magnus Birgersson, Duke of Södermanland, in 1260, Valdemar married Sophia, the eldest daughter of King Eric IV of Denmark and Jutta of Saxony. Valdemar also had a relationship with his sister-in-law Jutta, in 1272, Jutta visited Sweden and became Valdemars mistress. The affair resulted in a born in 1273. The following year, Jutta was placed in a convent and Valdemar was forced to make a pilgrimage to Rome to ask for the absolution of the Pope, Valdemar was deposed by his younger brother, Magnus after the Battle of Hova in Tiveden June 14,1275. Magnus was supported by his brother, Eric Birgersson, Duke of Småland, Magnus was elected King Magnus III of Sweden at the Stones of Mora. In 1277, Sophia separated from her spouse and returned to Denmark, in 1277, Valdemar managed to regain provinces in Gothenland in the southern part of the kingdom and was called the Duke of Götaland. However, Magnus regained them about 1278, in 1288 Valdemar was imprisoned by King Magnus in Nyköping Castle and lived openly with mistresses in his comfortable prison. Valdemar married Sofia of Denmark in 1260 and they separated in 1277 and they had six children, Ingeborg Valdemarsdotter of Sweden, Countess of Holstein, spouse of Gerhard II, Count of Holstein-Plön
3.
Birger, King of Sweden
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Birger was King of Sweden from 1290 to 1318. Birger was the son of King Magnus III and Hedwig of Holstein and he was hailed king of Sweden when he was four years old. This was done by his father in order to secure the succession, in 1275, King Magnus had led a rebellion against his elder brother, King Valdemar, and ousted him from the throne. King Magnus ordered his kinsman Torgils Knutsson, the Constable of the Realm, in 1293, Birger was crowned at Söderköping after marrying Martha, the daughter of King Eric V of Denmark. Birger was only ten years old when his father died, at which time Torgils Knutsson was the most influential statesman in Sweden, in 1293, Torgils Knutsson led the Swedes to a victory which won a part of western Karelia. This expedition has traditionally been dubbed as the Third Swedish Crusade, when Torgils Knutsson returned from leading the crusade in Finland, a feud had developed between the brothers. The kings brothers Erik Magnusson, Duke of Södermanland and Valdemar Magnusson, a civil war broke out, but by 1306 emotions had cooled to the point where the dukes acknowledged the son of Birger, Magnus Birgersson, as the successor to the throne. Torgils Knutsson, who was Duke Valdemars father-in-law, was executed in 1306 as a token of reconciliation between King Birger and his brothers. The same year, in an event known as the Håtuna games, Birger was taken captive by his brothers on the Håtuna royal estate in Uppland and taken as prisoner to Nyköping Castle. In 1308, Eric and Valdemar were forced by the Danish king to release King Birger, when King Birger was free, he sought aid in Denmark, and the strife began anew. In 1312, Duke Eric married Ingeborg of Norway, daughter of King Haakon V of Norway in a wedding in Oslo. At the same time, Erics brother Duke Valdemar married Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway, Duke Erik also held Bohuslän from Norway as well as northern Halland and was creating a separate kingdom centered on Göta älv. In 1317 however, Birger captured his brothers during the Nyköping Banquet, according to Erics Chronicle, the dukes were starved to death in a cellar of Nyköping Castle. Birger was ousted by his brothers supporters in 1318 and went into exile to his brother-in-law King Eric VI of Denmark and his son, Prince Magnus Birgersson, was executed at Stockholm. In 1319, the son of Duke Erik, King Magnus VII of Norway, was hailed King Magnus IV of Sweden under the Regency of his grandmother Queen Helvig. Magnus Birgersson Eric Birgersson Agnes Birgersdotter Katarina Birgersdotter In 2003, the band Falconer released The Sceptre of Deception, the album covers events during the reign of King Birger of Sweden and lengthy strife with his brothers, and the Danish and Norwegian crowns. Barck, Sven Eric, Persson, ÅkeKungligt skvaller genom tusen år, En annorlunda bok om svensk historia Lindqvist, Från islossning till kungarike Harrison, Dick Jarlens sekel, en berättelse om 1200-talets Sverige Bergman, Mats Nyköpingshus. En rundvandring i historia och nutid Mannervik, Cyrus Sagor och sägner – Från Nordens forntid och medeltid
4.
Riddarholm Church
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The Riddarholm Church is the burial church of the Swedish monarchs. It is located on the island of Riddarholmen, close to the Royal Palace in Stockholm, the congregation was dissolved in 1807 and today the church is used only for burial and commemorative purposes. Swedish monarchs from Gustavus Adolphus to Gustaf V are entombed here, as well as the earlier monarchs Magnus III and it has been discontinued as a royal burial site in favor of the Royal Cemetery and today is run by departments of the Swedish Government and Royal Court. It is one of the oldest buildings in Stockholm, parts of it dating to the late 13th century, after the Protestant Reformation, the monastery was closed and the building transformed into a Protestant church. A spire designed by Willem Boy was added during the reign of John III, coats of arms of knights of the Order of the Seraphim are on the walls of the church. When a knight of the Order dies, his coat of arms is hung in the church, gamla stan Storkyrkan The Riddarholm Church at the Royal Courts website
5.
Hedwig of Holstein
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Hedwig of Holstein or Helvig was a Swedish queen consort, spouse of King Magnus III of Sweden. She was the child of Gerhard I, Count of Holstein-Itzehoe, Hedwig was married to Magnus Ladulås in 1276, and was granted the fief of Dåvö in Munktorp in Västmanland. Magnus succeeded in preventing a Danish-Holstein alliance by marrying her, however, he had obtained a dispensation for their marriage only after the wedding. Her father was captured during the Folkunge party revolt by rebellious noblemen in Skara in 1278, the actions of the rebels were well timed, they coincided with her journey through Sweden. She sought refuge in the convent in the city, Hedwig was crowned Queen of Sweden in the city of Söderköping on 29 June 1281, this is the first confirmed coronation of a queen consort in Sweden. It included the prayers for her fertility, which was the matter of great importance and she founded the Greyfriars convent in Stockholm and several other churches and convents. As a queen, however, she is not very much heard of, despite the fact that she held the position for fourteen years, she lived a discreet life, both as a queen and as a dowager queen. She took a prominent part in processions which accompanied the inauguration of bishops, celebrations of a feast day, after the death of her spouse in 1290, Hedwig acted as one of the executors of the will of the King. In 1291, she withdrew to her estate Dåvö in Västmanland and she is not known to have taken any political role, formal or informal, during or after the reign of her spouse. She was described as a noble, loyal and peace-loving mother figure and she acted as a foster mother for her sons future bride, Martha of Denmark, who spent a lot of her childhood in Sweden as the future Queen of Sweden after 1290. In 1302, she was present at the coronation of her son, as dowager queen, she governed Fjärdhundraland, which was given to her as dower. Queen Hedwig is buried in Riddarholm Church in Stockholm, with her husband, hedwigs wedding took place at Kalmar castle the 11 November 1276 with king Magnus III Ladulås of Sweden. They had the children, Ingeborg Magnusdotter of Sweden, born abt. Married King Eric VI of Denmark, Erik Menved, Eric Magnusson, Duke of Södermanland in 1302 and Halland etc. Died of starvation 1318 at Nyköpingshus Castle while imprisoned by his brother, valdemar Magnusson, Duke of Finland in 1302 and Öland 1310. Died of starvation 1318 at Nyköpingshus castle while imprisoned by his brother King Birger, Richeza Magnusdotter of Sweden, abbess of the convent of St. Clara at Stockholm
6.
Ingeborg Magnusdotter of Sweden
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Princess Ingeborg Magnusdotter of Sweden, was a Danish queen consort, daughter of king Magnus III of Sweden and wife of king Eric VI of Denmark. Ingeborg was born a daughter of King Magnus III of Sweden, the dispensation necessary for the marriage was not obtained until 1297 because of the conflict between her spouse and the archbishop Jens Grand. Queen Ingeborg was described as beautiful and tender and she is not believed to have played any political role. In 1318, Queen Ingeborg gave birth to a son who lived, she showed him off to the public from her carriage, from which he fell from her grip, broke his neck and died. After this, she entered the convent of St. Clare in Roskilde of the sorrow, in 1319, she foretold the death of herself, her spouse and the archbishop, and soon after, she died followed by her husband
7.
Eric Magnusson (duke)
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Eric Magnusson was a Swedish prince, Duke of Svealand, Södermanland, Dalsland, Västergötland, Värmland and North Halland and heir to the throne of Sweden. He was the father of King Magnus who became king of both Norway and Sweden, Eric was born circa 1282, the second son of King Magnus III of Sweden and his Queen consort Helvig of Holstein. He later became the Duke of Södermanland and a part of Uppland in 1302, erik is reported as being more skilled and intelligent than his elder brother who became King Birger of Sweden. He was also bold and ambitious, and his social skills won him many allies and his younger brother Valdemar Magnusson, the duke of Finland, became his close ally and helped him in all his projects. King Birger, who feared his brothers plans, forced them to sign a paper, in 1304 and they then fled to Norway, but in 1305, they reconciled with the king and regained their duchies. Eric was also in possession of Kungahälla, which he had given during his exile by the Norwegian king. Duke Eric planned to topple Birgers marshal Torgils Knutsson who was in the way of his ambitious plans, as the clergy were in opposition to the marshal, they joined Eric. They prevailed on the weak Birger in 1306 to execute Torgils, little more than half a year later, Birger was imprisoned by his brothers, and his brothers took control of Sweden. Birgers brother-in-law, Eric VI of Denmark arrived with his army to support Birger, Haakon V of Norway, however, was on the side of the younger brothers. In 1308, Eric and Valdemar were forced by the Danish king to release Birger, when Birger was free, he sought aid in Denmark, and the strife began anew. The course of events turned against duke Eric, by concluding a peace treaty with the Danish king, unbeknownst to Haakon V, Eric lost Haakons trust. Håkon wanted to have Kungahälla back, but Eric refused, a war broke out between Haakon V of Norway and Eric in 1309, and the kings of Norway and Denmark concluded peace, and allied against the dukes. Through his strategic skills, Eric managed to out the storm, and defeated the Norwegians. He attacked Norway and reconquered Kungahälla, which he had lost to Haakon in 1310, finally, there was peace at Helsingborg, in which Sweden was divided between Birger and his brothers. Eric received Västergötland, Dalsland, Värmland and Kalmar County, as well was northern Halland as a fief from Denmark, in spite of the fact that Eric never returned Kungahälla, and broke almost all his promises to Haakon, he managed to win his approval. He married Haakon V of Norways 11-year-old daughter Ingeborg Haakonsdatter, in 1312, Eric married Ingeborg in a double wedding in Oslo. At the same time, Erics brother Valdemar Magnusson married Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway, in 1316 Eric and Ingeborg had a son, the future king Magnus IV of Sweden and in 1317 daughter Euphemia of Sweden. However, his career was stopped and his life was shortened by the treachery of his brother King Birger, the de jure ruler of Sweden
8.
Valdemar, Duke of Finland
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Valdemar Magnusson was a Swedish prince, heir to the throne of Sweden, and Duke of Finland. Valdemar was the son of Magnus III and Helvig of Holstein. He became Duke of Finland in 1302 at the coronation of his brother, Birger. Valdemar married Kristina, daughter of Torgils Knutsson, who was the constable, Valdemars father-in-law was arrested in December 1305 and executed the following February. Valdemar subsequently divorced his wife, claiming that they were related because Torgils was his godfather. In the fall of 1312 in Oslo, he married Ingeborg and it was a double wedding, because at the same time Valdemars brother Eric married Ingeborg, daughter of King Haakon V of Norway. Valdemar and Ingeborg had a son in 1316 who died as a child, in 1306, in an event known as the Håtuna games, King Birger was captured by his brothers on the Håtuna royal estate in Uppland and taken as prisoner to Nyköping Castle. Two years later, King Eric VI of Denmark forced Valdemar, King Birger sought aid in Denmark after his release and the strife resumed. By 1315, Valdemar and Eric had managed to wrest large parts of the Swedish kingdom from their brother. Valdemar had gained Turku and Häme castles, with a share of Finland, the castle of Stockholm, most of Uppland, Borgholm castle. Eric was in possession of Kungahälla and northern Halland, which he had been given by King Eric VI of Denmark, on December 10,1317, Valdemar and Eric were captured and imprisoned by Birger at the Nyköping Banquet. Valdemar and Erics wives assumed leadership roles after their husbands imprisonment and this treaty was not honored, and their husbands died later that same year. Although their exact cause of death is unknown, the brothers are thought to have been murdered or starved to death, the dower Ingeborg had included the island of Öland. Ingeborg was styled Duchess of Öland from at least 1340, surviving her husband long after his death. Från islossning till kungarike Harrison, Dick Jarlens sekel, en berättelse om 1200-talets Sverige Bergman, Mats Nyköpingshus
9.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
10.
Birger Jarl
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Birger Jarl, or Birger Magnusson, was a Swedish statesman, Jarl of Sweden and a member of the House of Bjelbo, who played a pivotal role in the consolidation of Sweden. Birger also led the Second Swedish Crusade, which established Swedish rule in Finland, additionally, he is traditionally attributed to have founded the Swedish capital, Stockholm around 1250. Birger used the Latin title of Dux Sweorum which in English equals Duke of Sweden, and it is known that Birger grew up and spent his adolescence in Bjälbo, Östergötland but the exact date of his birth remains uncertain and available historical sources are contradictory. Examinations of his mortal remains indicate that he was probably about 50 upon his death in 1266 which would indicate a birth around 1216. However, his father Magnus Minnesköld is assumed to have died no later than 1210 and his brothers or half-brothers — Eskil, Karl, and Bengt — were all born long before 1200, and it can therefore be assumed that they had another mother. He was also a nephew of the jarl Birger Brosa from the House of Bjelbo, the combination of this background proved to be of vital importance. During the 15 years to follow, Birger then consolidated his position and was one of the most influential men years before being formally given the title jarl in 1248 by King Eric XI. Although Birger Jarl saw many battles, some have speculated that traces of a blow in Birgers cranium might have originated from this battle. However, the original 14th-century Russian version of the battle had no information on this at all, in 1247, royal troops led by Birger at the Battle of Sparrsätra fought with Folkung forces led by pretender Holmger Knutsson, son of King Canute II. The Folkungs lost the battle and were unable to resist the central government, Holmger Knutsson fled to Gästrikland and was captured there by Birger in the following year. Quickly brought to trial, he was beheaded, in 1249, Birger succeeded in ending a decades-long period of hostilities with Norway. As a part of the Treaty of Lödöse, he managed to marry off his daughter Rikissa, then only 11 years old, to Haakon Haakonsson the Young. Presumably later that year, Birger led an expedition to Finland, later dubbed as the Second Swedish Crusade, on King Erics death in 1250, Birgers son Valdemar was elected as the new king while Birger acted as regent, holding the true power in Sweden until his death. Birger thus combined financial support from Germany with papal political support to consolidate his own position, ingeborg died in 1254 and in 1261 Birger married the widow of King Abel of Denmark, the Danish queen dowager, Matilda of Holstein. Birger died on 21 October 1266, at Jälbolung in Västergötland and his grave in Varnhem Abbey was opened in May 2002. There is a cenotaph for him at the base of the tower of Stockholm City Hall and it was originally intended that his remains be removed there, but this was never done. Several other historical structures there are named for him including the street Birger Jarlsgatan on Norrmalm. The Hotel Birger Jarl is located in Stockholms Norrmalm neighborhood and he is also the central figure of Bröllopet på Ulvåsa by Frans Hedberg
11.
Ingeborg Eriksdotter of Sweden
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Ingeborg Eriksdotter was a Swedish princess and duchess, daughter of King Eric X of Sweden, eldest sibling of King Eric XI of Sweden, wife of Birger Jarl, and mother of King Valdemar I of Sweden. Ingeborg was born the eldest daughter of King Eric X of Sweden and his wife and she lived her youth in exile in Denmark, after her brother had been deposed by his guardian and regent in 1229. Princess Ingeborg bore a vast number of children to her husband dux Birger Jarl, Ingeborg thereby became the Kings Mother and first lady of the royal court. Ingeborg is recorded to have inherited her brother Erics private property upon his death, even in her forties, she continued to give birth to children, and her death is believed to have occurred because of childbirth complications, possibly giving birth to twins. Sverige och dess regenter under 1.000 år
12.
Roman Catholicism
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
13.
Swedish language
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Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
14.
Monarch
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A monarch is the sovereign head of state in a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, alternatively, an individual may become monarch by conquest, acclamation or a combination of means. A monarch usually reigns for life or until abdication, if a young child is crowned the monarch, a regent is often appointed to govern until the monarch reaches the requisite adult age to rule. A monarch can reign in multiple monarchies simultaneously, for example, the monarchy of Canada and the monarchy of the United Kingdom are separate states, but they share the same monarch through personal union. Monarchs, as such, bear a variety of titles — king or queen, prince or princess, emperor or empress, archduke, duke or grand duke, Prince is sometimes used as a generic term to refer to any monarch regardless of title, especially in older texts. A king can also be a husband and a queen can be a kings wife. If both people in a reign, neither person is generally considered to be a consort. Monarchy is political or sociocultural in nature, and is associated with hereditary rule. Most monarchs, both historically and in the present day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, agnatic seniority, Salic law, etc. In an elective monarchy, the monarch is elected but otherwise serves as any other monarch, historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman Emperors and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In recent centuries, many states have abolished the monarchy and become republics, advocacy of government by a republic is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchy is called monarchism. A principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of national leadership. In cases where the monarch serves mostly as a ceremonial figure real leadership does not depend on the monarch, a form of government may in fact be hereditary without being considered monarchy, such as a family dictatorship. Monarchies take a variety of forms, such as the two co-princes of Andorra, positions held simultaneously by the Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgel and the elected President of France. Similarly, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is considered a monarch despite only holding the position for five years at a time, hereditary succession within one patrilineal family has been most common, with preference for children over siblings, sons over daughters. Other European realms practice one form or another of primogeniture, whereunder a lord was succeeded by his eldest son or, if he had none, by his brother, the system of tanistry was semi-elective and gave weight also to ability and merit. The Salic law, practiced in France and in the Italian territories of the House of Savoy, in most fiefs, in the event of the demise of all legitimate male members of the patrilineage, a female of the family could succeed. Spain today continues this model of succession law, in the form of cognatic primogeniture, in more complex medieval cases, the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled, and outcomes were often idiosyncratic
15.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
16.
Slavs
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Slavs are the largest Indo-European ethno-linguistic group in Europe. They are native to Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, Northeastern Europe, North Asia, Slavs speak Slavic languages of the Balto-Slavic language group. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of Central, states with Slavic languages comprise over 50% of the territory of Europe, therefore it is the largest ethno-linguistic group in Europe by land area. Present-day Slavic people are classified into West Slavs, East Slavs, there are an estimated 360 million Slavs worldwide. The Slavic autonym is reconstructed in Proto-Slavic as *Slověninъ, plural *Slověne, the oldest documents written in Old Church Slavonic and dating from the 9th century attest the autonym as Slověne. The word slovo and the related slava and slukh originate from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱlew-, cognate with Ancient Greek κλῆς, whence comes the name Pericles, Latin clueo, some other theories have limited support. The English term slave eventually derives from the ethnonym Slav, Slavs were captured and enslaved by the Muslims of Spain during the ninth century AD. The Slavs under name of the Antes and the Sclaveni make their first appearance in Byzantine records in the early 6th century. Procopius wrote in 545 that the Sclaveni and the Antae actually had a name in the remote past. He described them as barbarians, who lived under democracy, and that believe in one god. They lived in scattered housing, and constantly changed settlement, regarding warfare, they were mainly foot soldiers with small shields and battleaxes, lightly clothed, some entering battle naked with only their genitals covered. And they live a life, giving no heed to bodily comforts. Jordanes described the Sclaveni having swamps and forests for their cities, another 6th-century source refers to them living among nearly impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes. Menander Protector mentions a Daurentius that slew an Avar envoy of Khagan Bayan I. The Avars asked the Slavs to accept the suzerainty of the Avars, he declined and is reported as saying, Others do not conquer our land. The relationship between the Slavs and a called the Veneti east of the River Vistula in the Roman period is uncertain. The name may refer both to Balts and Slavs, perhaps some Slavs migrated with the movement of the Vandals to Iberia and north Africa. Around the 6th century, Slavs appeared on Byzantine borders in great numbers, the Byzantine records note that grass would not regrow in places where the Slavs had marched through, so great were their numbers
17.
Eric XI of Sweden
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Eric XI the Lisp and Lame Swedish, Erik Eriksson or Erik läspe och halte, Old Norse, Eiríkr Eiríksson was king of Sweden in 1222–1229 and 1234–1250. Eric was the son of Eric Knutsson of Sweden and Richeza of Denmark, according to the chronicle Erikskrönikan written in the early 1320s, Eric is said to have been partly lame. When King John I died in 1222, the six-year-old Eric was hailed king, with a distant male cousin who was adult, first as leader of the regency council, Knut was a member of the council which ruled Sweden. In 1229, after having been a king in seven years. The battle is believed to have taken place in Olustra in Södermanland, after his loss, the young king fled to Denmark where his uncle was King Valdemar II of Denmark. Knut Holmgersson was crowned King Canute II of Sweden in 1231 but his time in office was short, after King Canutes death, Eric returned and ruled until his own death in 1250. Eric was married to Queen Catherine, daughter of Sune Folkason of Bjälbo, commonly, sources say that Eric was childless, but some sources claim that he had a couple of baby daughters who died. Eric was buried in the monastery of Varnhem Abbey in Västergötland, in 1236, King Erics sister Ingeborg had been married to Birger Magnusson, in Birgers first marriage. Birger Magnusson was the son of an heiress of the Sverker dynasty. Their under aged eldest son Valdemar was elected king 1250 to succeed Eric, possibly by-passing the sons, if such existed, Birger Magnusson became the Regent, holding the true power in Sweden until his own death in 1266. Skáldatal reports that Óláfr Þórðarson was one of Erics court skalds
18.
Eric X of Sweden
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Eric X, Swedish, Erik Knutsson, Old Norse, Eiríkr Knútsson was the King of Sweden between 1208 and 1216. Also known as Eric the Survivor, he was, at his accession to the throne, the name of his mother is not known, but may have been Cecilia. Nothing is known about his youth, but he may have been born around 1180 in Eriksberg royal manor, when Erics father, King Canute I, died peacefully in 1195 or 1196, his four sons were youthful but not children. One of them had been hailed as heir to the throne by the grandees of the kingdom when Canute was still alive, whether this was Eric we do not know, nor do the sources disclose the names of his three brothers. In spite of the precautions of King Canute, his sons were passed over in favour of Sverker Karlsson, perhaps this was due to the influence of the mighty second-of-the-realm, Jarl Birger Brosa. As far as we know the succession took place without bloodshed, King Canutes sons continued to live in the Swedish royal court and were raised by King Sverker. Several years later, after the death of Birger Brosa, the brothers, King Sverker did not acquiesce, at which point Eric and his brothers escaped to Norway where they stayed over the winter of 1204-05. Eric and his brothers had kin ties with the Norwegian Birkebeiner party since Jarl Håkon Galen was married to their cousin, in 1205, the brothers returned to Sweden with Norwegian backing. However, they were overcome by King Sverker in the Battle of Älgarås in Tiveden, Eric survived and once again fled to Norway where he remained for three years. In 1208 he returned to Sweden under unknown circumstances but apparently with Birkebeiner assistance, Sverker on his side received troops from King Valdemar Sejr of Denmark. In January 1208 Eric nevertheless defeated Sverker in the Battle of Lena and slew the Danish commander Ebbe Sunesen, popular tradition depicted the event as a battle between Sweden and Denmark where two Danes ran for one Swede, and their backs were badly spanked by the Swedish men. A Danish folksong describes how the horses of the lords return bloodied, now Eric took the name of King of Sweden. Birger Brosas son Knut had been appointed jarl at some stage, Eric appointed Folke Jarl, probably another son of Birger Brosa, in his stead. This person was the originator of the Folkung party which played a role in 13th-century Sweden and is frequently confused with the royal family that reigned after 1250. Sverker and the archbishop Valerius fled to Denmark after the defeat, Innocent ordered the bishops of Skara, Linköping and a third see to persuade Eric to come to terms with Sverker and return the royal prerogatives. In case of refusal, Eric would be censured by the Church and this did not have the desired effect, and in 1210 Sverker invaded Sweden in an attempt to reconquer the throne. However, he was defeated in the Battle of Gestilren in July 1210 and this time Sverker was killed at the hands of Folke Jarl and his party, however, Folke was also slain together with many Folkungs. The location of the battle has been a matter of debate, after his victory, King Eric nevertheless quickly reconciled with the Danish king as well as the Catholic Church
19.
Stones of Mora
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The Stones of Mora was the place where the Swedish kings were elected. The origin of the tradition is unknown, the name Stones of Mora, Mora stenar in Swedish, was originally in singular, Mora sten Stone of Mora, and referred to a king stone on which the newly elected king stood after the election. Later monuments in stone around the Stone of Mora, commemorating different elections, another name often used referring to the place where the king was elected was Mora äng, Meadow of Mora. In Lagga parish about 10 km south-east of Uppsala, but in neighbouring Knivsta Municipality, is Mora äng, the location is at equal distance from the Things of the old folklands Attundaland and Tiundaland. This was the location of Mora Thing, where the Swedish kings were elected, after his election was decided, the king was elevated on top of a flat stone and hailed by his subjects. The law of Uppland and Södermanland states, The three folklands, i. e. Tiundaland, Attundaland and Fjärdhundraland, shall first elect king. Then the election will be sanctioned by the lawspeaker of Uppland and then by all his subordinate lawspeakers in the rest of the kingdom and this process was done during the so-called Eriksgata. The Westrogothic law reminded the Geats that they had to accept this election, the location was on the border of a wetland, and according to Snorri, five kings had been drowned in this wetland, when the people had been displeased. The newly elected king also had to go around Sweden on the Eriksgata and it was thus a sort of federation where the king started with his election at Mora Thing and then travelled throughout the kingdom to have the election confirmed by the local assemblies. The Stone of Mora and many stones which flanked it with inscriptions commemorating the elections of earlier kings, were destroyed in 1515 during the civil war against the Danes. Gustav Vasa and John III are said to have tried to reconstruct the Stones of Mora without success, one of the fragments is known as the Three Crowns stone since it is the earliest known example of the use of Swedens national symbol, the Three Crowns. The fragment is what remains of the stone for the election of Albert of Mecklenburg, there is a document which tells that he was elected at the Stones of Mora in 1275. Magnus Eriksson was elected at the stones on July 8,1319, kristian I, in 1457, he was the last to be elected at the stones. The building where the fragments are contained was constructed by Carl Wijnbladh in 1770, the design was based on a sketch by a schoolchild, one of many emerging from a local contest. Stone of Scone Germanic king Lia Fáil Princes Stone
20.
Gerhard I, Count of Holstein-Itzehoe
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Gerhard I, Count of Holstein-Itzehoe was the only count of Holstein-Itzehoe. He was the son of Count Adolf IV of Holstein. When his father retired to a monastery in 1238, he ruled the Holstein jointly with his elder brother John I, when they came of age, the brothers took up government and continue their joint rule. In 1255, they concluded an agreement with Lübeck. When their father died in 1261, John and Gerhard divided Holstein, Gerhard took Holstein-Itzehoe, consisting of the districts of Stormarn, Plön and Schaumburg, with his residence in Itzehoe. John received Holstein-Kiel, consisting of the districts Kiel, Wagria and East Holstein, John later won Rendsburg back from Denmark and traded it with Gerhard for Segeberg. Gerhard founded several villages, in order to develop Holstein and control the area and he also developed the Countys administration. He fought ward with the Archdiocese of Bremen, th City of Lübeck, in 1262, he won the Battle of the Loh Moor. In 1263, John died and Gerhard became regent of Kiel, after his death, his sons subdivided Holstein-itzehoe into Holstein-Plön, Holstein-Pinneberg and Holstein-Rendsburg. The inscription on his seal reads, S* GERARDI*COMITIS*HOLTSATIE*ET*DE*SCOWENBRCH, allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,8, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, p.737 Wilhelm Koppe, Gerhard I. Neue Deutsche Biographie,6, Berlin, Duncker & Humblot, pp. 265–266 Entry at genealogie-mittelalter. de
21.
Sverker II of Sweden
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Sverker II or Sverker the Younger, was King of Sweden from 1195 or 1196 to 1208. Sverker was a son of King Karl Sverkersson of Sweden and Queen Christine Stigsdatter of Hvide, through his mother, he was a cousins son of the Danish kings Canute VI and Valdemar Sejr. His parents marriage has been dated to 1162 or more probably 1163, Sverker also allied himself with the Galen clan leaders in Skåne who were close to the Hvide, by marriage through lady Benedikte Ebbesdotter of Hvide. The Danish king supported him as claimant to Sweden, thus helping to destabilize the neighboring country, the troubled Danish-Swedish relations at this time can bee seen from attempts by Canute I and his jarl Birger Brosa to support rebels against Valdemar I and Canute VI. When King Canute I of Sweden died in 1195 or 1196, his sons were young, one of them had been appointed heir to the throne, but was passed over. Sverker was chosen as the king of Sweden, surprisingly without quarrel. At some point he had returned to his country, however being regarded quite Danish. His uncontested election probably owed much to Jarl Birger Brosa whose daughter, Ingegerd Birgersdotter of Bjelbo, Sverker married soon after his first wife had died. In his own letters he emphasized his birth-right to kingship, son of King Charles, King of the Swedes, King Sverker confirmed and enlarged privileges for the Swedish church and Valerius, the Archbishop of Uppsala. The privilege document of 1200 is the oldest known ecclesiastical privilege in Sweden, skáldatal names two of Sverkers court skalds, Sumarliði skáld and Þorgeirr Danaskáld. In 1202 Earl Birger died and the late jarls grandson, Sverkers one-year-old son John received the title of Jarl from his father and this was intended to strengthen him as heir of the crown, but led to much ridicule. Desultory warfare with the peoples east of the Baltic Sea continued during Sverkers reign, Birger Brosa undertook a sea-borne expedition that ended up in Wierland in eastern Estonia, either before or after Sverkers accession. A late and unreliable source indicates that troops from the Novgorod Republic attacked Finland in 1198 and this may be an elaboration of another Russian attack in 1191, and Åbo did not yet exist as a settlement. A certain Dux John flourished in the early 13th century, according his grave inscription and his widow supposedly gathered levies which killed the marauders at Estaskär. It has been suggested that this place in 1206. In general, Estonian and Curonian raiders constituted a problem for the coasts of Sweden, around 1203, Canutes four sons, who had lived in Swedish royal court, began to claim the throne and Sverker exiled them to Norway. His position as king became insecure from this point forward, the sons of Canute returned with troops in 1205, supported by the Norwegian party of Birkebeiner. Sverker, however, attacked and defeated them in the Battle of Älgarås in Tiveden, the only survivor, Eric, returned with Norwegian support in 1208
22.
Consanguinity
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Consanguinity is the property of being from the same kinship as another person. In that aspect, consanguinity is the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person, the laws of many jurisdictions set out degrees of consanguinity in relation to prohibited sexual relations and marriage parties. Rules of Consanguinity are also used to determine heirs of an estate according to statutes that govern intestate succession, the Knot System is a numerical notation that defines consanguinity. Issues of consanguinity arise in several aspects of the law, Laws prohibiting incest govern the degree of kinship within which marriage or sexual intercourse is permitted. These are almost universally prohibited within the degree of consanguinity. Some jurisdictions forbid marriage between first cousins, while others do not, marriage with aunts and uncles is legal in several countries. Consanguinity is also relevant to inheritance, particularly with regard to intestate succession, in general, the law favors inheritance by persons closely related to the deceased. Some jurisdictions bar citizens from service on a jury on the basis of consanguinity with persons involved in the case, in many countries, laws prohibiting nepotism bar employment of, or certain kinds of contracts with, the near relations of public officers or employees. Under Roman civil law, which early canon law of the Catholic Church followed, in the ninth century the church raised the number of prohibited degrees to seven and changed the method by which they were calculated. Eventually the nobility became too interrelated to marry as the pool of non-related prospective spouses became smaller and they had to either defy the churchs position or look elsewhere for eligible marriage candidates. In 1215 the Fourth Lateran Council made what they believed was a change to canon law reducing the number of prohibited degrees of consanguinity from seven back to four. The method of calculating prohibited degrees was changed also, instead of the former practice of counting up to the common ancestor then down to the proposed spouse, the new law computed consanguinity by counting back to the common ancestor. After 1215 the general rule was that while fourth cousins could marry without dispensation, in fourteenth century England, for example, papal dispensations for annulments due to consanguinity were relatively few. The connotations of degree of consanguinity varies by context, most cultures define a degree of consanguinity within which sexual interrelationships are regarded as incestuous. The rule is strict on the mothers side, where the limit is about four generations back. This rule does not apply to Muslims or other ethnic groups, islamThe category includes those one is forbidden to marry due to relationship of blood as well as some who are forbidden due to marital relations. And do not marry women whom your fathers married except what has already passed and it was indeed obscene, hateful and an evil way. And those already married except those whom your right hand possesses, and allowed for you are all besides these if you seek them with your property seeking chastity not fornication
23.
Gothenland
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Götaland is one of three lands of Sweden and comprises ten provinces. Geographically it is located in the south of Sweden, bounded to the north by Svealand, with the woods of Tiveden, Tylöskog. Götaland once consisted of petty kingdoms, and their inhabitants were called Gautar in Old Norse and it is generally agreed that these were the same as the Geats, the people of the hero Beowulf in Englands national epic, Beowulf. A part of todays Götaland merged with Svealand around year 1100 and thereby formed Sweden, the province of Småland, with the historically important city Kalmar on its coast, was sparsely populated and the status of the Baltic island Gotland varied during the Middle Ages. Bohuslän became Swedish first during the 17th Century after being lost from Norway, around the time as Denmark lost Scania, Halland. The earliest possible mentions of the götar is Ptolemaios who mentions the Goutai, later, Beowulf partially takes place among the Géatas. Norwegian and Icelandic sources sometimes use Gautar only for the people of Västergötland, Västergötland appears in medieval Icelandic and Norwegian sources as Gautland, a form which is not etymologically identical to Götaland. The name Götaland replaced the old Götland in the 15th century, the name Götaland probably originally referred only to Västergötland and Östergötland, but was later extended to adjoining districts. The name Götaland is probably a construction and means the lands of the Geats. Here Götaland appears in the form of the dative case. For the etymology of the element Geat/Gaut/Göt and Goth, see Geat, dense forests between the historic Götaland and Scania had been the traditional dividing line between the two. The Geatish kings, however, belong to the domain of Norse mythology, geatland is the land in which the medieval hero of the poem Beowulf is said to have lived. It was only late in the Middle Ages that Götaland began to be perceived as a part of Sweden, in Old Norse and in Old English sources, Gautland/Geatland is still treated as a separate country from Sweden. Hann reið austr um Smáland ok í eystra Gautland ok svá í Svíþjóð, in 1384 Bo Jonsson stated in his will that the kingdom consisted of Swerige, Österland and Göthaland. The small countries to the south of Finnveden, Kind, Möre, Njudung, Tjust, Tveta, Värend, off the coast of Småland was the island of Öland, which became a separate province. Dal to the north west became the province of Dalsland, Småland, Öland and Dalsland were already seen as lands belonging to Götaland in medieval times. In the Treaty of Roskilde, the kingdom of Denmark-Norway ceded the Danish povinces of Blekinge, Halland, Scania and these provinces are since then counted as parts of Götaland. The island of Gotland shifted allegiance between the Swedes and the Danes several times, although the island may be perceived to have closer links to Svealand, it is counted as part of Götaland
24.
King of the Goths
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This is about the medieval title, for the migration-era Goths, see King of the Visigoths, King of the Ostrogoths. In a papal letter dated 5 September 1164, king Charles VII of Sweden was addressed as rex Sweorum et Gothorum, as historical accounts preserved Attila the Hun was Descendant of the Great Nimrod. By the grace of God, King of the Huns, the Goths, the Danes, first Sveriges och Götes Konung up to later decades of Gustaf I of Sweden, then Sveriges, Götes och Vendes Konung, was used in official documentation. Between 1814 and 1905 Sveriges, Norges, Götes och Vendes Konung was used, Sveriges, Götes och Vendes Konung was used again from 1905 up to the accession of Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden in 1973, who was the first monarch officially proclaimed Sveriges Konung and nothing else. The first Danish king to use the title was King Valdemar IV, the Danish Kings continued to use the title over the next six hundred years until 1972, when Queen Margrethe II succeeded. She abandoned the use of all her predecessors titles except her title as Denmarks Queen, first documented 1449, the arms of the Danish monarchs contained until 1972 a subcoat representing the title King of the Goths, on gold, a blue heraldic leopard over nine red hearts. Originally derived from the arms of the dukes of Halland which again was derived from the Danish arms, stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Söner
25.
Archdeacon
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In the High Middle Ages it was the most senior diocesan position below a bishop in the Roman Catholic Church. An archdeacon is often responsible for administration within an archdeaconry, which is the subdivision of the diocese. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church has defined an archdeacon as A cleric having a defined administrative authority delegated to him by the bishop in the whole or part of the diocese, the office has often been described metaphorically as that of oculus episcopi, the bishops eye. In the Latin Catholic Church, the post of archdeacon, generally a priest, was one of great importance as a senior official of a diocese. The duties are now performed by such as auxiliary and/or coadjutor bishops, the vicar general. The term archdeacon appears for the first time in Optatus of Mileves history of Donatism of about 370 and these functions included not only financial administration but also the discipline of the clergy, and examination of candidates for priesthood. From the 8th century, there was in the West a further development of the authority of the archdeacon, large dioceses had several archdeaconries, in each of which the archdeacon, had an authority comparable to that of the bishop. Frequently they were appointed not by the bishop but by the chapter or the king. However, from the 13th century, efforts were made to limit their authority and this was effected in part by the institution of the new office of vicar general, who would be a priest rather than a deacon. In 1553, the Council of Trent removed entirely the independent powers of archdeacons and those who had been in charge of different parts of the diocese gradually ceased to be appointed. Only the archdeacon associated with the chapter continued to exist as an empty title. However, Eastern Catholic Churches still utilize archdeacons, recently, this type of dual role has only existed in the Bishop suffragan of Ludlow. An archdeacon is usually styled The Venerable instead of the clerical style of The Reverend. In the Church of England the position of an archdeacon can only be held by a priest who has been ordained for at least six years, in the Church of England, the legal act by which a priest becomes an archdeacon is called a collation. If that archdeaconry is annexed to a canonry of the cathedral, the Anglican ordinal presupposes that the functions of archdeacons include those of examining candidates for ordination and then presenting them to the ordaining bishop. In the Eastern Christian churches, an archdeacon is the senior deacon within a diocese and has responsibility for serving at hierarchical services and he has responsibility for ensuring the smooth running of the service by directing the clergy and servers as appropriate. The archdeacon wears the orarion, which is twice the length of the usual orarion. An archdeacon may come from either the monastic or married clergy, an archdeacon was the prince and head of the Christians of Saint Thomas and had such titles as Archdeacon and Gate of All India, Governor of India
26.
Lord High Chancellor of Sweden
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The Lord High Chancellor, literally Chancellor of the Realm, was a prominent and influential office in Sweden, from 1538 until 1797, excluding periods when the office was out of use. The office holder was a member of the Privy Council, in 1792, more than a century after the offices abolishment in 1680, it was revived but was then finally abolished twelve years later in 1797. During the Middle Ages, from the 13th century, the chancellor of the king was a confidant of the king. The chancellor was in general a man of the church, in 1560, during Eric XIVs reign, Nils Gyllenstierna became the first to receive the title Rikskansler. The Lord High Chancellor was appointed by the King and was assigned to ensure that the orders of the King, along the way, the assignments of the chancellor increased to the amount that a chancellery, the Privy Council, had to be established. In 1634, the five Great Officers of the Realm was introduced as the most powerful among the Privy Council members, the Chancellor was fourth in rank among these. Albeit fourth in rank, the Lord High Chancellor became the most important figure in the Privy Council, in 1680, Charles XI abolished the office and inaugurated a new position instead – President of the Chancellery. In 1792, during the minority reign of Gustav IV Adolph the office of Rikskansler was revived, King in Council Prime Minister of Sweden List of Prime Ministers of Sweden
27.
Duke of Finland
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Duke of Finland was an occasional medieval title granted as a tertiogeniture to the relatives of the King of Sweden between the 13th and 16th centuries. It included a duchy along with customs, and often represented a veritably independent principality. Grand Duke of Finland was a royal title used by Swedish monarchs from the 1580s until 1720, was revived again briefly 1802-1805 and was also used by Russias monarchs until 1917. In the late 15th century, historian Ericus Olai claimed that Bishop Kol of Linköping had been the Duke of Finland. In the late 12th century in Sweden, the Latin title dux was still used in the meaning of jarl, Ericus Olais claim is not supported by other sources. Noteworthy is also that the Bishop of Linköping had some sort of connection to eastern activities during the 13th century. The Pope used him in 1229 to assist the Bishop of Finland in organizing the diocese, the Bishop of Linköping had also accompanied the Swedish ledung on their unsuccessful Estonian expedition. Benedict, an eccleasiastic, the youngest brother of king Valdemar I of Sweden was granted the Duchy of Finland about 1284 by a subsequent brother on the throne, Benedicts appointment ended a 35-year-long period of episcopal rule in Finland, effective since the Second Swedish Crusade around 1249. Benedicts local reign did not last long, the Duke, a consecrated priest and the Chancellor of the Realm, was elected Bishop of Linköping in 1286. As far as is known, he bore revenues from Finland until his death and he was the first known holder of the appanage of Finland. The youngest son of the late King Magnus III of Sweden, valdemars elder brother Duke Eric in the 1310s was establishing a truly independent principality in Western Sweden, Duke Valdemar being his ally. On December 10,1317 he was imprisoned by King Birger in Nyköping together with Eric, sometime in 1318, Dukes Valdemar and Eric died while incarcerated. With his second wife Ingeborg of Norway, Duke Valdemar had a son, born in 1316, the Duke apparently never seriously attempted to establish himself as ruler of Finland, being satisfied to bear revenues from the duchy. He had his seat in Southern Sweden, where he acted as Viceroy of Scania. The Duke became the victim of certain opposition to King Magnus, was exiled in 1357. In 1357, his holdings, including Finland, had given to King Eric. Eric did not need the ducal title, and it was then vacant almost 200 years. In 1556, two hundred years after it was vacated by the removal of Duke Benedict, King Gustav I of Sweden gave the Duchy of Finland to his second son, John was the only holder of the title to establish a genuine princely rule of his own in Finland
28.
Torgils Knutsson
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Torkel Knutsson, known well as Marshal Torkel, of Aranäs, was constable, privy council, and virtual ruler of Sweden during the early reign of King Birger Magnusson. When Tavastland was attacked by the Republic of Novgorod in 1292, Torkel hailed from an old noble family of West Geatish ancestry and was related to the Folkungs, the royal family, and like them, he had a lion in his coat of arms. He was first mentioned in 1282, in documents from 1288, he is mentioned as a knight and a member of the privy council. His first wife, whose origins are unknown, gave him a daughter named Kristina and she appears to have been repudiated by the duke upon her fathers execution. Torkels second wife was the countess Hedvig of Ravensberg, in 1299-1300, he led an attack against the Novgorodians, and on the Neva River, he founded the fortress of Landskrona He showed the same concerns about Swedish domestic politics. During his regency, the law of Uppland was established and he acted as Birger Jarl had done in the conflict against the church, in order to abolish the clergys tax exemption. The clergys discontent became apparent in 1303, the old trade treaties with Lübeck were re-established, on condition that the town did not provide Novgorod with weapons or provisions. In the struggles between king Birger Magnusson and his brothers, the dukes Eric and Valdemar, Torkel was faithfully on the kings side. At Torkels castle Aranäs, in 1304, the two dukes had to sign a declaration that they would neither in Sweden, nor abroad, work against the king nor cause him harm. In spite of this declaration, the two dukes fled abroad and with the support of the Norwegian king Haakon V of Norway, they attacked Västergötland. Torkel helped the king conquer the castle of Nyköping, which belonged to duke Eric, and in Kolsäter, he forced the two dukes to sign a declaration that they would not cause any harm to Torkel either. When the power of the dukes was on the again, the marshal had to reconcile with the church. However, Torkel was finally struck by the vengeance of his enemies, the dukes managed to win the trust of the king and poisoned the kings mind against his marshal. In December 1305, King Birger and the dukes arrived at Torkels estate Lena in Västergötland, in February 1306, the faithful marshals head was cut off. The dukes were so hateful against Torkel that his body was entered on the place of execution and it was later moved and properly buried at the Franciscan church in Stockholm. Torkels powerful personality and tragic end has been the matter of poetry, a statue of Torkel was raised, in 1908, on the square Rådhustorget in Vyborg. This article contains content from the Owl Edition of Nordisk familjebok, a Swedish encyclopedia published between 1904 and 1926, now in the public domain
29.
Lord High Constable of Sweden
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The Lord High Constable was a prominent and influential office in Sweden, from the 13th century until 1676, excluding periods when the office was out of use. The office holder was a member of the Swedish Privy Council and, from 1630 and on, from 1634, the Lord High Constable was one of five Great Officers of the Realm. In a letter from 1268, during the reign of Valdemar Birgersson, the holder of the prestigious title is a nobleman, but it is not possible to decide much about the assignments belonging to it. It is possible that the marsk, or the constable, replaced the stabularius that previously governed the kings mounted following, Constable Torgils Knutsson was the foremost among the powerful men that ruled Sweden during the childhood of king Birger Magnusson in the late 13th century. Later constables seem to only occasionally be called upon by the king, queen Margaret, who tried to reclaim power that previous kings had lost, chose to have neither a Lord High Constable nor a Lord High Steward. Her successor Eric of Pomerania was forced by the Swedish noblemen to appoint a constable, thus, in 1435, Karl Knutsson Bonde, a future Swedish king, became the first constable for quite some time. In a suggestion to a treaty of the Kalmar union from 1436, for most of the remaining part of the 15th century, the office was vacant. Lars Siggesson Sparre, long-time constable of Gustav I, was a significant figure during his kings reign, when something reminiscent of a council of war was founded in 1540, the constable was not included. King Gustavs successor, his oldest son Eric XIV, apparently had plans to modernize the office, as did the following rulers John III and Sigismund. The title meant no particular assignment until 1630, when constable Jacob De la Gardie became president of the Council of War. The Lord High Constable was second in rank of the five Great Officers of the Realm, established in 1634, when Carl Gustaf Wrangel died in 1676, the office was abolished. King Charles XI, who had come to age four years earlier, wanted to avoid appointing new holders of the high offices, the fodermarsk appeared in the late Middle Ages and was responsible for the foddering of the courts horses. The first hovmarskalk, Marshal of the Court, was appointed in c.1540, earlier, the office holder was supervising the economy of the court. Todays First Marshal of the Court is the head of the Office of the Marshal of the Court, göran Klasson Stjernsköld became the first riksmarskalk, Marshal of the Realm, in 1607. As such, he was the head of the court
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Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
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Osteology
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Osteology is the scientific study of bones, practiced by osteologists. Often used by scientists with identification of remains with regard to age, death, sex, growth. Osteology and osteologists should not be confused with the practice of medicine known as osteopathy and its practitioners. These 25 skeletal remains, along many more that were found in further searches, are said to be among the mass grave dug to bury the millions of victims of the Black Death in the 14th century. It was discovered that most of the population was in poor health to begin with. Through extensive analysis of the bones, it was discovered many of the inhabitants of Great Britain were plagued with rickets, anemia. There has also been frequent evidence that much of the population had traces of broken bones from frequent fighting and this archaeological project has been named the Crossrail Project. Archaeologists will continue to excavate and search for remains to help uncover missing pieces of history and these advancements in our past will only be further developed through more extensive research of other skeletons buried in the same area for years to come. Osteometric points Museum of Osteology Forensic Anthropology Paleontology Bone Clones Bass, Human Osteology, A Laboratory and Field Manual. Buikstra, J. E. and Ubelaker, D. H.1994, standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No.44, cox, M and Mays, S.2000. Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science, british Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology Museum of Osteology
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University of Stockholm
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Stockholm University is a public university in Stockholm, Sweden, founded as a college in 1878, with university status since 1960. Stockholm University has two fields, the natural sciences and the humanities/social sciences. With over 70,000 students at four different faculties, law, humanities, the mathematical, Stockholm University was granted university status in 1960, making it the fourth oldest Swedish university. As with other universities in Sweden, Stockholm Universitys mission includes teaching. The initiative for the formation of Stockholm University was taken by the Stockholm City Council, the process was completed after a decision in December 1865 regarding the establishment of a fund and a committee to establish a higher education institution in the capital. The nine members of the Committee were respected and prominent citizens whose work have helped the evolution of science, the next important step was taken in October 1869, when the Stockholm University College Association was established. Several members of the committee members of the association - including Professor Pehr Henrik Malmsten. The associations mission was to establish a university in Stockholm and would not be dissolved until college came into being, the memorandum of the Stockholm University College were adopted in May 1877, and in the autumn semester of the following year, actual operations began. In 1878, the university college Stockholms högskola started its operations with a series of lectures on natural sciences, notable in the universitys early history is the appointment of Sofia Kovalevskaya to hold a chair in mathematics department in 1889, making her the third female professor in Europe. In 1904 the college became a degree granting institution. In 1960, the college was granted university status, becoming Swedens fourth state university, since 1970 most of the university operations are pursued at the main campus at Frescati north of the city center. Stockholm University is an agency and is governed by the decisions coming from the government and parliament. The University Board is the Universitys highest governing body, the board is responsible for the University as a government agency s mission and for following the requirements of laws and regulations. The board reports to the government and it consists of eight external members, four business representatives from the university with two group alternates and three student representatives with an alternate. The University board is above the principal who is the head of the authority and have responsibility for all operations. The principal has a president to replace him/her if necessary. At the university, there are two area councils, Area board of science and Area board of humanities, law and social sciences and they are headed by a vice principal. The area boards are responsible for planning of education and research, coordination of faculty teaching, research
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Sveriges Television
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Aftonbladet is a Swedish tabloid published in Stockholm, Sweden. It is one of the daily newspapers in the Nordic countries. The newspaper was founded by Lars Johan Hierta in December 1830 under the name of Aftonbladet i Stockholm during the modernization of Sweden, in 1852 the paper began to use its current name, Aftonbladet, after 25 name changes. It describes itself as an independent social-democratic newspaper, but it also publishes extreme left wing columnists in its culture section. The owners of Aftonbladet are the Swedish Trade Union Confederation which bought it in the 1950s, LO sold a large of its shares in the paper to the Schibsted group. As per 15 June 2009 Schibsted bought another 41% and became the majority owner with 91%, however, LO has the right to appoint the political editor of the paper. Aftonbladet, based in Stockholm, is published in tabloid format, the paper reported news and also criticised the new Swedish king Charles XIV John. The king stopped Aftonbladet from being printed and banned it, during its existence, Aftonbladet has leant in different political directions. Initially liberal, it drifted towards conservatism under Harald Sohlman, editor in chief from 1890 to 1921, during World War I, a majority holding was sold to the German government in a secret arrangement. In 1929 the newspaper came under the control of the Kreuger family, in 1932 it backed Per Albin Hanssons new Social Democratic government. Just a few years later it realigned with the Liberal Party, heavily influenced by pro-German staff members, the newspaper supported Germany during World War II. The Kreuger era came to an end on 8 October 1956, despite interest from both the Liberal Party and the Centre Party, Torsten Kreuger sold Aftonbladet as well as Stockholms-Tidningen to the Swedish Trade Union Confederation. The ownership change was first followed by a drop in circulation. In the 1960s, however, the newspaper saw its circulation surge rapidly, by the early 1990s Aftonbladet had run into economic problems, and many had begun to question the competence of the trade union movement as a media owner. On 2 May 1996, the Norwegian media group Schibsted acquired a 49.9 percent stake in the newspaper, the Swedish Trade Union Confederation kept the remaining 50.1 percent of its shares. The same year its circulation passed that of long-time tabloid rival Expressen, in 2005 Aftonbladet started a Web portal for business news as a joint venture with Svenska Dagbladet. In 1998 the circulation of Aftonbladet was 397,000 copies on weekdays and 502,000 copies on Sundays, the circulation of the paper was 402,000 copies in 2001. As of 2004 the paper was the most selling daily both in Sweden and in other Nordic countries, having a circulation of 422,000 copies and it was 429,000 copies on weekdays in 2005
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Carbon-14
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Carbon-14, 14C, or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby, Carbon-14 was discovered on 27 February 1940, by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, California. Its existence had been suggested by Franz Kurie in 1934, carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable, while the half-life of carbon-14 is 5, 730±40 years. Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 through beta decay, a gram of carbon containing 1 atom of carbon-14 per 1012 atoms will emit 0.40 beta particles per second. The primary natural source of carbon-14 on Earth is cosmic ray action on nitrogen in the atmosphere, however, open-air nuclear testing between 1955–1980 contributed to this pool. The different isotopes of carbon do not differ appreciably in their chemical properties, the emitted beta particles have a maximum energy of 156 keV, while their weighted mean energy is 49 keV. These are relatively low energies, the distance traveled is estimated to be 22 cm in air and 0.27 mm in body tissue. The fraction of the radiation transmitted through the dead layer is estimated to be 0.11. Liquid scintillation counting is the preferred method, the G-M counting efficiency is estimated to be 3%. The half-distance layer in water is 0.05 mm. Radiocarbon dating is a dating method that uses to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 60,000 years old. The technique was developed by Willard Libby and his colleagues in 1949 during his tenure as a professor at the University of Chicago, in 1960, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for this work. One of the frequent uses of the technique is to date organic remains from archaeological sites, plants fix atmospheric carbon during photosynthesis, so the level of 14C in plants and animals when they die approximately equals the level of 14C in the atmosphere at that time. However, it decreases thereafter from radioactive decay, allowing the date of death or fixation to be estimated. A calculation or a comparison of carbon-14 levels in a sample, with tree ring or cave-deposit carbon-14 levels of a known age. Carbon-14 is produced in the layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere by thermal neutrons absorbed by nitrogen atoms. When cosmic rays enter the atmosphere, they undergo various transformations, the resulting neutrons participate in the following reaction, n +14 7N →14 6C + p The highest rate of carbon-14 production takes place at altitudes of 9 to 15 km and at high geomagnetic latitudes. Production rates vary because of changes to the cosmic ray flux caused by the heliospheric modulation, the latter can create significant variations in 14C production rates, although the changes of the carbon cycle can make these effects difficult to tease out. Another extraordinarily large 14C increase has been associated with the 5480 BC event
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Charles VIII of Sweden
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Charles VIII of Sweden, Charles I of Norway, also Carl, was king of Sweden and king of Norway. His father Knut was first cousin of Erik Johansson Vasas father, King Charles died 14 May 1470. His first marriage, in 1428, to Birgitta Turesdotter gave him his daughter Kristina and his second marriage, in 1438, to Katarina Karlsdotter produced his second daughter Magdalena, who married Ivar Axelsson. He also had two children by his third wife Kristina Abrahamsdotter, Anna and Karl and his father was said by contemporary legends to descend from a younger brother of King Eric IX. In 1434 he became a member of the Privy Council of Sweden and in October of the year he assumed one of its most senior offices, Lord High Constable of Sweden. During Charless brief regentship, the so-called Rebellion of David took place in Finland, Eric of Pomerania was forced to step down from the throne and in 1440 Christopher of Bavaria, was elected king of Sweden, Norway and Denmark. At the coronation of Christopher in September 1441, Charles was dubbed a knight and appointed Lord High Justiciar of Sweden, in October he resigned as Lord High Justiciar and resumed his office as Lord High Constable. From 1442 he was the governor, hövitsman, at Vyborg in Finland. Charles acquired extensive fiefs, for example in Western Finland and his first seat was in Turku. Soon, Christophers government began to take back fiefs and positions, the Danish had in September 1448 elected Christian I as their new monarch. In 1449 a portion of the Norwegian council elected Charles King of Norway, however, Christian also continued pursuing his claim to Norway. The Swedish aristocracy was reluctant to back Charles in a war against Denmark over Norway, from 1451, Sweden and Denmark were in state of war against each other. Because of devastating warring, an opposition against Charles emerged among the nobility in Sweden. The strongest opponent was the Swedish church which opposed Charless efforts to concentrate royal, other opponents were the family group of Oxenstierna and the House of Vasa, which had been on the opposing side in the election of king and lost. During the next 20 years, Charles was deposed twice, only to regain the throne, in 1457, a rebellion took place, led by Archbishop Jöns Bengtsson and a nobleman, Erik Axelsson Tott. Charles went into exile to Danzig, the two leaders of the revolt took the regentship, and organized the election of Christian I of Denmark as king. In 1463, King Christian quarrelled with the Archbishop because of his taxation policies, the Archbishop was imprisoned, which resulted in a rebellion by his relatives, and led to Christian being driven out of Sweden. Charles was recalled by the rebels and returned at the head of a force of German, upon arrival in Sweden he found himself at war with the Archbishop and after two bloody battles in the winter of 1464–1465 Charles was again exiled
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Eric VI of Denmark
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Eric VI Menved was King of Denmark and a son of Eric V and Agnes of Brandenburg. He became king in 1286 at age 12, when his father was murdered on 22 November by unknown assailants, since Eric VI was only 12 years old, his mother ruled for him until 1294. Eric Menved’s rule was a period during the “Age of Decay in Denmark 1241–1340. His early reign – during which he was led by his mother and her German relatives – was affected by the unrest, the first act of the new government was to settle the case of the former king’s murder at a court convened at Nyborg at Whitsun 1287. 27 honorable men were appointed to decide the case, chief among the accused were Marshal Stig Andersen Hvide and Jacob Nielsen, Count of Halland and seven others were accused. After a one-day trial, the jury found all the accused guilty, the properties and incomes of the condemned were declared forfeit and they were exiled from Denmark on pain of death. Even the pope became involved when he excommunicated those who had been judged guilty, the verdict was questionable on several counts. None of the accused could be proven to be in the vicinity when the king was stabbed to death. The accused were not allowed to swear their innocence before the court or have other men swear as to their innocence. Despite the unclear circumstances surrounding Eric V’s death, the jury took one day to arrive at a guilty verdict. The accused had all belonged to Erik Vs inner circle, it is uncertain what they were supposed to gain by the king’s death, for these reasons historians Erik Arup and Hugo Yrwing have labelled the verdict as a miscarriage of justice. They consider the murder a result of a struggle between two noble factions, one led by Marsk Stig and one led by Valdemar, Duke of South Jutland. Duke Valdemar had fallen from grace in 1283, but quickly rose in influence after 1288 and they suggest that Valdemar and his allies conspired to kill the king and then to successfully cast suspicion on their rivals at court. Another historian, Kai Hørby, has pointed out that the murder might well have its origin in the struggle for the throne of Denmark. Andersen and the fled to Norway where they were welcomed by King Eirik who gladly supported enemies of the Danish king. He gave Andersen the fortress of Kongshelle near the border with Denmark, Andersen became a pirate who harried the coast of Denmark for years. The exiles managed to build forts on Samsø, Hjelm, Sprogø, no ship was safe and no coastal town immune from Stig Andersen Hvide. The high point of his depredations occurred in 1289 when he landed with a small Norwegian army at Stubbekøbing on Falster, wizlau II of Rűgen, Denmarks regent, used his Wendish fleet to drive Andersen back to Norway
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St. Clare's Priory, Stockholm
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St. Clares Priory, Stockholm, was a Roman Catholic nunnery of the Poor Clares in Stockholm, Sweden, that was active from 1289 to the Swedish Reformation in 1527. The nunnery was given large donations and lands upon its foundation by King Magnus III of Sweden, King Magnus also gave his daughter Princess Richeza Magnusdotter of Sweden to the nunnery. She was to serve as its abbess in 1335–1347, the priory was not, however, exclusively for aristocrats, as some other convents were, rather, many of the members and even abbesses were from the merchant class. The St. Clares Priory had a cooperation with the Grey Friars Abbey, Stockholm. In 1358, it was relieved from all taxes even during crisis, in 1497, king John, King of Denmark swore his oath as monarch here before the city of Stockholm was turned over to him. However, after the fire of 1446, the priory was unable to quite recover economically. During the Swedish War of Liberation of 1521–23, Danish-controlled Stockholm was under siege by the Swedes, the abbess of the nunnery, Anna Leuhusen, offered to allow Swedes living in Stockholm to safely escape the Danes by exiting the city through the nunnery. When they arrived to the nunnery, however, she signaled the Danish authorities, in June 1523, Stockholm was retaken by the Swedes and made capital of the independent Kingdom of Sweden. In 1525, Elin Thomasdotter is noted to have replaced Anna Leuhusen as abbess, the St. Clares Priory was to be one of the very first convents to be dissolved during the Swedish Reformation in 1527. This has been contributed to the acts of Anna Leuhusen during the war, former Abbess Anna Leuhusen and the rest of the nuns was allowed to settle in the Grey Friars Abbey of Riddarholmen, which had been dissolved the same year left empty by the monks. There, they worked as nurses the rest of their lives, edelina, believed to have been the last of the nuns, died in the Danviken Hospital in 1573. The building was demolished as the stones were needed to fortify the city walls, the stones from the nunnery were used to build the Birger Jarls torn. Present-day Klara Church in Stockholm lies on the spot that the priory. AvGustaf Thomée Svenska kyrkoreformationens historia, Volym 1 av Lars Anton Anjou
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Sverker I of Sweden
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Sverker I or Sverker the Elder, murdered 25 December 1156, was King of Sweden from about 1132 till his death. Of non-royal descent, he founded the House of Sverker, the rulers of which alternated with the rival House of Eric over the next century, Sverker was a large landowner from Östergötland. According to the Westrogothic law, his fathers name was Cornube, a later pedigree has the filiation Kettil - Kol - Kornike - Sverker. He rose to power after the extinction of the House of Stenkil in the 1120s, the Danish prince Magnus the Strong was acknowledged as king in Götaland for a while, although the extent of his actual power is not clear. However, Magnuss involvement in the strife in his homeland gave opportunities for Sverker to act. From the order of events in Saxos chronicle, this place in c. It appears that Sverker was only recognized by the various provinces of the kingdom. Norwegian sources speak of separate actions taken by the elite of Västergötland in the 1130s. The jarl of Västergötland, Karl of Edsvära, settled the Norwegian-Geatish border with King Harald Gille in 1135 and is even termed king in a source, the same goes for the provinces around Lake Mälaren where Magnus still had adherents. Bishop Henrik of Sigtuna was expelled from Sweden and fell at the side of Magnus in the Battle of Fotevik in 1134. Sverker was acknowledged in the Mälaren provinces by 1135, when he received the Danish pretender Oluf Haraldsen, at least by the 1140s the authority of Sverker was generally acknowledged in the loosely structured kingdom. The basis of his power was the plain of Östergötland with the church of Kaga, Alvastra Abbey. Sverker took care to anchor his legitimacy through his marriage policy, according to the hostile account of Saxo Grammaticus, Niels married Ulvhild from Norway. Sverker sent envoys to her and asked for her love, shortly afterwards, he clandestinely brought her from her husband and made her marry him. After the death of Ulvhild he married the widow of his old enemy Magnus the Strong, the marriage gave him control over Richezas daughter Sophia of Minsk, who was engaged with the future king Valdemar the Great of Denmark in 1154, and married him after Sverkers death. Sverker based much of his authority on his patronage of the Church. The Cistercians were called in on the initiative of Queen Ulvhild and founded a number of abbeys, Alvastra in Östergötland, Varnhem in Västergötland, the king also strove to achieve Swedish ecclesiastic autonomy. The papal delegate Nicholas Breakspear toured Scandinavia in 1152 and was received by Sverker with great honours, during a meeting in Linköping, the installation of Peters pence for Sweden was probably decided
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Sune Sik
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Sune Sik, was allegedly a Swedish prince. According to Olaus Petri, he would have been a son of King Sverker I of Sweden. In surviving contemporary documents one Sune Sik can be found who lived much later and that Sune Sik made a donation to Vreta Abbey as late as in 1297. He might have ordered a restoration of a chapel in which he eventually was interred and this has caused some historians to view Olaus Petris account of him as unreliable. Sune Sik, as a son of King Sverker, is counted by other Swedish historians as a person of history, according to 18th-century Swedish Master of Philosophy Magnus Boræn, Sune was also Duke of Östergötland
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