1.
Selling out
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Selling out is a common idiomatic pejorative expression for the compromising of a persons integrity, morality, authenticity, or principles in exchange for personal gain, such as money. A sellout also refers to someone who gives up, or disregards, the term could also be used as sold out depending on the context. There are two forms of selling out in terms of music. First, there is the use of sell out to refer to those who sign for major labels or to those who licence their music to companies for use in advertising that contradicts their apparent values. Since the time of big band radio shows there has been a relationship between musicians and commercialisation. It was not until the punk subculture in the 1970s that the notion that musicians should be independent of commercial influences began to increase in popularity. This partly manifested itself in the reluctance of bands to sign for major labels, as this would include taking part in activities that were seen as crass and overly commercial. This continued into the 1980s, when bands were scorned by fanzines for signing with major labels as the success this would bring was symptomatic of the general decay in culture. However, after a number of maintained the quality of their records after signing for a major label. The difference between the two is often subjective, the album, known as The Black Album, saw critics and Bob Rock, the album’s producer, acknowledged that there was a move away from the bands previous sound. However, other fans did not consider the change in sound to be significant enough to be considered selling out, ultimately The Black Album became the band’s most commercially successful release, going 16x platinum. The differing reaction by fans to the album demonstrates the difficulty in labelling an artist as a sellout objectively, while this perceived inauthenticity is viewed with scorn and contempt by members of the subculture, the definition of the term and to whom it should be applied is subjective. While the term is most associated with the 1970s- and 1980s-era punk and hardcore subculture, a hardcore punk band that signed a lucrative contract with a major label would probably be labelled as poseurs. In film and television selling out refers to compromising the content of produced media, primarily for reasons, for example. Stand-up comedians occasionally face accusations of selling out, comedians who start out in comedy clubs might often use foul language and blue humor in their routines. A comic who alters his or her routine by sugar-coating his language, george Carlin was accused of being a sellout for appearing in television commercials for MCIs 10-10-220. Carlin had previously spoken of his dislike for MCIs commercials in his 1996 album Back in Town, in interviews, Carlin revealed he appeared in the advertisements to help pay off a large tax debt to the IRS. Comedian/actress Janeane Garofalo has described herself as a sellout based on her participation with the TV show 24 playing Janis Gold. ”Garofalo admitted to selling out for losing weight in order to more acting work
2.
Thought
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Thought refers to ideas or arrangements of ideas that are the result of the process of thinking. Though thinking is an activity considered essential to humanity, there is no consensus as to how we define or understand it. Thinking allows humans to sense of, interpret, represent or model the world they experience. It is therefore helpful to an organism with needs, objectives, the word thought comes from Old English þoht, or geþoht, from stem of þencan to conceive of in the mind, consider. Definitions of thought may also be derived directly or indirectly from theories of thought, the notion of the fundamental role of non-cognitive understanding in rendering possible thematic consciousness informed the discussion surrounding Artificial Intelligence during the 1970s and 1980s. Phenomenology, however, is not the approach to thinking in modern Western philosophy. The mind-body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship exists between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes. The main aim of working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes. Someones desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how propositional attitudes can cause that individuals neurons to fire. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted epistemologists and philosophers of mind from at least the time of René Descartes, the above reflects a classical, functional description of how we work as cognitive, thinking systems. Therefore, functional analysis of the mind alone will always leave us with the problem which cannot be solved. A neuron is a cell in the nervous system that processes. Neurons are the components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions, interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimuli, and communicate the presence of stimuli to the nervous system. Neurons do not go through mitosis, and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed, psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem
3.
Mass media
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The mass media is a diversified collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which communication takes place include a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically, via such media as film, radio, recorded music, digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social sites, websites. Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, event organizing and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media. The organizations that control these technologies, such as studios, publishing companies. In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries, books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings, and television. The explosion of digital technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question. For example, it is whether to include cell phones, computer games. In the 2000s, a called the seven mass media became popular. For example, the Internet includes blogs, podcasts, web sites, the sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media, and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media. Some argue that video games have developed into a mass form of media. While a telephone is a communication device, mass media communicates to a large group. In addition, the telephone has transformed into a phone which is equipped with Internet access. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply a device used to access a mass medium. There is currently a system by which marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellites and this transmission of mass advertising to millions of people is another form of mass communication. Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium, video games provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online, excluding the Internet however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually
4.
Subculture
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As early as 1950, David Riesman distinguished between a majority, which passively accepted commercially provided styles and meanings, and a subculture which actively sought a minority style. And interpreted it in accordance with subversive values, in his 1979 book Subculture, The Meaning of Style, Dick Hebdige argued that a subculture is a subversion to normalcy. He wrote that subcultures can be perceived as due to their nature of criticism to the dominant societal standard. Hebdige argued that subcultures bring together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards, in 2007, Ken Gelder proposed to distinguish subcultures from countercultures based on the level of immersion in society. As Cohen clarifies, every subculture’s style, consisting of image, demeanour, 2) Subcultures and resistance - In the work of John Clarke, Stuart Hall, Tony Jefferson and Brian Roberts of the Birmingham CCCS, subcultures are interpreted as forms of resistance. Society is seen as being divided into two classes, the working class and the middle class, each with its own class culture. Yet the cultural industry is capable of re-absorbing the components of such a style. 3) Subcultures and distinction - The most recent interpretations see subcultures as forms of distinction, the very idea of a unique, internally homogeneous, dominant culture is explicitly criticized. Thus forms of individual involvement in subcultures are fluid and gradual, differentiated according to each actor’s investment, Dick Hebdige writes that members of a subculture often signal their membership through a distinctive and symbolic use of style, which includes fashions, mannerisms and argot. In some instances, subcultures have been legislated against, and their activities regulated or curtailed, british youth subcultures had been described as a moral problem that ought to be handled by the guardians of the dominant culture within the post-war consensus. It may be difficult to identify certain subcultures because their style may be adopted by mass culture for commercial purposes, businesses often seek to capitalize on the subversive allure of subcultures in search of Cool, which remains valuable in the selling of any product. This process of cultural appropriation may often result in the death or evolution of the subculture, some subcultures reject or modify the importance of style, stressing membership through the adoption of an ideology which may be much more resistant to commercial exploitation. The punk subcultures distinctive style of clothing was adopted by mass-market fashion companies once the subculture became a media interest, objects borrowed from the most sordid of contexts found a place in punks ensembles, lavatory chains were draped in graceful arcs across chests in plastic bin liners. Safety pins were taken out of their domestic utility context and worn as gruesome ornaments through the cheek, fragments of school uniform were symbolically defiled and juxtaposed against leather drains or shocking pink mohair tops. In 1985, French sociologist Michel Maffesoli coined the term urban tribe and it gained widespread use after the publication of his Le temps des tribus, le déclin de lindividualisme dans les sociétés postmodernes. Eight years later, this book was published in the United Kingdom as The Time of the Tribes, according to Maffesoli, urban tribes are microgroups of people who share common interests in urban areas. The members of these small groups tend to have similar worldviews, dress styles. Their social interactions are largely informal and emotionally laden, different from late capitalisms corporate-bourgeoisie cultures, Maffesoli claims that punks are a typical example of an urban tribe
5.
Counterculture
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A counterculture is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores. A countercultural movement expresses the ethos and aspirations of a population during a well-defined era. When oppositional forces reach critical mass, countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural changes, John Milton Yinger originated the term contraculture in his 1960 article in American Sociological Review. Some scholars have attributed the counterculture to Theodore Roszak, author of The Making of a Counter Culture and it became prominent in the news media amid the social revolution that swept the Americas, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand during the 1960s. Scholars differ in the characteristics and specificity they attribute to counterculture, mainstream culture is of course also difficult to define, and in some ways becomes identified and understood through contrast with counterculture. Counterculture might oppose mass culture, or middle-class culture and values, Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized in terms of generational conflict and rejection of older or adult values. Counterculture may or may not be explicitly political and it typically involves criticism or rejection of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying hope for a better life or a new society. It does not look favorably on party politics or authoritarianism, typically, a fringe culture expands and grows into a counterculture by defining its own values in opposition to mainstream norms. Countercultures tend to peak, then go into decline, leaving an impact on mainstream cultural values. Their life cycles include phases of rejection, growth, partial acceptance, during the late 1960s, hippies became the largest and most visible countercultural group in the United States. The cultural shadows left by the Romantics, Bohemians, Beats, the counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s generated its own unique brand of notable literature, including comics and cartoons, and sometimes referred to as the underground press. In the United States, this includes the work of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton, another such hippie/anarchist bookshop was Mushroom Books, tucked away in the Lace Market area of Nottingham. Some genres tend to challenge societies with their content that is meant to question the norms within cultures. More often than not, sources of these controversies can be found in art such as Marcel Duchamp whose piece Fountain was meant to be an attack on the most basic conventions of art in 1917. Instead of being a topic to fear, they have initiated subtle trends that other artists, in order to achieve such liberation, consciousness raising and direct action were employed. At the outset of the 20th century, homosexual acts were punishable offenses in these countries, the prevailing public attitude was that homosexuality was a moral failing that should be punished, as exemplified by Oscar Wildes 1895 trial and imprisonment for gross indecency. But even then, there were dissenting views, according to Charles Kaisers The Gay Metropolis, there were already semi-public gay-themed gatherings by the mid-1930s in the United States. There were also bars and bathhouses that catered to gay clientele, but homosexuality was typically subsumed into bohemian culture, and was not a significant movement in itself
6.
Fringe theory
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A fringe theory is an idea or viewpoint which differs from the accepted scholarship in its field. Fringe theories include the models and proposals of fringe science, as well as similar ideas in other areas of scholarship, the term fringe theory is commonly used in a narrower sense as a pejorative, roughly synonymous with pseudo-scholarship. Precise definitions that distinguish between widely held viewpoints, fringe theories, and pseudo-scholarship are difficult to construct because of the demarcation problem, Issues of false equivalence can occur when fringe theories are presented as being equal to widely accepted theories. Fringe theories are ideas which depart significantly from a prevailing or mainstream theory, a fringe theory is neither a majority opinion nor that of a respected minority. The term in general is closer to the understanding of the word theory—a hypothesis, guess. They even exist in fields of study which are themselves outside the mainstream, Fringe theories meet with varying levels of academic acceptance. Financial journalist Alexander Davidson characterized fringe theories as peddled by a band of staunch supporters. Daniel N. Robinson described them as occupying a limbo between the dead end and the ultimately credible productive theory. However, the term is used pejoratively, advocates of fringe theories are dismissed as cranks or crackpots who are out of touch with reality. In this sense, there is overlap with other dismissive labels, such as pseudoarchaeology, pseudohistory. The term is used to describe conspiracy theories. The conspirators are possessed of almost superhuman power and cunning, as described by historian Esther Webman, margaret Wertheim suggested that fringe theories should be treated in a manner similar to outsider art. In 2003 she curated an exhibit at the Santa Monica Museum of Art which was dedicated to the work of fringe physicist Jim Carter, Wertheim wrote that a credentialed physicist. Can generally recognize a fringe theory by sight when it comes in the form of an eccentrically formatted manuscript, however, it is difficult to distinguish between fringe theories and respected minority theories. A workable definition of what constitutes a fringe theory may not actually be possible and this is an aspect of the demarcation problem that occurs within both science and the humanities. Later authors, including Richard Duschl, expanded these categories, under Duschls system, a fringe theory is a mix of legitimate new ideas and pseudoscience, it awaits analysis to determine whether it will pass into the frontier or be rejected entirely. The majority of fringe theories never become part of established scholarship, rejected ideas may help to refine mainstream thought, but most outside theories are simply incorrect and have no wider impact. Nevertheless, some ideas do gradually receive wider acceptance until they are no longer viewed as fringe theories, occasionally such theories even become the mainstream view
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Mainline (Protestant)
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Some make a distinction between mainline and oldline, with the former referring only to denominational ties and the latter referring to church lineage, prestige and influence. However, this distinction has largely been lost to history and the terms are now nearly synonymous, Mainline Protestants were a majority of all Christians in the United States until the mid-20th century, but now constitute a minority among Protestants. The term mainline has also applied to Canadian Protestant churches that share common origins with their US counterparts. In Mexico, the Anglican Church is historically tied to and formed from the US Episcopal Church, the term is also occasionally used to refer to historic Protestant churches in Europe, Latin America, and South Africa. Mainline churches share a liberal approach to issues that often leads to collaboration in organizations such as the National Council of Churches. Because of their involvement with the movement, mainline churches are sometimes given the alternative label of ecumenical Protestantism. These churches played a role in the Social Gospel movement and were active in social causes such as the civil rights movement. As a group, the churches have maintained religious doctrine that stresses social justice. Politically and theologically, mainline Protestants are more liberal than non-mainline Protestants, members of mainline denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the leading institutes of higher education. Nominee Merrick Garland adheres to Judaism and nominee Neil Gorsuch was raised and educated as a Catholic, from 1854 until at least 1964, Mainline Protestants and their descendants were heavily Republican. In recent decades, Republicans slightly outnumber Democrats, Mainline denominations peaked in membership in the 1950s and have declined steadily in the last half century. From 1965 to 1988, mainline church membership declined from 31 million to 25 million, a Pew Forum statistic revealed the same share in 2014. The term mainline Protestant was coined during debates between modernists and fundamentalists in the 1920s, several sources claim that the term is derived from the Philadelphia Main Line, a group of affluent suburbs of Philadelphia, most residents belonged to mainline denominations. Today, most mainline Protestants remain rooted in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States, in the US, Protestantism is generally divided between mainline denominations and evangelical or conservative denominations. In other parts of the world, the term mainline Protestant is not used, instead, the term ecumenical is used to distinguish similar churches from evangelical denominations. Hence in christological and doctrinal reference mainstream Christianity is often equivalent to Trinitarianism, in the United Kingdom and Australia, the term mainline Protestant is not used, and mainstream does not mean progressive Protestant. The largest US mainline churches are referred to as the Seven Sisters of American Protestantism
9.
Alternative media
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Alternative media are media that differ from established or dominant types of media in terms of their content, production, or distribution. Alternative media take many forms including print, audio, video, alternative media challenge the dominant beliefs and values of a culture and have been described as counter-hegemonic by adherents of Antonio Gramscis theory of cultural hegemony. There are various definitions of alternative media, john Downing, for example, defines radical alternative media as media that express an alternative vision to hegemonic policies, priorities, and perspectives. One way of understanding alternative media is to consider their role in the process of democratic communication, philosopher Jürgen Habermas proposed that a healthy democratic community requires a space where rational debate can take place between engaged citizens. It is essential that the dialogue in this public sphere occurs outside the control of any authority so that citizens can exchange ideas as equals and this translates to the need for free speech and a free press. In Habermass idea of the sphere, participation is open to everyone, all participants are considered equal. However, this fails to note the inherent exclusion of women. The alternative media associated with these spheres are critical in developing the needs and identity of the group. Social movements are a type of collective action and they involve large, sometimes informal, groups or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues and instigate, resist or undo social change. Social movement media is how social movements use media, and oftentimes, due to the nature of social movements, communication is vital to the success of social movements. As a result, social movements often turn to media forms. An example of how the mainstream media problematically covers social movements is the Occupy movement, in comparing the mainstream news coverage of the Occupy movement against coverage from alternative press several trends emerge. First, mainstream media used confusion over the event as the dominant frame while alternative media focused on what the demonstrators were trying to accomplish. Second, the media placed the protesters at fault of any violence while the alternative media focused on the brutality of the police. For more information about social movements, and alternative media, see Social movement theory, Social movements in areas such as human rights, the environmental movement, and civil rights produce alternative media to further their goals, spread awareness, and inspire participation and support. An example of a human rights social movement using alternative media is the group WITNESS and they rely on video recordings using technology such as handheld camcorders and smart phones to capture the worlds attention and viscerally communicate human rights abuses. An example of an environment movement using alternative media is the group Green Peace and it uses direct action, lobbying, and research to achieve its goals, as well as alternative media. They use online tactics such as podcasts and blogs as well as performance art, an example of a civil rights movement group using alternative media was the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee
10.
Podcast
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The word arose as a portmanteau of iPod and broadcast. Thus, the files distributed are typically in audio or video formats, the distributor of a podcast maintains a central list of the files on a server as a web feed that can be accessed through the Internet. This process can be automated so that new files are downloaded automatically, files are stored locally on the users device, ready for offline use. Podcasting contrasts with webcasting or streaming which do not allow for offline listening, many podcast players allow listeners to adjust the playback speed. Podcasts are usually free of charge to listeners and can often be created for little to no cost and it is very much a horizontal media form, producers are consumers, consumers may become producers, and both can engage in conversations with each other. Podcast is a portmanteau, invented by BBC journalist Ben Hammersley in 2004, of the words pod — from iPod, despite the etymology, the content can be accessed using any computer or similar device that can play media files. Use of the term podcast predated Apples addition of support for podcasting to the iPod. Other names for podcasting include net cast, intended as a term without the loose reference to the Apple iPod. The name is used by shows from the TWiT. tv network, some sources have suggested the backronym portable on demand for POD, for similar reasons. Podcasting, once a method of spreading information, has become a recognized medium for distributing audio content. Podcasts are similar to programs, but they are audio files. Listeners can play them at their convenience, using devices that have more common than portable broadcast receivers. The first application to make this process feasible was iPodderX, developed by August Trometer, by 2007, audio podcasts were doing what was historically accomplished via radio broadcasts, which had been the source of radio talk shows and news programs since the 1930s. This shift occurred as a result of the evolution of internet capabilities along with increased access to cheaper hardware and software for audio recording and editing. In August 2004, Adam Curry launched his show Daily Source Code and it was a show focused on chronicling his everyday life, delivering news and discussions about the development of podcasting, as well as promoting new and emerging podcasts. Daily Source Code is believed to be the first podcast produced on a consistent basis, Curry published it in an attempt to gain traction in the development of what would come to be known as podcasting and as a means of testing the software outside of a lab setting. The name Daily Source Code was chosen in the hope that it would attract an audience with an interest in technology, Daily Source Code started at a grassroots level of production and was initially directed at podcast developers. As its audience became interested in the format, these developers were inspired to create and produce their own projects and, as a result, as more people learned how easy it was to produce podcasts, a community of pioneer podcasters quickly appeared
11.
Blog
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A blog is a discussion or informational website published on the World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries. Posts are typically displayed in chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first. Until 2009, blogs were usually the work of an individual, occasionally of a small group. In the 2010s, multi-author blogs have developed, with posts written by large numbers of authors, MABs from newspapers, other media outlets, universities, think tanks, advocacy groups, and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic. The rise of Twitter and other microblogging systems helps integrate MABs, Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog. In the 2010s, the majority are interactive Web 2.0 websites, allowing visitors to leave online comments, in that sense, blogging can be seen as a form of social networking service. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, however, there are high-readership blogs which do not allow comments. Many blogs provide commentary on a subject or topic, ranging from politics to sports. Others function as more personal online diaries, and others function more as online brand advertising of an individual or company. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to blogs, web pages. The ability of readers to leave publicly viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs, however, blog owners or authors often moderate and filter online comments to remove hate speech or other offensive content. Most blogs are primarily textual, although focus on art, photographs, videos, music. In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources and these blogs are referred to as edublogs. Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts, on 16 February 2011, there were over 156 million public blogs in existence. On 20 February 2014, there were around 172 million Tumblr and 75.8 million WordPress blogs in existence worldwide, according to critics and other bloggers, Blogger is the most popular blogging service used today. However, Blogger does not offer public statistics, Technorati lists 1.3 million blogs as of February 22,2014. The term weblog was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997, the short form, blog, was coined by Peter Merholz, who jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme. com in April or May 1999. Shortly thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used blog as both a noun and verb and devised the term blogger in connection with Pyra Labs Blogger product, in the 1990s, Internet forum software, created running conversations with threads
12.
Orthodoxy
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Orthodoxy is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion. In the Christian sense the term means conforming to the Christian faith as represented in the creeds of the early Church, the first seven Ecumenical Councils were held between the years of 325 and 787 with the aim of formalizing accepted doctrines. In classical Christian usage, the term refers to the set of doctrines which were believed by the early Christians. A series of councils, also known as the First seven Ecumenical Councils, were held over a period of several centuries to try to formalize these doctrines. The most significant of these decisions was that between the Homoousian doctrine of Athanasius and Eustathius and the Heteroousian doctrine of Arius and Eusebius. The earliest recorded use of the term orthodox is in the Codex Iustinianus of 529–534, following the 1054 Great Schism, both the Western and Eastern Churches continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic. Over time, the Western Church gradually identified with the Catholic label and this was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively. Today the two largest Orthodox Christian communions are the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy, Orthodox Judaism is split into various different movements and factions. They have different ways of interpreting and following the laws and traditions of Judaism, Orthodox Judaism is distinct from Conservative Judaism. The term Orthodox Islam generally refers to the teachings and religious practices of traditional Sunni Islam. The term Orthodox Hinduism commonly refers to the teachings and practices of Sanātanī. In this sense, the term has a pejorative connotation. Among various orthodoxies in distinctive fields, most common terms are, Political orthodoxy, Social orthodoxy, Economic orthodoxy, Scientific orthodoxy, Orthodoxy is opposed to heterodoxy or heresy. A deviation lighter than heresy is commonly called error, in the sense of not being enough to cause total estrangement. Sometimes error is used to cover both full heresies and minor errors. The concept of orthodoxy is prevalent in many forms of organized monotheism, syncretism, for example, plays a much wider role in non-monotheistic religion. The prevailing governing norm within polytheism is often rather than the right belief of orthodoxy. Henderson, The Construction of Orthodoxy and Heresy, Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and Early Christian Patterns, SUNY Press 1998
13.
Philosophy of science
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Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of theories. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, in addition to these general questions about science as a whole, philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences. Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself, Karl Popper and Charles Sanders Pierce moved on from positivism to establish a modern set of standards for scientific methodology. Subsequently, the coherentist approach to science, in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole, became prominent due to W. V. Quine and others. Some thinkers such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in axiomatic assumptions, another approach to thinking about science involves studying how knowledge is created from a sociological perspective, an approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and Barry Barnes. Finally, a tradition in continental philosophy approaches science from the perspective of an analysis of human experience. Philosophies of the particular sciences range from questions about the nature of time raised by Einsteins general relativity, a central theme is whether one scientific discipline can be reduced to the terms of another. That is, can chemistry be reduced to physics, or can sociology be reduced to individual psychology, the general questions of philosophy of science also arise with greater specificity in some particular sciences. For instance, the question of the validity of scientific reasoning is seen in a different guise in the foundations of statistics, the question of what counts as science and what should be excluded arises as a life-or-death matter in the philosophy of medicine. Distinguishing between science and non-science is referred to as the demarcation problem, for example, should psychoanalysis be considered science. How about so-called creation science, the multiverse hypothesis, or macroeconomics. Karl Popper called this the question in the philosophy of science. However, no unified account of the problem has won acceptance among philosophers, Martin Gardner has argued for the use of a Potter Stewart standard for recognizing pseudoscience. Early attempts by the logical positivists grounded science in observation while non-science was non-observational, Popper argued that the central property of science is falsifiability. That is, every genuinely scientific claim is capable of being proven false, a closely related question is what counts as a good scientific explanation. In addition to providing predictions about events, society often takes scientific theories to provide explanations for events that occur regularly or have already occurred. One early and influential theory of scientific explanation is the deductive-nomological model and it says that a successful scientific explanation must deduce the occurrence of the phenomena in question from a scientific law
14.
System
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A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a complex or intricate whole. Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Alternatively, and usually in the context of social systems. The term system comes from the Latin word systēma, in turn from Greek σύστημα systēma, whole compounded of several parts or members, system, according to Marshall McLuhan, System means something to look at. You must have a high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no system, in the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a system in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the substance in steam engines. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, in 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term working body when referring to the system. The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the systems theory. Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, in the 1980s John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term complex adaptive system at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute. Environment and boundaries Systems theory views the world as a system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary, this means choosing which entities are inside the system, one can make simplified representations of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system, Natural and human-made systems There are natural and human-made systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposefull by an observer, human-made systems are made to satisfy an identified and stated need with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of wanted outputs. Their parts must be related, they must be designed to work as a coherent entity – otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems, Theoretical framework An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Most systems are open systems, like a car, a coffeemaker, a closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment, like Earth or the project Biosphere2 or 3. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment, a theoretical example of such system is the Universe. Inputs are consumed, outputs are produced, the concept of input and output here is very broad
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Scientific method
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The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning, experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses. The most important part of the method is the experiment. The scientific method is a process, which usually begins with observations about the natural world. Human beings are naturally inquisitive, so often come up with questions about things they see or hear. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, in general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. Depending on how well the tests match the predictions, the hypothesis may require refinement. If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a theory may be developed. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features are shared in common between them. The overall process of the method involves making conjectures, deriving predictions from them as logical consequences. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question, the hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments, the purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis. Experiments can take anywhere from a college lab to CERNs Large Hadron Collider. There are difficulties in a statement of method, however. Though the scientific method is presented as a fixed sequence of steps. Not all steps take place in scientific inquiry, and are not always in the same order. Some philosophers and scientists have argued there is no scientific method, such as Lee Smolin. Nola and Sankey remark that For some, the idea of a theory of scientific method is yester-years debate
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Superstition
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The word superstition is generally used to refer to the religion not practiced by the majority of a given society regardless of whether the prevailing religion contains superstitions. In the classical era, the existence of gods was actively debated both among philosophers and theologians, and opposition to superstition arose consequently, the poem De rerum natura, written by the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius further developed the opposition to superstition. Cicero’s work De natura deorum also had a influence on the development of the modern concept of superstition as well as the word itself. Where Cicero distinguished superstitio and religio, Lucretius used only the term religio, Cicero, for whom superstitio meant “excessive fear of the gods” wrote that “superstitio, non religio, tollenda est ”, which means that only superstition, and not religion, should be abolished. The Roman Empire also made laws condemning those who excited excessive religious fear in others, during the Middle Ages, the idea of God’s influence on the world’s events went mostly undisputed. Trials by ordeal were quite frequent, even though Frederick II was the first king who explicitly outlawed trials by ordeal as they were considered “irrational”, the rediscovery of lost classical works and scientific advancement led to a steadily increasing disbelief in religions. This led to studies of biblical exegesis, pioneered by Spinoza, opposition to superstition was central to the Age of Enlightenment. The word superstition is first used in English in the 15th century, the earliest known use as an English noun occurs in Friar Daws Reply, where the foure general synnes are enumerated as Cediciouns, supersticions, þe glotouns, & þe proude. The French word, together with its Romance cognates continues Latin superstitio, while the formation of the Latin word is clear, from the verb super-stare, to stand over, stand upon, survive, its original intended sense is less clear. The earliest known use as a Latin noun occurs in Plautus, Ennius and later by Pliny, Cicero derived the term from superstitiosi, lit. Those who are left over, i. e. survivors, descendants, while Cicero distinguishes between religio and superstitio, Lucretius uses only the term religio. Throughout all of his work, he distinguished between ratio and religio. The use of the noun by Cicero and Horace thus predates the first attestation of the verb and it doesnt exclude that the verb might have been created and used after the name. The term superstitio, or superstitio vana vain superstition, was applied in the 1st century to those religious cults in the Roman Empire which were officially outlawed. This concerned the religion of the druids in particular, which was described as a superstitio vana by Tacitus, such fear of the gods was what the Romans meant by superstition. Diderots Encyclopédie defines superstition as any excess of religion in general, the Catechism is a defense against the accusation that Catholic doctrine is superstitious, Superstition is a deviation of religious feeling and of the practices this feeling imposes. It can even affect the worship we offer the true God, to attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand is to fall into superstition. Cf. Matthew 23, 16–22 As discussed above, there is distinction between superstition and religion
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Pseudoscience
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Pseudoscience consists of claims, beliefs, or practices presented as being plausible scientifically, but which are not justifiable by the scientific method. The term pseudoscience is often considered pejorative because it suggests something is being presented as science inaccurately or even deceptively, accordingly, those termed as practicing or advocating pseudoscience often dispute the characterization. The demarcation between science and pseudoscience has philosophical and scientific implications, differentiating science from pseudoscience has practical implications in the case of health care, expert testimony, environmental policies, and science education. The word pseudoscience is derived from the Greek root pseudo meaning false and the English word science, an earlier recorded use of the term was during 1843 by the French physiologist François Magendie. From time to time, though, the usage of the word occurred in a formal, technical manner around a perceived threat to individual and institutional security in a social and cultural setting. A number of principles are accepted by scientists as standards for determining whether a body of knowledge, method. Experimental results should be reproducible and verified by other researchers, statistical quantification of significance, confidence, and error are also important tools for the scientific method. During the mid-20th century, Karl Popper emphasized the criterion of falsifiability to distinguish science from nonscience, falsifiability means a result can be disproved. For example, a statement such as God exists may be true or false, Popper used astrology and psychoanalysis as examples of pseudoscience and Einsteins theory of relativity as an example of science. The point is made there is no physical test to refute the claim of the presence of this dragon. No matter what test you think you can devise, there is then a reason why this does not apply to the invisible dragon, sagan concludes, Now, whats the difference between an invisible, incorporeal, floating dragon who spits heatless fire and no dragon at all. During 1942, Robert K. Merton identified a set of five norms which he characterized as what makes a real science, If any of the norms were violated, Merton considered the enterprise to be nonscience. These are not broadly accepted by the scientific community and his norms were, Originality, The tests and research done must present something new to the scientific community. Detachment, The scientists reasons for practicing this science must be simply for the expansion of their knowledge, the scientists should not have personal reasons to expect certain results. Universality, No person should be able to easily obtain the information of a test than another person. Social class, religion, ethnicity, or any other factors should not be factors in someones ability to receive or perform a type of science. Skepticism, Scientific facts must not be based on faith, one should always question every case and argument and constantly check for errors or invalid claims. Public accessibility, Any scientific knowledge one obtains should be available to everyone
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Science
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Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations, disciplines which use science, like engineering and medicine, may also be considered to be applied sciences. However, during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws, over the course of the 19th century, the word science became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilizations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other, for example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and they were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature was seen by scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans. A clear-cut distinction between formal and empirical science was made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides, although his work Peri Physeos is a poem, it may be viewed as an epistemological essay on method in natural science. Parmenides ἐὸν may refer to a system or calculus which can describe nature more precisely than natural languages. Physis may be identical to ἐὸν and he criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, however. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy which was teleological and he rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth, each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, while the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science
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Conformity
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Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms. Norms are implicit, specific rules, shared by a group of individuals and this tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or society as a whole, and may result from subtle unconscious influences, or direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the presence of others, or when an individual is alone, for example, people tend to follow social norms when eating or watching television, even when alone. People often conform from a desire for security within a group—typically a group of an age, culture, religion. Unwillingness to conform carries the risk of social rejection, conformity is often associated with adolescence and youth culture, but strongly affects humans of all ages. Although peer pressure may manifest negatively, conformity can have good or bad depending on the situation. Driving on the side of the road could be seen as beneficial conformity. Conformity influences formation and maintenance of norms, and helps societies function smoothly and predictably via the self-elimination of behaviors seen as contrary to unwritten rules. In this sense it can be perceived as a force that prevents acts that are perceptually disruptive or dangerous. As conformity is a phenomenon, factors such as group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, prior commitment. Some adolescents gain acceptance and recognition from their peers by conformity, according to Donelson Forsyth, after submitting to group pressures, individuals may find themselves facing one of several responses to conformity. These types of responses to conformity vary in their degree of public agreement versus private agreement, in turn, conversion, otherwise known as private acceptance, involves both publicly and privately agreeing with the groups decision. Thus, this represents a change of opinion to match the majority. Another type of response, which does not involve conformity with the majority of the group, is called convergence. In this type of response, the group member agrees with the groups decision from the outset. In addition, Forsyth shows that nonconformity can also fall into one of two response categories, firstly, an individual who does not conform to the majority can display independence. Independence, or dissent, can be defined as the unwillingness to bend to group pressures, thus, this individual stays true to his or her personal standards instead of the swaying toward group standards. Secondly, a nonconformist could be displaying anticonformity or counterconformity which involves the taking of opinions that are opposite to what the group believes and this type of nonconformity can be motivated by a need to rebel against the status quo instead of the need to be accurate in ones opinion
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Mores
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Mores include an aversion for societal taboos, such as incest. The mores of a society usually predicate legislation prohibiting their taboos, often, countries will employ specialized vice squads or vice police engaged in suppressing specific crimes offending the societal mores. Folkways, in sociology, are norms for routine or casual interaction and this includes ideas about appropriate greetings and proper dress in different situations. In short, mores distinguish the difference between right and wrong, while folkways draw a line between right and rude, both mores and folkways are terms coined by William Graham Sumner in 1906. The English word morality comes from the same Latin root mōrēs, however, mores do not, as is commonly supposed, necessarily carry connotations of morality. Rather, morality can be seen as a subset of mores, held to be of importance in view of their content. The Greek terms equivalent to Latin mores are ethos or nomos, as with the relation of mores to morality, ethos is the basis of the term ethics, nomos give the suffix -onomy, as in astronomy. Such religious or sacral customs may vary, coping with the differences between two sets of cultural conventions is a question of intercultural competence. Differences in the mores of various nations are at the root of ethnic stereotype, or in the case of reflection upon ones own mores, autostereotypes
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Obedience (human behavior)
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Obedience, in human behavior, is a form of social influence in which a person yields to explicit instructions or orders from an authority figure. Obedience is generally distinguished from compliance, which is influenced by peers, and from conformity. Depending on context, obedience can be seen as immoral, amoral or moral, the experiment showed that obedience to authority was the norm, not the exception. A similar conclusion was reached in the Stanford prison experiment, although other fields have studied obedience, social psychology has been primarily responsible for the advancement of research on obedience. It has been studied experimentally in several different ways, in one classical study, Stanley Milgram created a highly controversial yet often replicated study. The experiment involved deception of the participants, the participants were instructed that they had to shock a person in another room for every wrong answer on a learning task, and the shocks increased with intensity for each wrong answer. If participants questioned the procedure, the researcher would encourage them further, the dependent variable for this experiment was the voltage amount of shocks administered. The other classical study on obedience was conducted at Stanford University during the 1970s, phillip Zimbardo was the main psychologist responsible for the experiment. In the Stanford Prison Experiment, college age students were put into a prison environment in order to study the impacts of social forces on participants behavior. Unlike the Milgram study in each participant underwent the same experimental conditions, here using random assignment half the participants were prison guards. The experimental setting was made to resemble a prison while simultaneously inducing a psychological state of imprisonment. The Milgram study found that participants would obey orders even when it posed severe harm to others and this result was surprising to Milgram because he thought that subjects have learned from childhood that it is a fundamental breach of moral conduct to hurt another person against his will. Zimbardo found similar results as the guards in the study obeyed orders so much that their behavior turned aggressive, prisoners likewise were hostile to and resented their guards, and because of the psychological duress induced in the experiment, it had to be shut down after only 6 days. The previous two studies greatly influenced how modern psychologists think about obedience, Milgrams study in particular generated a large response from the psychology community. In a modern study, Jerry Burger replicated Milgrams method with a few alterations, Burgers method was identical to Milgrams except when the shocks reached 150 volts, participants decided whether or not they wanted to continue and then the experiment ended. To ensure the safety of the participants, Burger added a two-step screening process, in the modeled refusal condition, two confederates were used, where one confederate acted as the learner and the other was the teacher. The teacher stopped after going up to 90 volts, and the participant was asked to continue where the left off. This methodology was considered more ethical because many of the psychological effects seen in previous studies participants occurred after moving past 150 volts
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Peer group
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A peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar interests, age, background, or social status. The members of group are likely to influence the person’s beliefs. Peer groups contain hierarchies and distinct patterns of behavior, eighteen-year-olds are not in a peer group with 14 year olds even though they may be in school together, just as teachers do not share students as a peer group. During adolescence, peer groups tend to face dramatic changes, Adolescents tend to spend more time with their peers and have less adult supervision. Adolescents’ communication shifts during this time as well and they prefer to talk about school and their careers with their parents, and they enjoy talking about sex and other interpersonal relationships with their peers. Children look to join peer groups who accept them, even if the group is involved in negative activities, children are less likely to accept those who are different from them. Cliques are small groups typically defined by common interests or by friendship, cliques typically have 2-12 members and tend to be formed by age, gender, race, and social class. Clique members are usually the same in terms of academics and risk behaviors, cliques can serve as an agent of socialization and social control. Being part of a clique can be advantageous since it may provide a sense of autonomy, a social environment. Crowds are larger, more vaguely defined groups that may not have a friendship base, crowds serve as peer groups, and they increase in importance during early adolescence, and decrease by late adolescents. The level of involvement in adult institutions and peer culture describes crowds, at an early age, the peer group becomes an important part of socialization as supported by a 2002 study titled Adolescents Peer Groups and Social Identity published in the journal Social Development. Unlike other agents of socialization, such as family and school, modern research echoes these sentiments, showing that social and emotional gains are indeed provided by peer interaction. Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory focuses on the importance of a childs culture and he also focuses on language development and identifies the zone of proximal development. The Zone of Proximal development is defined as the gap between what a student can do alone and what the student can achieve through teacher assistance, the values and attitudes of the peer group are essential elements in learning. Those who surround themselves with academically focused peers will be likely to internalize this type of behavior. Piagets theory of cognitive development identifies four stages of cognitive development and he believes that children actively construct their understanding of the world based on their own experiences. In addition Piaget identified with aspects of development, occurring from middle childhood onwards and he suggested that children’s speech to peers is less egocentric than their speech to adults. Egocentric speech is referring to the speech that is not adapted to what the listener just said, eriksons stages of psychosocial development include eight stages ranging from birth to old age
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Hipster (contemporary subculture)
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The hipster subculture is stereotypically composed of affluent or upper middle class youth who reside primarily in gentrifying neighborhoods. The subculture typically consists of white millennials living in urban areas and it has been described as a mutating, trans-Atlantic melting pot of styles, tastes and behavior. Some scholars contend that the hipster is a marketplace myth that has a complex, two-way relationship with the worldview. The term was coined during the age, when hip emerged as an adjective to describe aficionados of the growing scene. Another argument suggests the term derives from the practice of lying on ones hip while smoking opium, the ultimate meaning of hip, attested as early as 1902, is aware or in the know. Conversely, the antonym unhip connotes those who are unaware of their surroundings, nevertheless, hip eventually acquired the common English suffix -ster, and hipster entered the language. The first dictionary to list the word is the short glossary For Characters Who Dont Dig Jive Talk, the entry for hipsters defined them as characters who like hot jazz. It was not a complete glossary of jive, however, as it included only jive expressions that were found in the lyrics to his songs. The term used in African-American culture was originally spelled hep, as in Cab Calloways famous song The Jumpin Jive recorded on July 17,1939, hep is also used in Mezz Mezzrow essential account of underground jazz culture Really the Blues. Initially, hipsters were usually middle-class white youths seeking to emulate the lifestyle of the black jazz musicians they followed. In The Jazz Scene, author Eric Hobsbawm described hipster language—i. e, jive-talk or hipster-talk—as an argot or cant designed to set the group apart from outsiders. The subculture rapidly expanded, and after World War II, a literary scene grew up around it. Jack Kerouac described 1940s hipsters as rising and roaming America, bumming and hitchhiking everywhere characters of a special spirituality, toward the beginning of his poem Howl, Allen Ginsberg mentioned angelheaded hipsters burning for the ancient heavenly connection to the starry dynamo in the machinery of night. Hipsters are the friends who sneer when you cop to liking Coldplay, theyre the people who wear t-shirts silk-screened with quotes from movies youve never heard of and the only ones in America who still think Pabst Blue Ribbon is a good beer. They sport cowboy hats and berets and think Kanye West stole their sunglasses, everything about them is exactingly constructed to give off the vibe that they just dont care. In early 2000, both The New York Times and Time Out New York ran profiles of Williamsburg, Brooklyn without using the term hipster, the Times referred to bohemians and TONY to arty East Village types. By 2003, when The Hipster Handbook was published by Williamsburg resident Robert Lanham, the Hipster Handbook described hipsters as young people with mop-top haircuts, swinging retro pocketbooks, talking on cell phones, smoking European cigarettes. Strutting in platform shoes with a biography of Che Guevara sticking out of their bags, one author dates the initial phase of the revival of the term from 1999 to 2003
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Individualism
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Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism, authoritarianism, communitarianism, Individualism makes the individual its focus and so starts with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation. Classical liberalism, existentialism, and anarchism are examples of movements that take the individual as a central unit of analysis. Individualism thus involves the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization and it has also been used as a term denoting The quality of being an individual, individuality related to possessing An individual characteristic, a quirk. A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith, who was a millenarian and a Christian Israelite. Although an early Owenite socialist, he rejected its collective idea of property. Without individualism, Smith argued, individuals cannot amass property to increase ones happiness, an individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. From the 17th century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism, individuality is the state or quality of being an individual, a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires. The individualist does not follow one particular philosophy, rather creates an amalgamation of elements of many, on a societal level, the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground. Independent thinking and opinion is a trait of an individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claims that his concept of general will in the contract is not the simple collection of individual wills. Societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly self-regarding behaviors, the principle of individuation, or principium individuationis, describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things. For Carl Jung, individuation is a process of transformation, whereby the personal and it is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place. Jung considered individuation to be the process of human development. Thus, the atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation. Individuation is an incomplete process, always leaving a pre-individual left-over. The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies the work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche, for Stiegler the I, as a psychic individual, can only be thought in relationship to we, which is a collective individual. The I is constituted in adopting a collective tradition, which it inherits, methodological individualism is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents
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The Power Elite
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The Power Elite is a 1956 book by sociologist C. The book is something of a counterpart of Mills 1951 work, White Collar, The American Middle Classes, population but, the underlying populations of the world. Nonetheless, he sees them as a quasi-hereditary caste, but, Mills notes, Harvard or Yale or Princeton is not enough. The point is not Harvard, but which Harvard, Mills identifies two classes of Ivy League alumni, those initiated into an upper echelon fraternity or final club, such as Porcellian and Fly Club, and those who are not. In this manner, the mantle of the elite generally passes through families. S, schlesinger, Jr. derisively said, I look forward to the time when Mr. Mills hands back his prophets robes and settles down to being a sociologist again. Adolf Berle noted the book contained an uncomfortable degree of truth, dennis Wrong described The Power Elite as an uneven blend of journalism, sociology, and moral indignation. A review of the book in the Louisiana Law Review bemoaned that the danger of Mr. Nonetheless. In 2006, G. William Domhoff wrote, Mills looks even better than he did 50 years ago, Mills biographer, John Summers, admitted that The Power Elite was vulnerable to the charge of conspiracy-mongering but declared that its historical value seems assured. Art inspired by The Power Elite
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Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
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Roman Catholicism
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
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Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
