1.
International Space Station
–
The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
International Space Station
–
International Space Station
International Space Station
–
Sunrise at Zvezda
International Space Station
–
Fisheye view of several labs
International Space Station
–
CubeSats are deployed by the
NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer attached to the end of the Japanese robotic arm
2.
Malay language
–
Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language
Malay language
–
Malay Traffic-signs
Malay language
–
Koc Wanita street sign in Malay.
3.
Thai language
–
Thai, also known as Siamese or Central Thai, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people and the vast majority of Thai Chinese. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family, over half of the words in Thai are borrowed from Pali, Sanskrit and Old Khmer. It is a tonal and analytic language, Thai also has a complex orthography and relational markers. Spoken Thai is mutually intelligible with Laotian, Thai is the official language of Thailand, natively spoken by over 20 million people. Standard Thai is based on the register of the classes of Bangkok. In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages, Isan, the language of the Isan region of Thailand, a collective term for the various Lao dialects spoken in Thailand that show some Siamese Thai influences, which is written with the Thai script. It is spoken by about 20 million people, Thais from both inside and outside the Isan region often simply call this variant Lao when speaking informally. Northern Thai, spoken by about 6 million in the independent kingdom of Lanna. Shares strong similarities with Lao to the point that in the past the Siamese Thais referred to it as Lao. Southern Thai, spoken by about 4.5 million Phu Thai, spoken by half a million around Nakhon Phanom Province. Phuan, spoken by 200,000 in central Thailand and Isan, Shan, spoken by about 100,000 in north-west Thailand along the border with the Shan States of Burma, and by 3.2 million in Burma. Lü, spoken by about 1,000,000 in northern Thailand, and 600,000 more in Sipsong Panna, Burma, nyaw language, spoken by 50,000 in Nakhon Phanom Province, Sakhon Nakhon Province, Udon Thani Province of Northeast Thailand. Song, spoken by about 30,000 in central and northern Thailand, Elegant or Formal Thai, official and written version, includes respectful terms of address, used in simplified form in newspapers. Rhetorical Thai, used for public speaking, religious Thai, used when discussing Buddhism or addressing monks. Royal Thai, influenced by Khmer, this is used when addressing members of the family or describing their activities. Most Thais can speak and understand all of these contexts, street and Elegant Thai are the basis of all conversations. Rhetorical, religious, and royal Thai are taught in schools as the national curriculum, many scholars believe that the Thai script is derived from the Khmer script, which is modeled after the Brahmic script from the Indic family. However, in appearance, Thai is closer to Thai Dam script, the language and its script are closely related to the Lao language and script
Thai language
–
Thai
4.
Peninsula
–
A peninsula is a piece of land surrounded by water on the majority of its border, while being connected to a mainland from which it extends out. Examples include the upper and lower peninsulas of the state of Michigan, the surrounding water is usually understood to be continuous, though not necessarily named as a single body of water. Peninsulas are not always named as such, one can also be a headland, cape, island promontory, bill, point, a point is generally considered a tapering piece of land projecting into a body of water that is less prominent than a cape. A river which courses through a very tight meander is also said to form a peninsula within the loop of water. In English, the plural of peninsula is peninsulas or, less commonly, peninsulas can be found on coastlines and in smaller bodies of water throughout the world, ranging in scale from square meters to millions of square kilometers. Theres the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe, and in Southern Europe theres the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian Peninsula, south America has the Brunswick Peninsula, and Antarctica has the Antarctic Peninsula. In Africa, theres the Horn of Africa, and in Australia, asia has the 3 largest peninsulas in the world, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Peninsula, and the Indochinese Peninsula
Peninsula
–
The world's largest peninsula, the
Arabian Peninsula
Peninsula
–
Baja California Peninsula,
Mexico
Peninsula
–
A beach on the Mornington Peninsula
Peninsula
–
NASA satellite photo of
Otago Peninsula and
Otago Harbour. The city of
Dunedin is located at the
isthmus at lower left.
5.
Southeast Asia
–
Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with seismic and volcanic activity. Southeast Asia consists of two regions, Mainland Southeast Asia, also known historically as Indochina, comprising Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar. Maritime Southeast Asia, comprising Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos Islands, definitions of Southeast Asia vary, but most definitions include the area represented by the countries listed below. All of the states are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the area, together with part of South Asia, was widely known as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia includes, Maritime Southeast Asia includes, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and the Seven Sister States of India are culturally part of Southeast Asia, the eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years and their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellans voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships, Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar by the Austronesian people, as well as commerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome and this was later replaced by Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followed in 525, in the 15th century, Islamic influences began to enter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia to retreat to Bali, in Mainland Southeast Asia, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, brought to them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture, very little is known about Southeast Asian religious beliefs and practices before the advent of Indian merchants and religious influences from the 2nd century BCE onwards. Prior to the 13th century CE, Hinduism and Buddhism were the religions in Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
–
A golden vestment similar to those worn by the Hindu
Brahmin Caste, found in Butuan (
Philippines) Archeological Digs. This artefact shows the influence of Indian culture in Southeast Asia, also through trade.
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
–
Angkor Wat in
Siem Reap,
Cambodia
Southeast Asia
–
Kampung Laut Mosque in
Tumpat is one of the oldest mosques in Malaysia, dating to the early 18th century.
6.
Myanmar
–
Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in South East Asia bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand. About one third of Myanmars total perimeter of 5,876 km, forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km along the Bay of Bengal, the countrys 2014 census revealed a much lower population than expected, with 51 million people recorded. Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometres in size and its capital city is Naypyidaw and its largest city and former capital city is Yangon. Early civilizations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma, the Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur. The British invaded Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the became a British colony. Myanmar became an independent nation in 1948, initially as a nation and then, following a coup détat in 1962. For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife, during this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election. While former military leaders still wield enormous power in the country, there is, however, continuing criticism of the governments treatment of the Muslim Rohingya minority and its poor response to the religious clashes. In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyis party won a majority in both houses, Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP stood at US$56.7 billion, the income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government. As of 2016, according to the Human Development Index, Myanmar had a level of human development. The renaming remains a contested issue, many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country. The countrys official name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form Union of Burma instead, in English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/. Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group, Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from Bamar, the colloquial form of the groups name
Myanmar
–
Pagodas and
kyaungs in present-day
Bagan, the capital of the
Pagan Kingdom.
Myanmar
–
Flag
Myanmar
–
Temples at
Mrauk U.
Myanmar
–
A British 1825 lithograph of
Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during the
First Anglo-Burmese War.
7.
Southern Thailand
–
Southern Thailand is a distinct region of Thailand, connected with the central region by the narrow Kra Isthmus. Southern Thailand is on the Malay Peninsula, with an area of around 70,713 km2, bounded to the north by Kra Isthmus, the western part has steeper coasts, while on the east side river plains dominate. The largest river of the south is the Tapi in Surat Thani, smaller rivers include the Pattani, Saiburi, Krabi, and the Trang. The biggest lake of the south is Songkhla Lake, the largest artificial lake is the Chiao Lan, occupying 165 km2 of Khao Sok National Park in Surat Thani. Running through the middle of the peninsula are several chains, with the highest elevation at Khao Luang,1,835 m. Ranging from the Kra Isthmus to Phuket island is the Phuket chain, the border with Malaysia is formed by the Sankalakhiri range, sometimes subdivided into the Pattani, Taluban, and Songkhla chain. At the Malaysian border the Titiwangsa chain rises up, the limestone of the west coast has been eroded into many steep singular hills. Those parts submerged by the sea after the last ice age now form many islands. Also quite famous is the so-called James Bond Island in Phang Nga Bay, there are still a huge number of migrant or informal workers, temporary workers, and even stateless people, and a large contingent expatriate population which is not included. The Malay peninsula has been settled since prehistoric times, archeological remains were found in several caves, some used for dwellings, others as burial sites. The oldest remains were found in Lang Rongrien Cave, dating 38,000 to 27,000 years before present, in the first millennium Chinese chronicles mention several coastal cities or city-states. No exact geographical locations were recorded, so the identification of these cities with later settlements is difficult, the cities were highly influenced by Indian culture, and have adopted Brahman or Buddhist religion. When Srivijaya in Chaiya extended its sphere of influence, those cities became tributary states of Srivijaya, the city Chaiya in Surat Thani Province contains several ruins from Srivijaya times, and was probably a regional capital of the kingdom. Some Thai historians even claim that it was the capital of the kingdom itself for some time, after Srivijaya lost its influence, Nakhon Si Thammarat became the dominant kingdom of the area. During the rule of King Ramkhamhaeng the Great of Sukhothai, Thai influence first reached Nakhon Si Thammarat, according to the Ramkhamhaeng inscription, Nakhon Si THammarat was a tributary state of Sukhothai. During most of later periods, Nakhon became a tributary of Ayutthaya, the deep south belonged to the Malay sultanates of Pattani and Kedah, while the northernmost part of the peninsula was under the control of Bangkok. During the thesaphiban reforms at the end of the 19th century, the area was subdivided into 5 monthon, which were installed to control the city states. Minor mueang were merged into larger ones, thus forming the present 14 provinces, with the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 the boundary to Malaysia was fixed
Southern Thailand
–
Huts, Khao Sok National Park, Surat Thani
Southern Thailand
–
Ko Lao Liang Phi with the steep limestone hills present at most of the western coast
Southern Thailand
–
Wat Phra Baromathat, Nakhon Si Thammarat, an old and important temple
Southern Thailand
–
Pagoda in
Srivijaya -style, Chaiya, Surat Thani
8.
Titiwangsa Mountains
–
The Titiwangsa Mountains, also known as Banjaran Besar by locals, are the mountain range that forms the backbone of the Malay peninsula. The northern section of the range is in southern Thailand, where it is known as Sankalakhiri Range, the range acts as a natural divider, dividing peninsular Malaysia, as well as southernmost Thailand, into east and west coast regions. The length of mountain range is about 480 km from north to south, the Titiwangsa Mountains are part of a suture zone that runs north-south, starting in Thailand and extending south towards peninsular Malaysia. These two halves of terranes were separated by the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, the Cimmeria was separated from Gondwana around 400 mya during Devonian and rifted towards Laurasia, the northeastern arm of Pangea. The collision of Sibumasu terranes and Indochina terranes during 200mya Late Triassic resulted in the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and this mountain range is a part of the wider Tenasserim Hills system. It forms the southernmost section of the Indo-Malayan cordillera which runs from Tibet through the Kra Isthmus into the Malay peninsula. The Titiwangsa mountain range begins in the north as the Sankalakhiri Range, a prolongation of the Nakhon Si Thammarat Range which includes the smaller Pattani, Taluban, and Songkhla sub-ranges. The main range runs approximately from northwest to southeast across the border into Malaysia and ends in the south near Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan, foothills extend further southeastwards into Johor. The highest elevation is 2,183 m Gunung Korbu, on the Thai side the highest point is 1,533 m Ulu Titi Basah, at the Thai/Malaysian border between Yala Province and Perak. In the southern foothills, the highest is 1,276 m Mount Ophir, several popular tourist destinations such as Royal Belum, Cameron Highlands, Genting Highlands and Frasers Hill are located on the range. A number of roads cut through the Titiwangsa Forest Complex
Titiwangsa Mountains
–
Panorama of the Titiwangsa Mountains at the Ulu Bernam's PLUS Rest Area
9.
Tenasserim Hills
–
Tenasserim Hills or Tenasserim Range is the geographical name of a roughly 1,700 km long mountain chain, part of the Indo-Malayan mountain system in Southeast Asia. Despite their relatively scant altitude these mountains form a barrier between Thailand and Burma in their northern and central region. There are only two main roads and cross-border points between Chumphon and Tak, at the Three Pagodas Pass and at Mae Sot. The latter is located beyond the end of the range. Minor cross-border points are Sing Khon, near Prachuap Khiri Khan, as well as Bong Ti, the latter is expected to gain in importance if the planned Dawei deepwater port project goes ahead, along with a highway and a railway line between Bangkok and that harbor. The southern section of this chain of mountains runs along the Kra Isthmus into the Malay peninsula almost reaching Singapore. Many rivers have their source in these mountains, but none of them are very long. This mountain chain is named after the Tenasserim Region in Burma and its name in Thai is Thio Khao Tanaosi, also spelt as Tanawsri, Tanao Sri, the Tenasserim Hills are part of a long granite mountain ridge that is older than the Himalayas. Eastwards, in Kanchanaburi Province on the Thai side, the range is crossed by the Khwae Yai River. In this area small hill ridges alternate with narrow valleys that are only about 2 km wide and further east there are only isolated hills. Further south the Phachi, the Pranburi and the Phetchaburi River flow eastwards from the range towards the Gulf of Siam, the westernmost range is separated from the Tenasserim coast by the Three Pagodas Fault. West of it lie the Dawna Range, the Karen Hills and the valleys of the Salween, southwards on the western side, the Ye, Heinze, Dawei, Great Tenasserim and the Lenya rivers are relatively short and flow into the Andaman Sea. Further south the Kraburi River forms the border between Thailand and Burma. Northern, The northern end of the overlaps with the Dawna Range and is not clearly defined. Some geographic works set the Three Pagodas Pass as the northern limit, the Tenghyo Range is a small northern prolongation following the Andaman Sea coast. Other noteworthy peaks are Ngayannik Yuak Taung 1,531 m, Central, The southernmost extension of the Bilauktaung reaches the northern end of the Kra Isthmus. Further south the 1,835 m high Khao Luang, located in Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, is the tallest mountain in Southern Thailand, in this area the wider range is divided into separate ridges with gaps between them. Some recent geographical works refer to the sections of the Tenasserim Hills in the isthmus as the Phuket Range and these names are not found, however, in classical geographic sources
Tenasserim Hills
–
View from the
Death Railway over the
Kwai River,
Kanchanaburi Province
Tenasserim Hills
Tenasserim Hills
–
The Khao Sok mountains,
Surat Thani, Thailand, towards the southern end of the Tenasserim Range
Tenasserim Hills
–
Unnamed Lesser Peak of
Mount Tahan in the highest area of the range,
Pahang State, Malaysia
10.
Tibet
–
Tibet is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia, spanning about 2.4 million km2 and nearly a quarter of Chinas territory. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an elevation of 4,900 metres. The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, Earths highest mountain, the Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century, following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area. The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government, later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. There are tensions regarding Tibets political status and dissident groups that are active in exile and it is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured. The economy of Tibet is dominated by agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism, in there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism is an influence on the art, music. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences, staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means Tibet or Tibetan Plateau, although it meant the central region around Lhasa. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor through the addition of a prefix meaning west to Zang, the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo. This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century, in the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon. Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo, Wusizang, Tubote, the English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century. Historical linguists generally agree that Tibet names in European languages are loanwords from Semitic Ṭībat orTūbātt, itself deriving from Turkic Töbäd, literally, according to Matthew Kapstein, From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan
Tibet
–
"Greater Tibet" as claimed by Tibetan exile groups
Tibet
–
Tibetan family in
Kham attending a horse festival
Tibet
–
King
Songtsän Gampo
Tibet
–
Tibet in 1734. Royaume de Thibet ("Kingdom of Tibet") in la Chine, la Tartarie Chinoise, et le Thibet ("China, Chinese
Tartary, and Tibet") on a 1734 map by
Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, based on earlier Jesuit maps.
11.
Kra Isthmus
–
The Kra Isthmus is the narrowest part of the Malay Peninsula, in southern Thailand and Myanmar. The east part of the landbridge belongs to Thailand, while the west part belongs to the Tanintharyi division of Myanmar, to the west of the isthmus is the Andaman Sea, and to the east is the Gulf of Thailand. The narrowest part, between the estuary of the Kra River and the Bay of Sawi near the city Chumphon has a width of 44 km, and has a maximum elevation of 75 m above sea level. The Kra Isthmus marks the boundary between two sections of the cordillera, the mountain chain which runs from Tibet through the Malay peninsula. The southern part is called the Phuket chain, which is a continuation of the greater Tenasserim range, the Titiwangsa Mountains are to the south,45 km from Songkhla. The Thai canal is a proposal to join the Gulf of Thailand with the Andaman Sea and it was originally envisioned as crossing the isthmus. Today other locations to the south are being considered
Kra Isthmus
–
Kra Isthmus landscape
12.
Strait of Malacca
–
The Strait of Malacca or Straits of Malacca is a narrow,550 mi stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is named after the Malacca sultanate that ruled over the archipelago between 1400 and 1511, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Strait of Malacca as follows, On the West. A line joining Pedropunt, the Northernmost point of Sumatra and Lem Voalan the Southern extremity of Goh Puket in Siam, a line joining Tanjong Piai, the Southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula and The Brothers and thence to Klein Karimoen. The Southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula, the Northeastern coast of Sumatra as far to the eastward as Tanjong Kedabu thence to Klein Karimoen. From an economic and strategic perspective, the Strait of Malacca is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. The strait is the shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, linking major Asian economies such as India, China, Japan, Taiwan. Over 94,000 vessels pass through the strait each year, carrying about one-fourth of the traded goods, including oil, Chinese manufactured products. About a quarter of all oil carried by sea passes through the Strait, in 2007, an estimated 13.7 million barrels per day were transported through the strait, increasing to an estimated 15.2 million barrels per day in 2011. In addition, it is one of the worlds most congested shipping choke points because it narrows to only 2.8 km wide at the Phillips Channel. The maximum size of a vessel that can pass through the Strait is referred to as Malaccamax, for some of the worlds largest ships, the Straits minimum depth isnt deep enough. In addition, the next closest passageway is even more shallow and narrow than Malacca, therefore, these large ships must detour several thousand miles/kilometers and use the Lombok Strait, Makassar Strait, Sibutu Passage, or Mindoro Strait instead. Piracy has been a problem in the strait, piracy had been high in the 2000s, with additional increase after the events of September 11,2001. After attacks rose again in the first half of 2004, regional navies stepped up their patrols of the area in July 2004, subsequently, attacks on ships in the Strait of Malacca dropped, to 79 in 2005 and 50 in 2006. Recent reports indicate that attacks have dropped to levels in recent years. There are 34 shipwrecks, some dating to the 1880s, in the Traffic Separation Scheme and these pose a collision hazard in the narrow and shallow strait. Another risk is the annual haze due to raging bush fires in Sumatra and it may reduce visibility to 200 metres, forcing ships to slow down in the busy strait. The strait is used by Ships longer than 350 metres. Thailand has developed plans to diminish the economic significance of the strait
Strait of Malacca
–
The Strait of Malacca connects the Pacific Ocean to the east with the Indian Ocean to the west.
Strait of Malacca
–
Yearly
haze from the smoke of raging bush fires, limiting visibility.
Strait of Malacca
–
The Strait of Malacca as viewed from the city of
Melaka,
Malaysia.
Indonesia is visible in the distance.
13.
Sumatra
–
Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
Sumatra
–
Batak warriors, 1870
Sumatra
–
Topography of Sumatra
Sumatra
–
Traditional house in Nias North Sumatra
Sumatra
–
Rumah Gadang, Minangkabau traditional house in West Sumata
14.
Singapore
–
Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
Singapore
–
Raffles Square around 1900.
Singapore
–
Flag
Singapore
–
Victorious Japanese troops marching through Singapore City after the British capitulation at the
Battle of Singapore in 1942.
Singapore
–
A cheering crowd welcome the return of British forces, 1945
15.
Straits of Johor
–
The Johore Strait, is an international strait in Southeast Asia, between Singapore and mainland Malaysia. The strait separates the Malaysian state of Johor on the mainland Malay Peninsula to the north, from Singapore and it connects to the Strait of Malacca on the west, and the Singapore Strait on the southeast. The mouth and delta of the Johur River is on its northeast side in Malaysia, there are currently two bridges crossing the strait. The Johor-Singapore Causeway, known simply as The Causeway, links Johor Bahru, the Malaysia-Singapore Second Link bridge is further west over the strait, links Gelang Patah in Malaysia and Tuas in Singapore. In 2003, Malaysia wanted to build a bridge across the strait to replace the existing causeway, but negotiations with Singapore were not successful. The main reasons cited for the change were, a bridge would allow flow of water across both sides of the strait which were artificially cut in two with the building of the causeway before. A bridge would help ease congestion in Johor Bahru, in August 2003, Malaysia announced that it was going ahead with a plan to build a gently sloping, curved bridge that would join up with Singapores half of the existing causeway. The plans included a bridge for the railway line. However, plans to build the bridge have been called off as of 2006, major tributaries which empty into the Strait of Johore include, In the Malay language, Sungai is the word for river. Pollution along the Johore Strait is notable, the area is also a source of environmental contention between Malaysia and Singapore, due to land reclamation projects on both sides of the Causeway. There have been suggestions that the land reclamation projects may impact the maritime boundary, shipping lanes. Environmental Impact Assessments are requested before any reclamation is carried out such as the Forest City project, reclamation projects may also endanger the habitat and food source of dugongs, which are native to the strait. The Johore Strait is the location of two Victoria Cross deeds, the award was for Lieutenant Ian Edward Fraser and Acting Leading Seaman James Joseph Magennis for the sinking of the 9, 850-tonne Japanese cruiser Takao on 31 July 1945. Former Wakefield professional heavyweight boxer Paul Sykes claims to be the person to have swum across the straits to avoid arrest. A well known tourist attraction of the Strait of Johores is Lido Beach, here, visitors can walk or cycle along the 2 km stretch of the beach. There are numerous restaurants and food stalls
Straits of Johor
–
The Johor-Singapore Causeway spanning the Strait, as viewed from the Woodlands Checkpoint in Singapore.
Straits of Johor
Straits of Johor
–
The Eastern entrance of the Johore Strait, as viewed from a plane landing at
Changi Airport, with
Singapore Island on the left and
Pulau Ubin in the background
16.
Malays (ethnic group)
–
These locations today are part of the modern nations of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, and southern Thailand. In literature, architecture, culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts, throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics. The epic literature, the Malay Annals, associates the etymological origin of Melayu to Sungai Melayu in Sumatra, the English term Malay was adopted via the Dutch word Malayo, itself derived from Portuguese, Malaio, which originates from the original Malay word, Melayu. Prior to the 15th century, the term Melayu and its variants appear to apply as an old toponym to the Strait of Malacca region in general. Malaya Dwipa, Malaya Dvipa, is described in chapter 48, Vayu Purana as one of the provinces in the sea that was full of gold. Some scholars equate the term with Sumatra, but several Indian scholars believe the term should refer to the mountainous Malay peninsula, maleu-kolon - appeared in Ptolemys work, Geographia. Mo-lo-yu - mentioned by Yijing, a Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695, according to Yijing, the Mo-Lo-Yu kingdom was located in a distance of 15 day sail from Bogha, the capital of Sribhoga. It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha from Mo-lo-yu, therefore, a popular theory relates Mo-Lo-Yu with the Jambi in Sumatra, however the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jings description of a half way sail between Ka-Cha and Bogha. Among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the source of monk Xuanzang). Malayur - inscribed on the wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Nadu. It was described as a kingdom that had a mountain for its rampart in Malay peninsula. Bhūmi Mālayu -, a transcription from Padang Roco Inscription dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana, the term is associated with Dharmasraya kingdom. Ma-li-yu-er - mentioned in the chronicle of Yuan Dynasty, referring to a nation of Malay peninsula that faced the southward expansion of Sukhothai Kingdom, the chronicle stated. Animosity occurred between Siam and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other. In response to the Sukhothais action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. Malauir - mentioned in Marco Polos account as a kingdom located in the Malay peninsula, malayapura -, inscribed on the Amoghapasa inscription dated 1347 CE. The term was used by Adityawarman to refer to Dharmasraya. The word Malay refer to Mountain, other evidence that supports this theory include, stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools, the similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs. The New Guinea theory - The proto-Malays are believed to be knowledgeable in oceanography. Over the years they settled at places and adopted various cultures
Malays (ethnic group)
–
Joget dance from the
Malacca Sultanate; many aspects of Malay culture are derived from the Malaccan court.
Malays (ethnic group)
–
Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in
Jambi, historically linked to pre-Islamic
Melayu Kingdom.
Malays (ethnic group)
–
Candi Bukit Batu Pahat of
Bujang Valley. A
Hindu -
Buddhist kingdom ruled ancient
Kedah possibly as early as 110 AD, the earliest evidence of strong
Indian influence which was once prevalent among the pre-Islamic Kedahan Malays.
Malays (ethnic group)
–
The
Malay Rulers and nobilities with
British colonial officers during the first
Durbar, 1897.
17.
Hikayat Hang Tuah
–
The most memorable chapter in the work concerns a duel between Hang Tuah and his closest friend, Hang Jebat. Hang Tuah was falsely accused of adultery with one of his kings maids by his jealous rivals, upon hearing the accusation, the king ordered Hang Tuah killed, without a further investigation of his alleged offense. Hang Tuah was secretly saved, however, by his executioner, Hang Jebat was aware that Hang Tuah was being unjustly punished and in a show of support and deep loyalty for his friend, revolted against the sultan. The sultans forces were unable to suppress Hang Jebat, the sultan later came to realize that Hang Tuah was innocent, and immediately regretted sentencing Hang Tuah to death. The Bendahara then told the sultan that Hang Tuah was still alive, Hang Tuah was immediately recalled and given amnesty. After seven days of fighting, Hang Tuah managed to kill Hang Jebat, however, according to the Malay Annals, it was Hang Kasturi that fought with Hang Tuah instead of Hang Jebat. Malay culture holds the Hang Tuah legends in extremely high regard, in fact, one of the hottest debates in Malay literature centers on the duel between Hang Tuah and Hang Jebat. Hang Tuah is a symbol of loyalty to a ruler while Hang Jebat symbolizes freedom. Hence, there is the question of who is right, though it is generally perceived that there were five friends, there is doubt that Hang Lekir and Hang Lekiu are indeed two different persons. In the Jawi script, the letter ﺭ and the letter ﻭ look similar, due to the similarity, the differentiation of Lekir and Lekiu might be due to mistranslation. Many historians and literature experts disagree however, and point out that the five friends are a Malay version of the five warriors of Lord Krishna from the Mahabharata. Apart from that, Hikayat Hang Tuah is highly critical of the Javanese, in the literary work, many of the crooks and the villains were from Majapahit or Java. The king of Majapahit is depicted as a person and Majapahits grand vizier, Gajah Mada, as sly, cunning. The text is believed dated since 1700, the manuscript was dated in 1849, the Hikayat Hang Tuah was first published in 1908, edited by Sulaiman bin Muhammed Nur and William Shellabear. Hikayat Hang Tuah was listed in UNESCOs Memory of the World Programme International Register in 2001
Hikayat Hang Tuah
–
A copy of the Hang Tuah Saga in display.
18.
Malacca Sultanate
–
The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate centred in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c.1400 as the year of the sultanate by a renegade Malay Raja of Singapura, Parameswara who was also known as Iskandar Shah. As a bustling trading port, Malacca emerged as a centre for Islamic learning and dissemination. The legacy of the political and cultural legacy remains to this day. For centuries, Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay-Muslim civilisation, the series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once glorious empire of Srivijaya. By the end of the 13th century, the already fragmented Srivijaya caught the attention of the expansionist Javanese King, in 1275, he decreed the Pamalayu expedition to overrun Sumatra. By 1288, Singhasari naval expeditionary forces successfully sacked Jambi and Palembang, the complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, the Orang Laut, famous for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called Singapura. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the Pax Mongolica era and its wealth and success however, alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. As a result, the fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398. The fifth and last king, Parameswara fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam river. Legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this boded well, remarking, this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable, tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the deer is part of modern Malaccas coat of arms. The name Malacca itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica, following establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara initiated the development of the place and laid the foundation of a trade port. The indigenous inhabitants of the straits, the Orang Laut, were employed to patrol the adjacent sea areas, to repel other petty pirates, within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread all over the eastern part of the world. In 1405, Yongle Emperor of Ming Dynasty sent his envoy headed by Yin Qing to Malacca in 1403, Yin Qings visit opened the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China. Two years later, the legendary Admiral Zheng He made his first of six visits to Malacca, Chinese merchants began calling at the port and pioneering foreign trading bases in Malacca
Malacca Sultanate
–
Map of 15th century Malacca and its contemporaries.
Malacca Sultanate
–
The extent of the Sultanate in the 15th century
Malacca Sultanate
–
The
replica of Malacca Sultanate's palace which was built from information and data obtained from the
Malay Annals. This historical document had references to the construction and the architecture of palaces during the era of
Sultan Mansur Shah, who ruled from 1458 to 1477.
Malacca Sultanate
–
A bronze
relief of
Hang Tuah, a legendary Malay hero. Exhibited at the
National History Museum,
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
19.
Apothecary
–
Apothecary /əˈpɒθᵻkəri/ is one term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses materia medica to physicians, surgeons and patients. The modern pharmacist has taken over this role and in some languages, the apothecaries investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients was a precursor to the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology. Apothecary shops sold ingredients and the medicines they prepared wholesale to other medical practitioners, in 1600s England, they also controlled the trade of tobacco which was imported as a medicine. Apothecary derives from the Ancient Greek word ἀποθήκη via Latin apotheca, Medieval Latin apothecarius, in some languages the word apothecary is still used for designating a pharmacist/chemist, such as German and Dutch and Luxembourgish. Likewise, pharmacy translates as apotek in the Scandinavian and some Slavic languages such as Bosnian apoteka, Serbian апотека, use of the term apothecary in the names of businesses varies with time and location. Apothecary, as a profession, could date back to 2600 BC to ancient Babylon, clay tablets were found with medical texts recording symptoms, the prescriptions, and the directions for compounding it. The Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt, written around 1500 B. C. contain a collection of more than 800 prescriptions and it mentions over 700 different drugs. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, and S. Hadzovic, apothecary shops existed during the Middle Ages in Baghdad by Islamic pharmacists in 754 during the Abbasid Caliphate, Apothecaries were also active in Islamic Spain by the 11th century. In modern English, this can be transliterated as, and you should not linger, Though in this town there is no apothecary, I shall teach you about herbs myself, That will be for your health and for your pride. In Renaissance Italy, Italian Nuns became a prominent source for medicinal needs, at first they used their knowledge in non-curative uses in the convents to solidify the sanctity of religion among their sisters. As they progressed in skill they started to expand their field to create profit and this profit they used towards their charitable goals. Because of their spread to urban society, these religious women gained roles of public significance beyond the spiritual realm. Later apothecaries led by nuns were spread across the Italian peninsula, from the 15th century to the 16th century, the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner. In England, the apothecaries merited their own company, the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. Its roots, however, go back much earlier to the Guild of Pepperers formed in London in 1180, however, there were ongoing tensions between apothecaries and other medical professions, as is illustrated by the experiences of Susan Reeve Lyon and other women apothecaries in 17th century London. In 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first woman to be licensed to practise medicine in Britain by passing the examination of the Society of Apothecaries. In German speaking countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, thus a Pharmazeut is not always an Apotheker. Apothecaries used their own measurement system, the system, to provide precise weighing of small quantities
Apothecary
–
Apothecary in the 15th century
Apothecary
–
French apothecary (15th century).
Apothecary
–
Interior of an apothecary's shop. Illustration from Illustrated History of Furniture, From the Earliest to the Present Time from 1893 by Frederick Litchfield (1850–1930)
Apothecary
–
The Lady Apothecary.
Alfred Jacob Miller (between 1825 and 1870). The Walters Art Museum.
20.
Portuguese Malacca
–
Portuguese Malacca was the territory of Malacca that, for 130 years, was a Portuguese colony. The Airlele river was said to originate from Buquet China, eredia cited that the city was founded by Permicuri the first King of Malacca in 1411. The first European to reach Malacca and Southeast Asia, Sequeira arrived in Malacca in 1509, although he was initially well received by Sultan Mahmud Shah, trouble however quickly ensued. The general feeling of rivalry between Islam and Christianity was invoked by a group of Goa Muslims in the court after the Portuguese had captured Goa. The international Muslim trading community convinced Mahmud that the Portuguese were a grave threat, Mahmud subsequently captured several of his men, killed others and attempted to attack the four Portuguese ships, although they escaped. As the Portuguese had found in India, conquest would be the way they could establish themselves in Malacca. In April 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque set sail from Goa to Malacca with a force of some 1200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships, the Viceroy made a number of demands—one of which was for permission to build a fortress as a Portuguese trading post near the city. The Sultan refused all the demands, conflict was unavoidable, and after 40 days of fighting, Malacca fell to the Portuguese on 24 August. A bitter dispute between Sultan Mahmud and his son Sultan Ahmad also weighed down the Malaccan side. A fortress was designed and constructed encompassing a hill, lining the edge of the sea shore, on the south east of the river mouth, Albuquerque remained in Malacca until November 1511 preparing its defences against any Malay counterattack. Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca, as the first base of European Christian trading kingdom in Southeast Asia, it was surrounded by numerous emerging native Muslim states. Also, with hostile initial contact with the local Malay policy and they endured years of battles started by Malay sultans who wanted to get rid of the Portuguese and reclaim their land. The Sultan made several attempts to retake the capital and he rallied the support from his ally the Sultanate of Demak in Java who, in 1511, agreed to send naval forces to assist. Led by Pati Unus, the Sultan of Demak, the combined Malay–Java efforts failed and were fruitless, the Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sailed to Bintan Island and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organized several attacks, frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship. In 1521 the second Demak campaign to assist the Malay Sultan to retake Malacca was launched and he was later remembered as Pangeran Sabrang Lor or the Prince who crossed to North. The raids helped convince the Portuguese that the sultans forces must be silenced
Portuguese Malacca
–
Portuguese Malacca by
Ferdinand Magellan, ca. 1509-1512.
Portuguese Malacca
–
Flag of Portugal
Portuguese Malacca
–
"Construction of Malacca City: Intramuros Anno 1604" by Manuel Godinho de Eredia.
Portuguese Malacca
–
Portuguese Malacca tin coins of
King Emmanuel (1495-1521) and
John III (1521-1557) period were discovered during an excavation near the
Malacca River mouth by W. Edgerton, Resident Councilor of Malacca in 1900.
21.
Andaman Sea
–
The sea has been traditionally used for fishery and transportation of goods between the coastal countries and its coral reefs and islands are popular tourist destinations. The fishery and tourist infrastructure was damaged by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. At its southeastern reaches, the Andaman Sea narrows to form the Straits of Malacca, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Andaman or Burma Sea as follows, On the Southwest. The Eastern limit of the Bay of Bengal, a line joining Lem Voalan in Siam, and Pedropunt in Sumatra. The average depth of the sea is about 1,000 meters, the northern and eastern parts are shallower than 180 meters due to the silt deposited by the Irrawaddy River. This major river flows into the sea from the north through Myanmar, the western and central areas are 900–3,000 meters deep. Less than 5% of the sea is deeper than 3,000 meters, and in a system of submarine valleys east of the Andaman-Nicobar Ridge, the sea floor is covered with pebbles, gravel and sand. Running in a rough north–south line on the seabed of the Andaman Sea is the boundary between two plates, the Burma Plate and the Sunda Plate. As a result, a basin center was created, which began to form the marginal basin which would become the Andaman Sea. The boundary between two tectonic plates results in high seismic activity in the region. Numerous earthquakes have been recorded, and at least six, in 1797,1833,1861,2004,2005 and 2007, had the magnitude of 8.4 or higher. On December 26,2004, a portion of the boundary between the Burma Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate slipped, causing the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. This megathrust earthquake had a magnitude of 9.3, between 1300 and 1600 kilometers of the boundary underwent thrust faulting and shifted by about 20 meters, with the sea floor being uplifted several meters. This rise in the sea floor generated a tsunami with an estimated height of 28 meters that killed approximately 280,000 people along the coast of the Indian Ocean. The initial quake was followed by a series of aftershocks along the arc of the Andaman, the entire event severely damaged the fishing infrastructure. Within the sea, to the east of the main Great Andaman island group, lies Barren Island and this island-volcano is 3 km in diameter and rises 354 meters above the sea level. Its recent activity resumed in 1991 after a period of almost 200 years. It is caused by the subduction of the India Plate beneath the Andaman island arc
Andaman Sea
–
Satellite image of the Andaman Sea showing the
green algae and silt deposits due to the Irrawaddy River in its northern part
Andaman Sea
–
Topography of the Andaman Sea area
Andaman Sea
–
The Andaman Sea, showing
tectonic plate boundaries
Andaman Sea
–
Eruption of the Barren Island volcano in 1995. Andaman islands (on top) are ca. 90 km away.
22.
Malacca Strait
–
The Strait of Malacca or Straits of Malacca is a narrow,550 mi stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is named after the Malacca sultanate that ruled over the archipelago between 1400 and 1511, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Strait of Malacca as follows, On the West. A line joining Pedropunt, the Northernmost point of Sumatra and Lem Voalan the Southern extremity of Goh Puket in Siam, a line joining Tanjong Piai, the Southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula and The Brothers and thence to Klein Karimoen. The Southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula, the Northeastern coast of Sumatra as far to the eastward as Tanjong Kedabu thence to Klein Karimoen. From an economic and strategic perspective, the Strait of Malacca is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. The strait is the shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, linking major Asian economies such as India, China, Japan, Taiwan. Over 94,000 vessels pass through the strait each year, carrying about one-fourth of the traded goods, including oil, Chinese manufactured products. About a quarter of all oil carried by sea passes through the Strait, in 2007, an estimated 13.7 million barrels per day were transported through the strait, increasing to an estimated 15.2 million barrels per day in 2011. In addition, it is one of the worlds most congested shipping choke points because it narrows to only 2.8 km wide at the Phillips Channel. The maximum size of a vessel that can pass through the Strait is referred to as Malaccamax, for some of the worlds largest ships, the Straits minimum depth isnt deep enough. In addition, the next closest passageway is even more shallow and narrow than Malacca, therefore, these large ships must detour several thousand miles/kilometers and use the Lombok Strait, Makassar Strait, Sibutu Passage, or Mindoro Strait instead. Piracy has been a problem in the strait, piracy had been high in the 2000s, with additional increase after the events of September 11,2001. After attacks rose again in the first half of 2004, regional navies stepped up their patrols of the area in July 2004, subsequently, attacks on ships in the Strait of Malacca dropped, to 79 in 2005 and 50 in 2006. Recent reports indicate that attacks have dropped to levels in recent years. There are 34 shipwrecks, some dating to the 1880s, in the Traffic Separation Scheme and these pose a collision hazard in the narrow and shallow strait. Another risk is the annual haze due to raging bush fires in Sumatra and it may reduce visibility to 200 metres, forcing ships to slow down in the busy strait. The strait is used by Ships longer than 350 metres. Thailand has developed plans to diminish the economic significance of the strait
Malacca Strait
–
The Strait of Malacca connects the Pacific Ocean to the east with the Indian Ocean to the west.
Malacca Strait
–
Yearly
haze from the smoke of raging bush fires, limiting visibility.
Malacca Strait
–
The Strait of Malacca as viewed from the city of
Melaka,
Malaysia.
Indonesia is visible in the distance.
23.
Sunda Strait
–
The Sunda Strait is the strait between the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra. It connects the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean, the name comes from the Indonesian term Pasundan, meaning West Java. It also comes from the name of the Sundanese people, the people of West Java, with the Javanese people being found mostly in Central. The strait stretches in a roughly north-east/south-west orientation, with a width of 24 km at its north-eastern end between Cape Tua on Sumatra and Cape Pujat on Java. It is very deep at its end but as it narrows to the east it becomes much shallower. This makes it difficult to navigate, with sandbanks, very strong tidal flows. It had been an important shipping route for centuries, especially during the period when the Dutch East India Company used it as the gateway to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. However, the narrowness, shallowness, and lack of accurate charting makes it unsuitable for many modern large ships. The strait is dotted by a number of islands, including Sangiang, Sebesi, Sebuku, Panaitan and most notably, the Krakatau Islands, Lang, Verlaten, Krakatau. Many of these are volcanic in origin, but the best known volcano is Krakatau, the eruption drastically altered the topography of the strait, with as much as 18–21 km³ of ignimbrite being deposited over an area of 1.1 million km² around the volcano. Some areas have never been resettled, but much of the coastline is now densely populated. The two Allied cruisers were sunk, while a Japanese minesweeper and a vessel were sunk by friendly fire. In the 1960s proposals were made for a bridge across the Sunda Strait, Construction was projected beginning in 2014 if funding, estimated to be at least US$10 billion, could be secured. An accord was signed in April 2012 with China Railway Construction Corporation for a $11bn road, however, in November 2014, the incoming Joko Widodo government announced that plans to build the bridge would be shelved. Lampung Bay, Sumatra Semangka Bay, Sumatra Welcome Bay, Java Java Head Kra Canal Lombok Strait Makassar Strait Malaccamax List of road-rail bridges
Sunda Strait
–
Map of the Sunda Strait circa 1702-1707
Sunda Strait
–
The Sunda Strait
24.
South China Sea
–
The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 square kilometres. The areas importance largely results from one-third of the worlds shipping sailing through its waters, the sea and its mostly uninhabited islands are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are reflected in the variety of names used for the islands. South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and this name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the sixteenth century Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as South China Sea. The Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn period also referred to the sea, Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions, during the Eastern Han dynasty, Chinas rulers called the Sea Zhang Hai. Fei Hai became popular during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, usage of the current Chinese name, Nan Hai, became gradually widespread during the Qing Dynasty. In Southeast Asia it was called the Champa Sea or Sea of Cham. The majority of the sea came under Japanese naval control during World War II following the acquisition of many surrounding South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea Minami Shina Kai South China Sea and this was written 南支那海 until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched the spelling 南シナ海, which has become the standard usage in Japan. In China, it is called the South Sea, 南海 Nánhǎi, in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the South China Sea, with the part within Philippine territorial waters often called the Luzon Sea, Dagat Luzon, by the Philippines. However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, a PAGASA spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea. In September 2012, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Administrative Order No, states and territories with borders on the sea include, the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam. Major rivers that flow into the South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Red, Mekong, Rajang, Pahang, Pampanga, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the South China Sea as follows, On the South. From Fuki Kaku the North point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao on to the South point of Haitan Tao, the Mainland, the Southern limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East coast of the Malay Peninsula. The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf, during recent ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, the South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago when the Dangerous Ground rifted away from southern China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30 million years ago, a process that propagated to the SW resulting in the V-shaped basin we see today, extension ceased around 17 million years ago
South China Sea
–
The northeastern portion of the South China Sea
South China Sea
–
Sunset on the South China Sea off
Mũi Né village on the south-east coast of
Vietnam
South China Sea
–
Map of various countries occupying the
Spratly Islands
25.
Malayadvipa
–
The Melayu Kingdom was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies among historians, one theory is that the kingdom was established around present-day Jambi on Sumatra, Indonesia, approximately 300 km north of Palembang. According to this theory, it was founded by groups in the Batanghari river area. The theory is disputed as the location of Jambi contradicts the descriptions by Yijing. The origins of the word Melayu are disputed, one theory suggests that it is derived from the Javanese terms melayu or mlayu, to describe the strong current of a river in Sumatra that today bore the name Sungai Melayu. The name was possibly adopted by the Melayu Kingdom, as it is common for people in the region to be known by the name of the river on which they settled. Another theory hold that it originates from the Tamil words Malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, an early literary appearance was in Vayu Purana where the word Malaya Dvipa was mentioned, referring to the mountainous terrain of Malay Peninsula. In 7th century, the first use of the term for a nation or a kingdom was recorded by Yijing, among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the written source of monk Xuanzang), and Wu-lai-yu. In response to the Sukhothais move, a Chinese envoy arrived at the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial order, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. This nation of Ma-li-yu-er that appeared in the Chinese record possibly a similar nation that was mentioned by the famous Venetian traveller Marco Polo who lived during the same period, in Travels of Marco Polo, he made a reference to a kingdom named Malauir in the Malay peninsula. The Khmer recorded the nation of Melayu, however, its progeny Srivijaya, was also called Melayu, on the Amoghapasa inscription, dated 1347 CE, the word Malayapura was proclaimed by Adityawarman, again referring to Dharmasraya. The word Melayu is also mentioned in the Malay annals referring to a river in Sumatra. Here now is the story of a city called Palembang in the land of Andelas. It was ruled by Demang Lebar Daun, a descendant of Raja Shulan, in the upper reaches of the Muara Tatang was a river called Melayu, and on that river was a hill called Si-Guntang Mahameru. On his route via Maritime Southeast Asia, Yijing visited Srivijaya twice where he stayed from 688 to 695, Srivijaya appears to have been flourishing around the time of Yijings visit, which he initially called Bogha during his first visit. At its greatest extent, the kingdom extended to Malayu, which seems to have been annexed or to have come spontaneously under the realm of Bogha prince, the whole country as well as the capital received the name Sribogha or Srivijaya. The following extract from Yijings work, A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea, further describes his route via Bogha and Malayu, Wu Hing came to Bogha after a months sail. The king received him very favourably and respected him as a guest from the land of the son of heaven of the Great Tang and he went on board the kings ship to the country of Malayu and arrived there after fifteen days sail. Thence he went to Ka Cha, again after fifteen days, at the end of winter he changed ship and sailed to the west
Malayadvipa
–
Candi Gumpung, a Buddhist temple at
Muaro Jambi of Melayu Kingdom, later integrated as one of
Srivijaya 's important urban centre.
Malayadvipa
–
Map of ancient Melayu realm, based on a popular theory Malayu Kingdom relates with
Jambi,
Sumatra. However other Malay polities also flourish prior to Srivijayan expansion in late 7th century, such as Langkasuka, Pan Pan and Panai.
26.
Brihadeeswarar Temple
–
Brihadeeswarar Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in Thanjavur in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is also known as RajaRajeswara Temple Rajarajeswaram and Peruvudayar Temple and it is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of Dravidian architecture during the Chola period. Built by Raja Raja Chola I and completed in 1010 CE, the temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Great Living Chola Temples, with the other two being the Brihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavatesvara temple. The temple stands amidst fortified walls that were added in the 16th century. The vimanam is 198 ft high and is one of the tallest in the world, the Kumbam weighs around 80 tons. There is a big statue of Nandi, carved out of a single rock measuring about 16 ft long and 13 ft high at the entrance, the entire temple structure is made out of granite, the nearest sources of which are about 60 km to the west of temple. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu, the temple was built to grace the throne of the Chola empire by the Tamil emperor Arulmozhivarman, popularly called Rajaraja Chola I, in compliance to a command given to him in a dream. One of the first great Tamil Chola building projects, the foundations were laid out in 1002 CE. An axial and symmetrical geometry rules the temple layout, Temples from this period and the following two centuries are an expression of the Tamilars wealth, power and artistic expertise. The emergence of such features as the columns with projecting square capitals signal the arrival of the new Chola style. It is an architectural example showcasing the pure form of the Dravida type of architecture and representative of the Chola Empire ideology. The temple testifies the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting, the architect and engineer of the temple was Raja Raja Rama as stated in inscriptions found at the temple. The solid base of the temple raises about 5 metres, above which stone deities and representatives of Shiva dance. The big Nandi, weighing about 20 tonnes is made of a stone and is about 2 m in height,6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi is a one and is the second largest in the country next only to the one at Lepakshi temple. The presiding deity of lingam is 3. 7m tall, the prakaram measures 240m by 125m. The outer wall of the upper storey is carved with 108 dance karanas – postures of Bharathanatyam, the shrine of Goddess was added by Pandyas during the 13th century, Subramanya Shrine by Vijayanagara rulers and the Vinayaka shrine was renovated by Maratha rulers. There were significant additions from the Thanjavur Nayaks, the temple complex sits on the banks of a river that was channelled to make a moat around the complexs outer walls, the walls being built like a fortress
Brihadeeswarar Temple
–
Peruvudaiyaar Kovil
Brihadeeswarar Temple
–
Thanjavur Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance
Brihadeeswarar Temple
–
Tamil writings and sculptures at right side of Thanjavur Brihadeeswara Temple Gopuram.
Brihadeeswarar Temple
–
Carved figures on temple wall
27.
Geographia (Ptolemy)
–
Its translation into Arabic in the 9th century and Latin in 1406 was highly influential on the geographical knowledge and cartographic traditions of the medieval Caliphate and Renaissance Europe. Versions of Ptolemys work in antiquity were probably proper atlases with attached maps, no Greek manuscript of the Geography survives from earlier than the 13th century. In Europe, maps were sometimes made using the coordinates provided by the text. Later scribes and publishers could then copy these new maps, as Athanasius did for the emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus, the three earliest surviving texts with maps are those from Constantinople based on Planudess work. The first Latin translation of texts was made in 1406 or 1407 by Jacobus Angelus in Florence, Italy. It is not thought that his edition had maps, although Manuel Chrysoloras had given Palla Strozzi a Greek copy of Planudess maps in Florence in 1397, the Geography consists of three sections, divided among 8 books. Book I is a treatise on cartography, describing the methods used to assemble, from Book II through the beginning of Book VII, a gazetteer provides longitude and latitude values for the world known to the ancient Romans. The rest of Book VII provides details on three projections to be used for the construction of a map of the world, varying in complexity and fidelity, Book VIII constitutes an atlas of regional maps. The maps include a recapitulation of some of the values given earlier in the work, Maps based on scientific principles had been made in Europe since the time of Eratosthenes in the 3rd century BC. Ptolemy improved the treatment of map projections and he provided instructions on how to create his maps in the first section of the work. The gazetteer section of Ptolemys work provided latitude and longitude coördinates for all the places and his Prime Meridian ran through the Fortunate Isles, the westernmost land recorded, at around the position of El Hierro in the Canary Islands. The maps spanned 180 degrees of longitude from the Fortunate Isles in the Atlantic to China, Ptolemy was aware that Europe knew only about a quarter of the globe. Ptolemys work included a large and less detailed world map and then separate. As early as the 1420s, these maps were complemented by extra-Ptolemaic regional maps depicting. The original treatise by Marinus of Tyre that formed the basis of Ptolemys Geography has been completely lost, a world map based on Ptolemy was displayed in Augustodunum in late Roman times. Pappus, writing at Alexandria in the 4th century, produced a commentary on Ptolemys Geography, for instance, Grant Parker argues that it would be highly implausible for them to have constructed the Bay of Bengal as precisely as they did without the accounts of sailors. Muslim cartographers were using copies of Ptolemys Almagest and Geography by the 9th century, a 1037 copy of these are the earliest extant maps from Islamic lands. Nallino suggests that the work was not based on Ptolemy but on a world map
Geographia (Ptolemy)
–
The world map from Codex Vaticanus Urbinas Graecus 82, done according to Ptolemy's 1st projection
Geographia (Ptolemy)
–
The
Ptolemy world map, including the countries of "
Serica " and "Sinae" (
Cattigara) at the extreme right beyond the island of "Taprobane" (
Sri Lanka) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (
Malay peninsula).
Geographia (Ptolemy)
–
Codex Seragliensis GI 57, fol. 33v
Geographia (Ptolemy)
–
Scandinavia in the
Zamoyski Codex (c. 1467)
28.
Ptolemy
–
Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek writer, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, beyond that, few reliable details of his life are known. His birthplace has been given as Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid in a statement by the 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes. This is a very late attestation, however, and there is no reason to suppose that he ever lived elsewhere than Alexandria. Ptolemy wrote several treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, although it was entitled the Mathematical Treatise. The second is the Geography, which is a discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika but more known as the Tetrabiblos from the Greek meaning Four Books or by the Latin Quadripartitum. The name Claudius is a Roman nomen, the fact that Ptolemy bore it indicates he lived under the Roman rule of Egypt with the privileges and political rights of Roman citizenship. It would have suited custom if the first of Ptolemys family to become a citizen took the nomen from a Roman called Claudius who was responsible for granting citizenship, if, as was common, this was the emperor, citizenship would have been granted between AD41 and 68. The astronomer would also have had a praenomen, which remains unknown and it occurs once in Greek mythology, and is of Homeric form. All the kings after him, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC, were also Ptolemies, abu Mashar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line composed the book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy. The correct answer is not known”, Ptolemy wrote in Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data. He was a Roman citizen, but most scholars conclude that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and he was often known in later Arabic sources as the Upper Egyptian, suggesting he may have had origins in southern Egypt. Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him by his name in Arabic, Ptolemys Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Ptolemy presented his models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus
Ptolemy
–
Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy being guided by the muse Astronomy, from Margarita Philosophica by
Gregor Reisch, 1508. Although
Abu Ma'shar believed Ptolemy to be one of the
Ptolemies who ruled Egypt after the conquest of
Alexander the title ‘King Ptolemy’ is generally viewed as a mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated standing in science.
Ptolemy
–
Early
Baroque artist's rendition
Ptolemy
–
A 15th-century manuscript copy of the
Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geography (circa 150), indicating the countries of "
Serica " and "Sinae" (
China) at the extreme east, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (
Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (
Malay Peninsula).
Ptolemy
–
Prima Europe tabula. A C15th copy of Ptolemy's map of Britain
29.
Golden Chersonese
–
The earliest references to a fabulous land of gold that could be interpreted as places in South East Asia may be found in Indian literature. In Ramayana, there are mentions of Suvarnabhumi and Suvarnadvipa, Greek knowledge of lands further to their east improved after the conquests of Alexander the Great, but specific references to South East Asia did not appear until after the rise of the Roman Empire. Greek and Roman geographers Eratosthenes, Dionysius Periegetes, and Pomponius Mela had wrote about a Golden Isle, pliny in Natural History, however, referred to Chryse as both a promontory and an island. The Ptolemys Geography, based on the work by Marinus of Tyre, contains the best-known, however, Geography includes information added by later geographers, and the first specific mention of the Golden Chersonese may be in the work of Marcian of Heraclea. Chersonese means peninsula in Greek, and although a few scholars had attempted to link the Golden Chersonese with Lower Burma. The Malay Peninsula is thought to be a producer of gold in ancient times, although gold is now not a major product of modern-day Malaysia, it is still being mined, for example in Raub in Pahang. The Golden Chersonese appears in the map of Ptolemy, which gives some geographical locations on the peninsula, the earliest surviving maps of Ptolemy however came from the end of the 13th century. Ptolemy, like many early geographers, believed the Indian Ocean to be a closed sea, the Great Gulf is placed to the east of the Golden Peninsula but it is enclosed further east by the border of terra incognita. By the 8th century, Arab geographers were aware that the idea of the Indian Ocean as a basin was mistaken. The Ptolemaic eastern shore became the Dragons Tail peninsula, the Golden Chersonese is shown on the mappa mundi of Andreas Walsperger, made in Constance around 1448, bearing the inscription, hic rex caspar habitavit. Caspar was one of the Three Magi who worshipped the newborn Christ at Bethlehem, martin of Bohemia, on his 1492 geographical globe, located the islands of Chryse and Argyre in the vicinity of Zipangu, which was accorded to be rich in gold by Marco Polo. An expedition was sent to find the islands in this location under the command of Pedro de Unamuno in 1587. The names of geographical features and settlements of the Golden Chersonese are given in Ptolemys Geography, including towns. Different identities however have suggested by different scholars for these names, the Ptolemy map shows three rivers which are joined together as their source a single river which does not actually exist. Khrysoanas river, meaning River of Gold, proposed to be various rivers on the west coast, from the Trang River or Lungu River, to the Perak River or the Bernam River, palandas river, proposed to be Johor River by a number of scholars. Attabas river, which most authors agreed to be the Pahang River, Takola – a trading emporion, located at Trang in southern Thailand according to most authors. These Indian sources indicate the existence of Takola from the 3rd to 11th century, konkonagara – a place near the Khrysoanas, with many placing it in Perak, but some placed it further north at the Muda River in Kedah. or Krabi opposite Phuket in Thailand. It is thought to be an Indian name, but it has also proposed to be a hybrid of Malay and Sanskrit – kolong-kolong and negara
Golden Chersonese
–
The world map from Urb. Gr. 82, done according to Ptolemy's 1st projection c. 1300. The Golden Chersonese is the peninsula to the far east, just prior to the
Great Gulf.
Golden Chersonese
–
Martin of Bohemia 's
Erdapfel
30.
Yuan dynasty
–
The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan, was the empire or ruling dynasty of China established by Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan. His realm was, by point, isolated from the other khanates and controlled most of present-day China and its surrounding areas. Some of the Mongolian Emperors of the Yuan mastered the Chinese language, while others used their native language. The Yuan dynasty is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and an imperial Chinese dynasty and it was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke Khan after the division of the Mongol Empire. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song dynasty, the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu. In addition to Emperor of China, Kublai Khan also claimed the title of Great Khan, supreme over the other khanates, the Chagatai, the Golden Horde. As such, the Yuan was also referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan. However, while the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was at times recognized by the khans, their subservience was nominal. In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan, establishing the Yuan dynasty, dà Yuán is from the clause 大哉乾元 in the Commentaries on the Classic of Changes section regarding Qián. The counterpart in Mongolian language was Dai Ön Ulus, also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus, in Mongolian, Dai Ön is often used in conjunction with the Yeke Mongghul Ulus, resulting in Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus, meaning Great Mongol State. Nevertheless, both terms can refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. Genghis Khan united the Mongol and Turkic tribes of the steppes and he and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han Chinese teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani and he sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedeis son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251 and he granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals and he adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu. Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin, two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima, and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan, Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols
Yuan dynasty
–
History of China
Yuan dynasty
–
Yuan dynasty circa 1294
Yuan dynasty
–
Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty
Yuan dynasty
–
Painting of a 14th-century Yuan dynasty
junk
"Malakka". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.
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