1.
Consensus decision-making
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Consensus decision-making is a group decision-making process in which group members develop, and agree to support a decision in the best interest of the whole. Consensus may be defined professionally as a resolution, one that can be supported. Consensus is defined by Merriam-Webster as, first, general agreement and it has its origin in the Latin word cōnsēnsus, which is from cōnsentiō meaning literally feel together. It is used to both the decision and the process of reaching a decision. Consensus decision-making is thus concerned with the process of deliberating and finalizing a decision, as a decision-making process, consensus decision-making aims to be, Agreement Seeking, A consensus decision making process attempts to generate as much agreement as possible. Collaborative, Participants contribute to a proposal and shape it into a decision that meets the concerns of all group members as much as possible. Cooperative, Participants in a consensus process should strive to reach the best possible decision for the group and all of its members. Egalitarian, All members of a consensus decision-making body should be afforded, as much as possible, All members have the opportunity to present, and amend proposals. Inclusive, As many stakeholders as possible should be involved in the consensus decision-making process, participatory, The consensus process should actively solicit the input and participation of all decision-makers. Consensus decision-making is an alternative to commonly practiced group decision-making processes, roberts Rules of Order, for instance, is a guide book used by many organizations. This book allows the structuring of debate and passage of proposals that can be approved through majority vote and it does not emphasize the goal of full agreement. Critics of such a process believe that it can involve adversarial debate and these dynamics may harm group member relationships and undermine the ability of a group to cooperatively implement a contentious decision. Consensus decision-making attempts to address the beliefs of such problems, proponents claim that outcomes of the consensus process include, Better decisions, Through including the input of all stakeholders the resulting proposals may better address all potential concerns. Better implementation, A process that includes and respects all parties, Better group relationships, A cooperative, collaborative group atmosphere can foster greater group cohesion and interpersonal connection. The level of agreement necessary to finalize a decision is known as a decision rule and these groups use the term consensus to denote both the discussion process and the decision rule. Other groups use a process to generate as much agreement as possible. In this case, someone who has a strong objection must live with the decision, Giving consent does not necessarily mean that the proposal being considered is one’s first choice. Group members can vote their consent to a proposal because they choose to cooperate with the direction of the group, sometimes the vote on a proposal is framed, “Is this proposal something you can live with. ”This relaxed threshold for a yes vote can achieve full consent
2.
Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
3.
Art manifesto
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An art manifesto is a public declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of an artist or artistic movement. Manifestos are a feature of the various movements in the modernist avant-garde and are still written today. Art manifestos are sometimes in their rhetoric intended for shock value and they often address wider issues, such as the political system. Typical themes are the need for revolution, freedom and the implied or overtly stated superiority of the writers over the status quo. The manifesto gives a means of expressing, publicising and recording ideas for the artist or art group—even if only one or two people write the words, it is still attributed to the group name. In 1855 Gustave Courbet wrote a Realist manifesto for the introduction to the catalogue of his independent, and in 1886 the Symbolist Manifesto was published in the French newspaper Le Figaro by the poet and essayist Jean Moréas. Although they never stopped being issued, other such as the growth of broadcasting tended to sideline such declarations. Due to the internet there has been a resurgence of the form, the Stuckists have made particular use of this to start a worldwide movement of affiliated groups. Manifestos typically consist of a number of statements, which are numbered or in bullet points, Tristan Tzaras explanation of the manifesto captures the spirit of many, Before the early 20th century, the manifesto was almost exclusively a declaration with political aims. The intention of adopting the form, therefore, is to indicate that they are employing art as a political tool. The art manifesto has two main goals, the first is to define and criticize a paradigm in contemporary art or culture, the second is to define a set of aesthetic values to counter this paradigm. Often, manifestos aspire to be works of art in their own right, for instance, Other manifestos cannot be fully appreciated simply as written statements because they rely heavily on graphic design for communication, a common feature in Dada manifestos. Several artists have written manifestos about artistic mediums not their own, historically, there has been a strong parallel between the art manifesto and the political manifesto. It was not uncommon for manifesto writers of the early 20th century to also be politically active, in Italy, Futurist founder Filippo Tomasso Marinetti ran for office, and both Russian and Italian Futurists issued political manifestos. In England, Vorticist Wyndham Lewis supported the Suffragettes, while in France, Gustave Courbet wrote a Realist manifesto for the introduction to the catalogue of his independent, personal exhibition,1855, echoing the tone of the periods political manifestos. In it he asserts his goal as an artist to translate the customs, the ideas, in 1886 the Symbolist Manifesto was published in the French newspaper Le Figaro by the poet and essayist Jean Moréas. It defined and characterized Symbolism as a style whose goal was not the ideal and it names Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Paul Verlaine as the three leading poets of the movement. Since the founding manifesto did not contain an artistic programme
4.
Belief
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Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something to be the case, with or without there being empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty. Another way of defining belief sees it as a representation of an attitude positively oriented towards the likelihood of something being true. In the context of Ancient Greek thought, two related concepts were identified with regards to the concept of belief, pistis and doxa, simplified, we may say that pistis refers to trust and confidence, while doxa refers to opinion and acceptance. The English word orthodoxy derives from doxa, Jonathan Leicester suggests that belief has the purpose of guiding action rather than indicating truth. In epistemology, philosophers use the belief to refer to personal attitudes associated with true or false ideas. However, belief does not require active introspection and circumspection, for example, we never ponder whether or not the sun will rise. We simply assume the sun will rise, since belief is an important aspect of mundane life, according to Eric Schwitzgebel in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, a related question asks, how a physical organism can have beliefs. Epistemology is concerned with delineating the boundary between justified belief and opinion, and involved generally with a philosophical study of knowledge. The primary problem in epistemology is to exactly what is needed in order for us to have knowledge. Plato dismisses this possibility of a relation between belief and knowledge even when the one who opines grounds his belief on the rule. Among American epistemologists, Gettier and Goldman, have questioned the true belief definition. Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation, philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis. The concept of belief presumes a subject and an object of belief, Beliefs are sometimes divided into core beliefs and dispositional beliefs. For example, if asked do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas, a person might answer that they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before. This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and neuroscience of belief, if the concept of belief is incoherent, then any attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail. Jerry Fodor is one of the defenders of this point of view. Most notably, philosopher Stephen Stich has argued for this understanding of belief. In these cases science hasnt provided us with a detailed account of these theories
5.
Creed
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A creed is a statement of the shared beliefs of a religious community in the form of a fixed formula summarizing core tenets. One of the most widely used creeds in Christianity is the Nicene Creed and it was based on Christian understanding of the Canonical Gospels, the letters of the New Testament and to a lesser extent the Old Testament. Affirmation of this creed, which describes the Trinity, is taken as a fundamental test of orthodoxy for most Christian denominations. The Apostles Creed is also broadly accepted, Some Christian denominations and other groups have rejected the authority of those creeds. Muslims declare the shahada, or testimony, I bear witness there is no god but God. Whether Judaism is creedal has been a point of some controversy, although some say Judaism is noncreedal in nature, others say it recognizes a single creed, the Shema Yisrael, which begins, Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one. The word creed is particularly used for a statement which is recited as part of liturgy. The term is anglicized from Latin credo I believe, the incipit of the Latin texts of the Apostles Creed, within Evangelicalism, the terms doctrinal statement or doctrinal basis tend to be preferred. Doctrinal statements may include positions on lectionary and translations of the Bible, the term creed is sometimes extended to comparable concepts in non-Christian theologies, thus the Islamic concept of ʿaqīdah is often rendered as creed. Several creeds have originated in Christianity,1 Corinthians 15, 3–7 includes an early creed about Jesus death and resurrection which was probably received by Paul. The antiquity of the creed has been located by most biblical scholars to no more than five years after Jesus death, the Old Roman Creed is an earlier and shorter version of the Apostles Creed. The Apostles Creed is widely used by most Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, the Nicene Creed reflects the concerns of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which had as their chief purpose to establish what Christians believed. The Chalcedonian Creed was adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor and it defines that Christ is acknowledged in two natures, which come together into one person and hypostasis. The Athanasian Creed is a Christian statement of belief focusing on Trinitarian doctrine, the Tridentine Creed was initially contained in the papal bull Iniunctum Nobis, issued by Pope Pius IV on November 13,1565. The creed was intended to summarize the teaching of the Council of Trent, the Maasai Creed is a creed composed in 1960 by the Maasai people of East Africa in collaboration with missionaries from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. The creed attempts to express the essentials of the Christian faith within the Maasai culture, the Credo of the People of God is a profession of faith that Pope Paul VI published with the motu proprio Solemni hac liturgia of 30 June 1968. Pope Paul VI spoke of it as a profession of faith, Protestant denominations are usually associated with confessions of faith, which are similar to creeds but usually longer. By the martyr French Huguenots Jean du Bourdel, Matthieu Verneuil, Pierre Bourdon and André la Fon at the site of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
6.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
7.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
8.
Paolo Sarpi
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His writings, frankly polemical and highly critical of the Catholic Church and its Scholastic tradition, inspired both Hobbes and Gibbon in their own historical debunkings of priestcraft. Organized around single topics, they are examples of the genre of the historical monograph. His extensive network of correspondents included Francis Bacon and William Harvey, acting himself in that spirit, Sarpi published several pamphlets in defense of Venices rights over the Adriatic. As such, Sarpi could be considered as an advocate of the Freedom of the Press. He was born Pietro Sarpi in Venice and his father was a merchant, although not a successful one, his mother a Venetian noblewoman. While he was still a child his father died, the brilliant and precocious boy was educated by his maternal uncle, a school teacher, and then by Giammaria Capella, monk in the Augustinian Servite order. At the age of thirteen he entered the Servite order in 1566, assuming the name of Fra Paolo, by which, with the epithet Servita, Sarpi was assigned to a monastery in Mantua around 1567. In 1570 he sustained theses at a disputation there, and was invited to remain as court theologian to Duke Guglielmo Gonzaga, Sarpi remained four years at Mantua, studying mathematics and oriental languages. He then went to Milan in 1575, where he was an adviser to Charles Borromeo, in 1579, he became Provincial of the Venetian Province of the Servite order, while studying at the University of Padua. At the age of twenty-seven he was appointed Procurator General for the order, in this capacity he was sent to Rome, where he interacted with three successive popes, as well as the grand inquisitor and other influential people. Sarpi returned to Venice in 1588, and passed the next 17 years in study, an attempt to obtain another bishopric in the following year also failed, Pope Clement VIII having taken offense at Sarpis habit of corresponding with learned heretics. Clement VIII died in March 1605, and the attitude of his successor Pope Paul V strained the limits of papal prerogative and these laws had been extended over the entire territory of the republic. In January 1606, the papal nuncio delivered a brief demanding the submission of the Venetians. The senate promised protection to all ecclesiastics who should in this emergency aid the republic by their counsel. Sarpi presented a memoir, pointing out that the threatened censures might be met in two ways – de facto, by prohibiting their publication, and de jure, by an appeal to a general council. The document was received, and Sarpi was made canonist. The following April, hopes of compromise were dispelled by Pauls excommunication of the Venetians, Sarpi entered energetically into the controversy. It was unprecedented for an ecclesiastic of his eminence to argue the subjection of the clergy to the state and he began by republishing the anti-papal opinions of the canonist Jean Gerson
9.
Baghdad Manifesto
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The manifesto of Baghdad was a testimony ordered by The Abbasid Caliph Al-Qadir in response to the growth of the Fatimid-supporting Ismaili sect of Islam within his borders. Most Ismailis viewed the Fatimids as their spiritual and political leaders. The majority of Arabs and Muslims rejected that claim and this competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbāsids claimed that the line Ḥakīm represented did not legitimately descend from ˤAlī. Threatened by a rebellion within his empire, the Abbasid caliph asked esteemed scholars. With this, he intended to delegitimize the Ismaili allegiance to the rival Fatimid domain on the basis of their claimed descent
10.
Act of Abjuration
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The Act of Abjuration, was the declaration of independence by many of the provinces of the Netherlands from Spain in 1581, during the Dutch Revolt. Signed on 26 July 1581 in The Hague, the Act formally confirmed a decision made by the States General of the Netherlands in Antwerp four days earlier. It declared that all magistrates in the making up the Union of Utrecht were freed from their oaths of allegiance to the King of Spain. The grounds given were that Philip II had failed in his obligations to his subjects, by oppressing them, Philip was therefore considered to have forfeited his thrones as ruler of each of the provinces which signed the Act. The Act of Abjuration allowed the newly-independent territories to govern themselves, when this failed, they formed the Dutch Republic, the predecessor of the modern state of the Netherlands. They were constituted as an entity with his Pragmatic Sanction of 1549. His son, King Philip II of Spain, inherited these provinces on Charles abdication in 1555, but this actually meant that he assumed the feudal title of each individual province, as Duke of Brabant, Count of Holland etc. In the Dutch Revolt, from 1568 several of these provinces rose in rebellion against Philip and this pretense was wearing thin, however, by the time of the Pacification of Ghent in 1576. Matthias was young and inexperienced, and brought no resources of his own to the battle with Philip, each union formed its own Estates General. William the Silent, the leader of the Dutch Revolt, therefore decided that the rebellious Netherlands should look for an overlord who could bring useful foreign allies, francis, Duke of Anjou, the younger brother and heir-presumptive of King Henry III of France, was such a man. He did not wish to be someone elses viceroy, especially not of the Habsburg king, the rebel States General therefore offered him the sovereignty of the Netherlands, which he accepted by the Treaty of Plessis-les-Tours. Meanwhile, Matthias was bought off with a generous annuity and this, however, presented a problem, the magistrates of the cities and rural areas, and the provincial states themselves, had sworn allegiance to Philip. Oaths of allegiance were taken seriously during this era. As long as the conflict with Philip could be glossed over these magistrates could pretend to remain loyal to the king and this referred not to desertion of Philip by his subjects, but rather, to a suggested desertion of the Dutch flock by their malevolent shepherd, Philip. The Act prohibited the use of the name and seal of Philip in all legal matters and it gave authority to the Councils of the provinces to henceforth issue the commissions of magistrates. The actual draft seems to have been written by an audiencier of the States General, the Act was remarkable for its extensive Preamble, which took the form of an ideological justification, phrased as an indictment of King Philip. The Preamble was based on Vindiciae contra tyrannos by Philippe de Mornay, the rebels, in their appeal to public opinion, may have thought it more important to quote authoritative sources and refer to ancient rights they wished to defend. By deposing a ruler for having violated the Social Contract with his subjects, in the declaration, these provinces are mentioned, the Duchies of Brabant and Guelders, the Counties of Flanders, Holland and Zeeland, and the Lordships of Frisia, Mechelen and Utrecht
11.
United States Declaration of Independence
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Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast, a committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term Declaration of Independence is not used in the document itself, John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The next day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, but Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved. After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms and it was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for printing has been lost. Jeffersons original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, the best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, the sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. Having served its purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric, and his policies and this has been called one of the best-known sentences in the English language, containing the most potent and consequential words in American history. The passage came to represent a standard to which the United States should strive. Believe me, dear Sir, there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose, and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire. Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire, the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliaments authority in the colonies. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, after the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all
12.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
13.
Haitian Revolution
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The Haitian Revolution, was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place in the former French colony of Saint-Domingue that lasted from 1791 until 1804. It affected the institution of slavery throughout the Americas, self-liberated slaves destroyed slavery at home, fought to preserve their freedom, and with the collaboration of mulattoes, founded the sovereign state of Haiti. It led to the greatest slave uprising since Spartacuss unsuccessful revolt against the Roman Republic nearly 1,900 years prior, the Haitian Revolution was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state free from slavery and ruled by non-whites and former captives. With the increasing number of Haitian Revolutionary Studies in the last few decades, the legacy of the Revolution was that it challenged long-held beliefs about black inferiority and of the enslaved persons capacity to achieve and maintain freedom. The rebels organizational capacity and tenacity under pressure became the source of stories that shocked and frightened slave owners, while acknowledging the cross-influences, most contemporary historians distinguish the Haitian Revolution from the French Revolution. Some even separate it from the mulattoes earlier armed conflicts, which at first sought political rights for themselves and these scholars show that if the agency of the enslaved blacks becomes the focus of studies, the Revolutions opening and closing dates are certain. From this premise, the narrative began with the enslaved blacks bid for freedom through armed struggle and concluded with their victory over slaving powers, in April 1791, a massive black insurgency turned violently against the plantation system, setting a precedent of resistance to racial slavery. In cooperation with their former rivals, blacks ended the Revolution in November 1803 when they decidedly defeated the French army at the Battle of Vertières. The chief concern flutters around the question if the victorious Haitians were intrinsically revolutionary force, one thing is sure, Haiti became an independent country on January 1,1804, when the council of generals chose Jean-Jacques Dessalines to assume the office of governor-general. One of the states first significant documents was Dessaliness Liberty or Death speech, in it, the new head of state made the case for the new nations coherent objective, the permanent abolition of slavery in Haiti. An independent government was created in Haiti, but the society remained deeply affected by patterns established under French colonial rule. Many of them had used their capital to acquire wealth. Some had identified more with the French colonists than the slaves, mulatto domination of politics and economics after the revolution created another two-caste society, as most Haitians were rural subsistence farmers. Much of the Caribbean economic development was contingent to Europeans demand for sugar, Saint Domingue also had extensive coffee, cocoa, and indigo plantations, but these were smaller and less profitable than the wealthy sugar plantations. Starting in the 1730s, French engineers constructed complex irrigation systems to increase sugarcane production, by the 1740s Saint-Domingue, together with Jamaica, had become the main supplier of the worlds sugar. Sugar production depended on extensive manual labor provided by enslaved Africans in the harsh Saint-Domingue colonial plantation economy, the economic importance of St. Domingue, and several million indirectly depended upon trade from Frances richest colony to maintain their standard of living. To sustain the sugar production amid the climate of the Caribbean with malaria. In one year alone, namely 1787, the French imported about 20,000 slaves from Africa into Saint-Domingue while the British imported about 38,000 slaves to all of their Caribbean colonies
14.
Robert Peel
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Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet, FRS, PC, a British statesman and member of the Conservative Party, served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and twice as Home Secretary. He is regarded as the father of modern British policing and as one of the founders of the modern Conservative Party and he entered the House of Commons in 1809 under the tutelage of his father and of Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington. Peel was widely seen as a star in the Conservative Party and served in various junior ministerial offices, becoming Chief Secretary for Ireland. He cut tariffs to stimulate trade, to replace the lost revenue he pushed through a 3% income tax and he played a central role in making free trade a reality and set up a modern banking system. In 1830 the Whigs finally returned to power and Peel became a member of the Opposition for the first time, Peel then issued the Tamworth Manifesto, laying down the principles upon which the modern British Conservative Party is based. His first ministry was a minority government, dependent on Whig support, after only four months, his government collapsed and he served as Leader of the Opposition during the second government of the Viscount Melbourne. Peel declined to head another minority government in May 1839, prompting a political crisis and he finally became Prime Minister again after the 1841 general election. His second government ruled for five years - its major legislation included the Mines and Collieries Act 1842, the Income Tax Act 1842, the Factories Act 1844, Peels government was weakened by anti-Irish and anti-Catholic sentiment following the controversial Maynooth Grant of 1845. After the outbreak of the Great Irish Potato Famine, his decision to join with Whigs, Peel remained an influential backbench MP and leader of the Peelite faction until his death in 1850. Peel often started from a traditional Tory position in opposition to a measure, then reversed his stance, Peel, a Conservative, achieved repeal with the support of the Whigs in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party. Many critics accordingly saw him as a traitor to the Tory cause, or as a Liberal wolf in sheeps clothing, taylor says, Peel was in the first rank of 19th century statesman. He carried Catholic Emancipation, he repealed the Corn Laws, he created the modern Conservative Party on the ruins of the old Toryism. Peel was born at Chamber Hall, Bury, Lancashire, to the industrialist and parliamentarian Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet and his father was one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution. Peel was educated briefly at Bury Grammar School, at Hipperholme Grammar School, then at Harrow School and finally Christ Church, Oxford and he was a law student at Lincolns Inn in 1809 before entering Parliament. Peel saw part-time military service as a Captain in the Manchester Regiment of Militia in 1808, Peel entered politics in 1809 at the age of 21, as MP for the Irish rotten borough of Cashel, Tipperary. With a scant 24 electors on the rolls, he was elected unopposed and his sponsor for the election was the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, with whom Peels political career would be entwined for the next 25 years. Peel made his speech at the start of the 1810 session. His speech was a sensation, famously described by the Speaker, Charles Abbot, as chief secretary in Dublin in 1813, he proposed the setting up of a specialist police force, later called peelers
15.
The Communist Manifesto
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The Communist Manifesto is an 1848 political pamphlet by German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It presents an approach to the class struggle and the problems of capitalism. It also briefly features their ideas for how the capitalist society of the time would eventually be replaced by socialism, the Communist Manifesto is divided into a preamble and four sections, the last of these a short conclusion. The introduction begins by proclaiming A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of communism, All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre. Subsequently, the introduction exhorts Communists to openly publish their views and aims, the first section of the Manifesto, Bourgeois and Proletarians, elucidates the materialist conception of history, that the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Societies have always taken the form of a majority living under the thumb of an oppressive minority. In capitalism, the working class, or proletariat, engage in class struggle against the owners of the means of production. As before, this struggle will end in a revolution that restructures society, the bourgeoisie constantly exploits the proletariat for its labour power, creating profit for themselves and accumulating capital. Proletarians and Communists, the section, starts by stating the relationship of conscious communists to the rest of the working class. While the degree of reproach toward rival perspectives varies, all are dismissed for advocating reformism and it ends by declaring an alliance with the social democrats, boldly supporting other communist revolutions, and calling for united international proletarian action—Working Men of All Countries, Unite. In spring 1847 Marx and Engels joined the League of the Just, at its First Congress in 2–9 June, the League tasked Engels with drafting a profession of faith, but such a document was later deemed inappropriate for an open, non-confrontational organisation. Engels nevertheless wrote the Draft of the Communist Confession of Faith, a few months later, in October, Engels arrived at the Leagues Paris branch to find that Moses Hess had written an inadequate manifesto for the group, now called the League of Communists. In Hesss absence, Engels severely criticised this manifesto, and convinced the rest of the League to entrust him with drafting a new one and this became the draft Principles of Communism, described as less of a credo and more of an exam paper. On the 28th, Marx and Engels met at Ostend in Belgium, the League thus unanimously adopted a far more combative resolution than that at the First Congress in June. Marx and Engels were subsequently commissioned to draw up a manifesto for the League, upon returning to Brussels, Marx engaged in ceaseless procrastination, according to his biographer Francis Wheen. Following this, he spent a week in Ghent to establish a branch of the Democratic Association there. This imposition spurred Marx on, who struggled to work without a deadline, in all, the Manifesto was written over 6–7 weeks. Although Engels is credited as co-writer, the draft was penned exclusively by Marx
16.
Karl Marx
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Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a family, he later studied political economy. His work has influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history. These economic critiques were set out in works such as the three volumes, published between 1867 and 1894, that comprise Das Kapital. According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all. He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marxs work, Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science. Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and he was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussias Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx was ancestrally Jewish, his grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis since 1723. Marx was also a cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland. Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, a classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy. In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 moving his family to a property near the Porta Nigra. Her sister Sophie Pressburg, was Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips Marxs uncle through this marriage, Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London. Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood, the third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 along with his siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie. Young Karl was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, by employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government
17.
Friedrich Engels
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Friedrich Engels was a German philosopher, social scientist, journalist, and businessman. He founded Marxist theory together with Karl Marx, in 1845, he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research in Manchester. In 1848, he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Marx, though he also authored and co-authored many other works, after Marxs death, Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organised Marxs notes on the Theories of Surplus Value and he also made contributions to family economics. Friedrich Engels was born on 28 November 1820 in Barmen, Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, Barmen was an expanding industrial metropolis, and Friedrich was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton textile manufacturer. His father, Friedrich, Sr. was a Pietistic Protestant, as he grew up, however, he developed atheistic beliefs and his relationship with his parents became strained. His mother wrote to him of her concerns, She said that he had gone too far. She continued, You have paid more heed to other people, to strangers, God alone knows what I have felt and suffered of late. I was trembling when I picked up the newspaper and saw therein that a warrant was out for my sons arrest, when his mother wrote, Engels was in hiding in Brussels, Belgium, soon to make his way to Switzerland. In 1849, he returned to the Kingdom of Bavaria for the Baden, at 17, Friedrich had dropped out of high school due to family circumstances. He spent a year in Barmen, in 1838, his father sent the young man to work as a nonsalaried office clerk at a commercial house in Bremen. His parents expected that he would follow his father into a career in business and it would be some years before he joined the family firm. Whilst at Bremen, Engels began reading the philosophy of Hegel, in September 1838, he published his first work, a poem entitled The Bedouin, in the Bremisches Conversationsblatt No.40. He also engaged in literary and journalistic work. Also while at Bremen, Engels began writing newspaper articles critiquing the societal ills of industrialisation and he wrote under a pseudonym, Friedrich Oswald, to avoid connecting his life in a Pietist industrialist family with his provocative writings. In 1841, Engels joined the Prussian Army as a member of the Household Artillery and he was assigned to Berlin, where he attended university lectures at the University of Berlin and began to associate with groups of Young Hegelians. He anonymously published articles in the Rheinische Zeitung, exposing the poor employment, the editor of the Rheinische Zeitung was Karl Marx. Engels did not meet Marx until late November 1842, Engels acknowledged the influence of German philosophy on his intellectual development throughout his life
18.
Mormonism and polygamy
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The Latter-day Saints practice of polygamy has been controversial, both within Western society and the LDS Church itself. America was both fascinated and horrified by the practice of polygamy, with the Republican platform at one time referencing the twin relics of barbarism—polygamy, the private practice of polygamy was instituted in the 1830s by founder Joseph Smith. In 1862, the United States Congress passed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, in spite of the law, Mormons continued to practice polygamy, believing that it was protected by the First Amendment. In 1890, church president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto that officially terminated the practice of polygamy. Although this Manifesto did not dissolve existing plural marriages, relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, on its web site, the church states that the standard doctrine of the church is monogamy and that polygamy was a temporary exception to the rule. Many early converts, including Brigham Young, Orson Pratt, and Lyman Johnson, Pratt reported that Smith told some early members in 1831 and 1832 that plural marriage was a true principle, but that the time to practise it had not yet come. Johnson also claimed to have heard the doctrine from Smith in 1831, mosiah Hancock reported that his father was taught about plural marriage in the spring of 1832. William Clayton, Smiths scribe, recorded polygamous marriages in 1843. Clayton relates, On the 1st day of May,1843, I officiated in the office of an Elder by marrying Lucy Walker to the Prophet Joseph Smith, during this period the Prophet Joseph took several other wives. Amongst the number I well remember Eliza Partridge, Emily Partridge, Sarah Ann Whitney, Helen Kimball and these all, he acknowledged to me, were his lawful, wedded wives, according to the celestial order. His wife Emma was cognizant of the fact of some, if not all, of these being his wives, the majority of what became the Quorum of the Twelve in 1835 attended Mormon conferences held in the center of the Cochranites in 1834 and 1835. Joseph Smith publicly condemned polygamy, denied his involvement in it, but church leaders nevertheless began practicing polygamy in the 1840s, particularly members of the Quorum of the Twelve. At the time, the practice was kept secret from non-members, throughout his life, Smith publicly denied having multiple wives. However, John C. Bennett was called to account by Joseph and Hyrum Smith, in April 1844, Joseph Smith referred to polygamy as John C. The practice was publicly announced in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, in 1852, some five years after the Mormons arrived in Utah, the doctrine authorizing plural marriage was published in the 1876 version of the LDS Churchs Doctrine and Covenants. The 1843 polygamy revelation, published posthumously, counseled Smiths wife Emma to accept all of Smiths plural wives, Emma Smith was publicly and privately opposed to the practice and Joseph may have married some women without Emma knowing beforehand. Emma Smith remained affiliated with the RLDS Church until her death at the age of 74, Emma Smith claimed that the very first time she ever became aware of the 1843 polygamy revelation was when she read about it in Orson Pratts publication The Seer in 1853. There is a difference between sealing, and marriage
19.
Wilford Woodruff
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Wilford Woodruff Sr. was an American religious leader who served as the fourth president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints from 1889 until his death. Woodruff was known as a religious man, but was also enthusiastically involved in the social. He was an outdoorsman, enjoying fishing and hunting. Woodruff learned to fly fish in England, and his 1847 journal account of his fishing in the East Fork River is the earliest known account of fly fishing west of the Mississippi River. As an adult, Woodruff was a farmer, horticulturist and stockman by trade, Woodruff was one of nine children born to Bulah Thompson and Aphek Woodruff, a miller working in Farmington, Connecticut. Wilfords mother Bulah Thompson died of spotted fever in 1808 at the age of 26 and he was raised by his step-mother Azubah Hart. As a young man, Woodruff worked at a sawmill and a mill owned by his father. Woodruff joined the Latter Day Saint church on December 31,1833, at that time, the church numbered only a few thousand believers clustered around Kirtland, Ohio. On January 13,1835, Woodruff left Kirtland on his first full-time mission, preaching without purse or scrip in Arkansas, like many early Latter Day Saints, Woodruff practiced plural marriage. He was married to nine women, however, not all of these marriages were concurrent and his wives, Phoebe Whittemore Carter, m. April 13,1837 Mary Ann Jackson, m, aug 2,1846 Sarah Elinor Brown, m. Aug 2,1846 Mary Caroline Barton, m, aug 2,1846 Mary Meek Giles Webster m. March 28,1852 Emma Smith m, March 13,1853 Sarah Brown, m. March 13,1853 Sarah Delight Stocking m, July 31,1857 Eudora Young Dunford m. March 10,1877 Woodruffs wives bore him a total of 34 children, Woodruff met his first wife, Phoebe Carter, in Kirtland shortly after his return from his first mission through Southern Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee and Kentucky. Woodruff came to Kirtland on November 25,1836, along with Abraham O. Smoot and he was introduced to Phoebe by Milton Holmes on January 28,1837. She was a native of Maine and had become a Latter Day Saint in 1834, Woodruff and Phoebe were married on April 13,1837, with the ceremony performed by Frederick G. Williams. Their marriage was sealed in Nauvoo by Hyrum Smith
20.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a Christian restorationist church that is considered by its members to be the restoration of the original church founded by Jesus Christ. The church is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and has established congregations, according to the church, it has over 70,000 missionaries and a membership of over 15 million. It is ranked by the National Council of Churches as the fourth-largest Christian denomination in the United States and it is the largest denomination in the Latter Day Saint movement founded by Joseph Smith during the period of religious revival known as the Second Great Awakening. Adherents, often referred to as Latter-day Saints, or, less formally, Mormons, view faith in Jesus Christ and his atonement as fundamental principles of their religion. The church has a canon which includes four scriptural texts, the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants. The current president is Thomas S. Monson, individual members of the church believe that they can also receive personal revelation from God in conducting their lives. The president heads a hierarchical structure with various levels reaching down to local congregations, Bishops, drawn from the laity, lead local congregations. Male members, after reaching age 12, may be ordained to the priesthood, Women do not hold positions within the priesthood, but do occupy leadership roles in some church auxiliary organizations. Both men and women may serve as missionaries, and the church maintains a large missionary program which proselytizes, faithful members adhere to church laws of sexual purity, health, fasting, and Sabbath observance, and contribute ten percent of their income to the church in tithing. The LDS Church was formally organized by Joseph Smith on April 6,1830, Smith intended to establish the New Jerusalem in North America, called Zion. In 1831, the moved to Kirtland, Ohio, and began establishing an outpost in Jackson County, Missouri. However, in 1833, Missouri settlers brutally expelled the Latter Day Saints from Jackson County, the Kirtland era ended in 1838, after a financial scandal rocked the church and caused widespread defections. Smith regrouped with the church in Far West, Missouri. Believing the Saints to be in insurrection, the Missouri governor ordered that the Saints be exterminated or driven from the State, in 1839, the Saints converted a swampland on the banks of the Mississippi River into Nauvoo, Illinois, which became the churchs new headquarters. Nauvoo grew rapidly as missionaries sent to Europe and elsewhere gained new converts who then flooded into Nauvoo, meanwhile, Smith introduced polygamy to his closest associates. He also established ceremonies, which he stated the Lord had revealed to him, to allow people to become gods in the afterlife. He also introduced the church to an accounting of his First Vision. This vision would come to be regarded by the LDS Church as the most important event in history since the resurrection of Jesus
21.
Second Manifesto
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To be distinguished from the Second Manifesto of Surrealism The Second Manifesto was a 1904 declaration made by Joseph F. In 1890, church president Wilford Woodruff had issued the initial Manifesto, however, after the Manifesto, it became clear that a number of church members, including members of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, were continuing to enter into or solemnize polygamous marriages. The Second Manifesto was announced at the conference of the church held on April 6,1904. At a public meeting, Smith announced that he would like to read a statement that he had prepared so that his words may not be misunderstood or misquoted. Joseph F. Smith, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, smiths official statement was later published in the Improvement Era, an official magazine of the church. A number of leaders were opposed to the enforcement of the Second Manifesto, including apostles John W. Taylor. As a result of their opposition, both resigned from the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in 1906, and in 1911 Taylor was excommunicated for continued opposition. In 1909, Francis M. Lyman chaired a committee to investigate plural marriages since the Second Manifesto that excommunicated people who had been involved in such practices. As the church began to excommunicate those who continued to enter into plural marriages, John Wickersham Woolley Short Creek raid Gospel Topics, The Manifesto and the End of Plural Marriage, lds. org, LDS Church, retrieved 2014-10-22
22.
October Manifesto
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The Manifesto was issued by Emperor Nicholas II, under the influence of Sergei Witte, on 30 October 1905 as a response to the Russian Revolution of 1905. According to his memoirs Witte did not force the Tsar to sign the October Manifesto, while France, Great Britain, and the United States had chosen democracy in one form or another, the Russian Empire maintained its ancient autocratic government, headed by the Tsar. Russia had in the early 1890s, under guidance of Minister of Finance Sergei Witte, embarked on a programme of industrialisation through foreign investments. However the rapid growth in industry during this period was not met by political reform, nonetheless, peasants still formed 80 percent of the population and, despite the emancipation of the serfs, agrarian problems were still marked. Russia, remaining a mostly agricultural economy, created economic issues, the conflict created by Russia’s economic and political issues climaxed in the months prior to October 1905, also known as the Russian Revolution of 1905. On January 22,1905, peaceful protesters attempted to bring a petition to the Tsar, however this protest was violently put down outside the winter palace when guards were ordered to fire on the protesters. The result of the violent revolt of the protest would be known as Bloody Sunday, the violent reaction to the protest increased the tension throughout Russia further. Unrest amongst the Russian people followed Bloody Sunday, by the thousands people refused to go to work and general strike crippled the Empire. Unrest eventually spread to the Russian countryside where peasants began to burn their masters manors as the Russian people revolted against the autocracy, with Russia’s communication, transportation and public services crippled by the strikes, Nicholas II was forced to act before he lost power completely. Although Russia was at a standstill with violent revolts terrorizing the nation. Nicholas felt that it was not his place to limit a system created by his ancestors and is quoted as saying I cannot squander a legacy that is not mine to squander. Nicholas could not bring himself to understand that the Russian people wished to limit his power, the Manifesto also introduced universal male suffrage in Russia which was common in Western countries at the time. This document, although granting basic rights to the Russian people, instead the Manifesto just stated that the people now had basic rights and a voice in legislation. One provision of the Manifesto was the creation of a body in Russia. The legislative body known as the Duma was flawed from its inception, one major flaw of the Duma was that the Tsar maintained the power to veto any legislation that he wished. The Duma was also weakened by the influence of the Russian bureaucracy, as well as the fact that the body could be disbanded by Nicholas if he, the October Manifesto divided opposition to the Emperor. The Kadets were appeased by the idea of having freedom of speech and a representative government. Successes of the Manifesto were immediate and short-lived, the strikes and much of the violence ended almost as soon as it was published
23.
Nicholas II of Russia
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Nicholas II was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 15 March 1917. His reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic, Soviet historiography portrayed Nicholas as a weak and incompetent leader, whose decisions led to military defeats and the deaths of millions of his subjects. The Anglo-Russian Entente, designed to counter German attempts to influence in the Middle East. Nicholas approved the Russian mobilisation on 30 July 1914, which led to Germany declaring war on Russia on 1 August 1914 and it is estimated that around 3,300,000 Russians were killed in World War I. Following the February Revolution of 1917, Nicholas abdicated on behalf of himself and his son, Nicholas, the recovered remains of the Imperial Family were finally re-interred in St. Petersburg, eighty years to the day on 17 July 1998. In 1981, Nicholas, his wife and their children were canonized as martyrs by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, located in New York City. On 15 August 2000 Nicholas and his family were canonized as passion bearers, Nicholas was born in the Alexander Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, the eldest son of Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia. He had five siblings, Alexander, George, Xenia, Michael. Nicholas often referred to his father nostalgically in letters after Alexanders death in 1894 and he was also very close to his mother, as revealed in their published letters to each other. His paternal grandparents were Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia and his maternal grandparents were King Christian IX and Queen Louise of Denmark. Nicholas was of primarily German and Danish descent, his last ethnically Russian ancestor being Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna, Nicholas was related to several monarchs in Europe. His mothers siblings included Kings Frederik VIII of Denmark and George I of Greece, Nicholas, his wife Alexandra, and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany were all first cousins of King George V of the United Kingdom. Nicholas was also a first cousin of both King Haakon VII and Queen Maud of Norway, as well as King Constantine I of Greece, Tsar Nicholas II was the first cousin-once-removed of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich. To distinguish between them the Grand Duke was often known within the Imperial family as Nikolasha and Nicholas the Tall, while the Tsar was Nicholas the Short. In his childhood, Nicholas, his parents and siblings made annual visits to the Danish royal palaces of Fredensborg and Bernstorff to visit his grandparents, the king and queen. The visits also served as family reunions, as his mothers siblings would come from the United Kingdom, Germany. It was there in 1883, that he had a flirtation with one of his English first cousins, in 1873, Nicholas also accompanied his parents and younger brother, two-year-old George, on a two-month, semi-official visit to England. In London, Nicholas and his family stayed at Marlborough House, as guests of his Uncle Bertie and Aunt Alix, the Prince and Princess of Wales, where he was spoiled by his uncle
24.
1905 Russian Revolution
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The Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire, some of which was directed at the government. It included worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies and it led to Constitutional Reform including the establishment of the State Duma, the multi-party system, and the Russian Constitution of 1906. According to Sidney Harcave, author of The Russian Revolution of 1905, newly emancipated peasants earned too little, and were not allowed to sell or mortgage their allotted land. A nascent industrial working class resented the government for doing too little to them, banning strikes. Finally, the educated class fomented and spread radical ideas after a relaxing of discipline in universities allowed a new consciousness to grow among students, vladimir Lenin was a political theorist who also contributed his own ideology of how a revolution would be caused. In his book Imperialism he claimed that driven imperialism and the dependence on overseas markets would be a factor to revolution. This would cause a rivalry between the powers, leading to war. Taken individually, these issues might not have affected the course of Russian history, the government finally recognized these problems, albeit in a shortsighted and narrow-minded way. The minister of interior Plehve stated in 1903 that, after the problem, the most serious ones plaguing the country were those of the Jews, the schools. This setback aggravated social unrest during the five years preceding the revolution of 1905, every year, thousands of nobles in debt mortgaged their estates to the noble land bank or sold them to municipalities, merchants, or peasants. By the time of the revolution, the nobility had sold off one-third of its land and this plan was meant to prevent proletarianisation of the peasants. However, the peasants were not given land to provide for their needs. Their earnings were often so small that they could buy the food they needed nor keep up the payment of taxes. By the tenth year of Nicholas IIs reign, their total arrears in payments of taxes and dues was 118 million rubles, masses of hungry peasants roamed the countryside looking for work and sometimes walked hundreds of kilometres to find it. Desperate peasants proved capable of violence and these violent outbreaks caught the attention of the government, so it created many committees to investigate their causes. The committees concluded that no part of the countryside was prosperous, some parts, although cultivated acreage had increased in the last half century, the increase had not been proportionate to the growth of peasant populations, which had doubled. The investigations revealed many difficulties but could not find solution that were both sensible and acceptable to the government, nineteenth-century Russians saw cultures and religions in a clear hierarchy. Non-Russian cultures were tolerated in the empire but were not necessarily respected, European civilization was valued over Asian culture, and Christianity was on the whole considered more progressive and true than other religions
25.
Manifesto of the Sixteen
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At the outbreak of the war, Kropotkin and other anarchist supporters of the Allied cause advocated their position in the pages of the Freedom newspaper, provoking sharply critical responses. The resulting manifesto was published in the pages of the pro-war socialist periodical La Bataille on March 14,1916, and republished in other European anarchist periodicals shortly thereafter. The manifesto declared that supporting the war was an act of resistance against the aggression of the German Empire, and that the war had to be pursued until its defeat. At this point, the authors conjectured, the political parties of Germany would be overthrown. In the fallout over the war, Kropotkin became increasingly isolated, the Russian anarchist movement was split into two, with a faction supporting Kropotkins position to the strong criticism of the Bolsheviks. Elsewhere in Europe, including in the Spanish and Swiss anarchist movements, anti-German sentiment was a strong current in progressive and revolutionary movements in Russia from their early beginnings, due to German influence on the aristocracy of the ruling Romanov dynasty. Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, Kropotkin was arrested under suspicion of having motivated the assassins, while in jail, Kropotkin was interviewed for an article to appear in the August 27 edition of The New York Times. Months later, Kropotkin allowed a letter he wrote to be included in an October 1914 issue of Freedom and he also claimed that Russias populace would be radicalized and united following victory in the war, preventing the Russian aristocracy from benefiting from the conflict. As such, he claimed that tactics designed to end the war, such as pacifism and general strikes, were unnecessary, the Bolsheviks quickly responded to Kropotkins militarism in a bid for political capital. In other speeches and essays, Lenin referred to Kropotkin in the years of the war as a bourgeoisie. Throughout 1915 and 1916, Kropotkin, who lived in Brighton and he was unable to travel during the winter, having been ordered not to do so by doctors in January 1915, and underwent two operations to his chest in March. As a result, he was confined to a bed for the majority of 1915, during this time, Kropotkin kept a steady correspondence with other anarchists, including fellow Russian anarchist Marie Goldsmith. As explained above, Kropotkin took firmly pro-war positions during these communiques, like all nationals, the anarchists had been conditioned to react to the political interests of their nations, whose influence left few unaffected. There were all sorts of plausible justifications for imperialism, for financial controls, and, since Tolstoy had been dead since 1910, no voice of libertarian and moral power was heard in the world, no organisation, large or small, spoke up. European anarchist activity was restricted both physically and by the divisions within the anarchist movement over attitudes towards the war. In the following weeks, numerous letters critical of Kropotkin were sent to Freedom, responding to the criticism, Kropotkin became enraged at Keell for not rejecting such letters, denouncing him as a coward unworthy of his role as editor. A meeting was called by members of Freedom who supported Kropotkins pro-war position. Keell, the only anti-war anarchist called to attend, rejected the demand, as a result, Kropotkins connection with Freedom ended and the paper continued to be published as an organ for the majority of anti-war Freedom members
26.
Freydun Atturaya
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Freydon Bet-Abram Atoraya was an Assyrian physician born in the town of Charbash in the district of Urmia in Iran. He was sent by his father to live with an uncle in Tbilisi, then in the Russian Empire and he worked as a medical doctor for the Russian Army as soon as he graduated in 1915. Alongside his military and political career, he wrote poems and founded an Assyrian magazine, after the February 1917 Russian revolution, Freydon Atoraya, Benjamin Bet Arsanis and Baba Bet Parhad founded the first Assyrian political party, the Assyrian Socialist Party. After 1918, the Assyrian National Council which he ran moved to Tbilisi and he was ousted, then imprisoned, after a failed attempt in 1921 to convince the Soviet Foreign minister to repatriate Assyrians to Urmia and Salamis, he married in 1922, and subsequently had two children. He was imprisoned again in 1924 under the accusation of being a fanatic Assyrian nationalist and he died in prison in 1926, probably poisoned or hanged. The docudrama is called A Man Before His Time, the Unsung Life of Freydun Atouraya and it is funded by the Assyrian diaspora community led by the Assyrian Universal Alliance Foundation, based in Chicago. Urmia Manifesto of the United Free Assyria Naum Faiq Farid Nazha Esha Emmanuel Tamras, Dr. Freydun Bit Abram Dr. Fraidoon Atturaya MELTA1995 Volume 1, No 1 Dr. Freydun Bit-Abram
27.
Argentine university reform of 1918
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The events started in Córdoba and spread to the rest of Argentina, and then through much of Latin America. The reform set up the freedom for universities to define their own curriculum and this has had a profound effect on academic life at the universities through the nationalization process that boasts academic freedom and independence throughout the university life. Ever since the Jesuits founded the first university in Argentina in the 17th century, education was managed by the clergy, the universities authorities were selected by them, and professors were appointed for life. Professors also decided on the subjects to be taught, usually following the preferences of the Church, by the end of the 19th century many changes were taking place in Argentina. With the arrival of European immigrants in large waves, new ideas arrived with them which were opposed to the old oligarchic conservatism, the 1912 Sáenz Peña Law of the secret vote brought the less conservative Hipólito Yrigoyen to the presidency in 1916. They succeeded in creating student centres, but their demands were ignored, co-government, the equality of all parties in the university to participate in the election of the above. Scientific modernization, a review of the contents of curricula, to modern scientific knowledge to the study material. No tuition, the right for every student to university education. Secular education, education programs and syllabuses free of Catholic dogmatism, b) A linkage between student politics and national politics in order to mobilize the university toward the solution of economic, social and political problems. C) An emphasis on university extension, particularly courses for workers that would lead to the development of fraternal bonds with the proletariat, e) A defense of institutional autonomy with respect to the state. H) Selection of faculty through open, competitive examinations in order to counteract nepotism and patronage, i) The enlargement and diversification of professional training through the establishment of new professional schools. J) An understanding of university life as a truly communitarian experience, therefore encouraging the development of a population of full-time professors, the conflict started with a lateral problem, the cancellation of the patients beds at the Hospital de Clínicas university hospital in late 1917. On March 31,1918, when classes should have been restarted, the students organised another strike, with demonstrations, josé Matienzo was named intervenor of the university, and he confirmed most of the irregularities described by the students. He declared vacant the positions of Rector of the university and Deans of the faculties, but the students were not to be part of this process, since the conservative Antonio Nores was voted Rector of the University, against the wishes of the students. The students occupied the premises, so classes could not be restarted regularly. They resisted the police and were driven out by force by the national army. The decree of the university reform was redacted on October 12,1918, the same year the reform statutes were enacted into law at Córdoba, they were extended to the University of Buenos Aires and later to other Argentinean universities. The Cordoba Reform had an impact in most Latin American universities
28.
Benedetto Croce
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Benedetto Croce was an Italian idealist philosopher, historian and politician. He wrote on topics, including philosophy, history, historiography. He was a liberal, although he opposed laissez-faire free trade and had influence on other Italian intellectuals. He was President of PEN International, the writers association. He was nominated for the Nobel prize for literature sixteen times, Croce was born in Pescasseroli in the Abruzzo region of Italy. His family was influential and wealthy, and he was raised in a very strict Catholic environment and he kept this philosophy for the rest of his life. In 1883, an earthquake occurred in the village of Casamicciola on the island of Ischia near Naples and his mother, father, and only sister were all killed, while he was buried for a long time and barely survived. He studied law, but never graduated, at the University of Naples and his ideas were publicized at the University of Rome towards the ends of the 1890s by Professor Antonio Labriola. Influenced by Neapolitan-born Gianbattista Vicos thoughts about art and history, he began studying philosophy in 1893, Croce also purchased the house in which Vico had lived. His friend, the philosopher Giovanni Gentile, encouraged him to read Hegel, Croces famous commentary on Hegel, What is Living and What is Dead in the Philosophy of Hegel, was published in 1907. As his fame increased, Croce was persuaded, against his initial wishes and he was appointed to the Italian Senate, a lifelong position, in 1910. He was a critic of Italys participation in World War I. Though this made him unpopular, his reputation was restored after the war. He was Minister of Public Education between 1920 and 1921 for the 5th and last government headed by Giovanni Giolitti, Gentile remained minister for only a year, but managed to begin a comprehensive reform of Italian education that was based partly on Croces earlier suggestions. Gentiles reform remained in force well beyond the Fascist regime, and was partly abolished in 1962. Croce was instrumental in the relocation of the Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III to Naples Palazzo Reale in 1923, Croce initially supported Mussolinis Fascist government that took power in 1922. However, the assassination by Fascists of the socialist politician, Giacomo Matteotti and he later explained that he had hoped that the support for Mussolini in parliament would weaken the more extreme Fascists who, he believed, were responsible for Matteottis murder. Croce later coined the term onagrocrazia to emphasize the anti-intellectual and boorish tendencies of parts of the Fascist regime, Croce also described Fascism as malattia morale
29.
Mein Kampf
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Mein Kampf is a 1925 autobiographical book by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work outlines Hitlers political ideology and future plans for Germany, Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited by Hitlers deputy Rudolf Hess, Hitler began the book while imprisoned for what he considered to be political crimes following his failed Putsch in Munich in November 1923. Although Hitler received many visitors initially, he devoted himself entirely to the book. As he continued, Hitler realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, in 2016, following the expiry of the copyright held by the Bavarian state government, Mein Kampf was republished in Germany for the first time since 1945. Hitler originally wanted to call his forthcoming book Viereinhalb Jahre gegen Lüge, Dummheit und Feigheit, or Four, max Amann, head of the Franz Eher Verlag and Hitlers publisher, is said to have suggested the much shorter Mein Kampf or My Struggle. The narrative describes the process by which he became increasingly antisemitic and militaristic and he speaks of not having met a Jew until he arrived in Vienna, and that at first his attitude was liberal and tolerant. When he first encountered the anti-semitic press, he says, he dismissed it as unworthy of serious consideration, later he accepted the same anti-semitic views, which became crucial to his program of national reconstruction of Germany. Mein Kampf has also studied as a work on political theory. For example, Hitler announces his hatred of what he believed to be the two evils, Communism and Judaism. He announced that he wanted to destroy the parliamentary system, believing it to be corrupt in principle. While historians dispute the exact date Hitler decided to force the Jewish people to emigrate to Madagascar, first published in 1925, Mein Kampf shows Hitlers personal grievances and his ambitions for creating a New Order. Historian Ian Kershaw points out that passages in Mein Kampf are undeniably of a genocidal nature. The racial laws to which Hitler referred resonate directly with his ideas in Mein Kampf, in his first edition of Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that the destruction of the weak and sick is far more humane than their protection. Apart from this allusion to humane treatment, Hitler saw a purpose in destroying the weak in order to provide the proper space and purity for the strong. In the chapter Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy, Hitler argued that the Germans needed Lebensraum in the East, a historic destiny that would properly nurture the German people. In Mein Kampf Hitler openly stated the future German expansion in the East and we take up where we broke off six hundred years ago. We stop the endless German movement to the south and west, at long last we break off the colonial and commercial policy of the pre-War period and shift to the soil policy of the future
30.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
31.
Oswald de Andrade
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José Oswald de Souza Andrade was a Brazilian poet and polemicist. He was born and spent most of his life in São Paulo, Andrade was one of the founders of Brazilian modernism and a member of the Group of Five, along with Mário de Andrade, Anita Malfatti, Tarsila do Amaral and Menotti del Picchia. He participated in the Week of Modern Art, Andrade is very important too for his manifesto of critical Brazilian nationalism, Manifesto Antropófago, published in 1928. Its argument is that Brazils history of cannibalizing other cultures is its greatest strength, cannibalism becomes a way for Brazil to assert itself against European postcolonial cultural domination. The Manifestos iconic line is Tupi or not Tupi, that is the question, the line is simultaneously a celebration of the Tupi, who had been at times accused of cannibalism, and an instance of cannibalism, it eats Shakespeare. His role in the modernist community was somewhat awkward, however, by his feud with Mário de Andrade. Dictionary of Latin American Cultural Studies, edited by Robert McKee Irwin and Mónica Szurmuk. Gainesville, The University Press of Florida, 22-28, the University Press of Florida,2012, 22-28. Totens e tabus da modernidade brasileira, símbolo e alegoria na obra de Oswald de Andrade, O Banquete Canibal, A modernidade em Tarsila do Amaral 1886-1973 Curitiba, Editora UFPR,2002. A Utopia Antropofágica, A Antropofagia ao alcance de todos, São Paulo, Globo,1990 Netto, Adriano Bitarães. Antropofagia Oswaldiana, Um Receituário Estético e Científico, Morais Junior, Luís Carlos de Lui Morais. O Olho do Ciclope e os Novos Antropófagos, Antropofagia Cinematótica na Literatura Brasileira, rio de Janeiro, Quártica Editora,2009. In Spanish, Jauregui, Carlos A. Canibalia, canibalismo, calibanismo, antropofagia cultural y consumo en América Latina. Madrid, Spain, Vervuert, ETC, Ensayos de Teoría Cultural 1,2008, article on the Antropofagia movement Poems by O. de Andrade translated into the English Language. AN ANTHOLOGY OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY BRAZILIAN POETRY, sponsored by the Academy of American Poets
32.
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
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The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation was a social-democratic and democratic socialist political party in Canada. The CCF was founded in 1932 in Calgary, Alberta, by a number of socialist, agrarian, co-operative, and labour groups, in 1944, the CCF formed the first social-democratic government in North America when it was elected to form the provincial government in Saskatchewan. In 1961, the CCF was succeeded by the New Democratic Party, the full, but little used, name of the party was Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. Many of the partys first Members of Parliament were members of the Ginger Group, composed of United Farmers of Alberta, left-wing Progressive, and Labour MPs. These MPs included United Farmers of Alberta MPs William Irvine and Ted Garland, Agnes Macphail, Humphrey Mitchell, Abraham Albert Heaps, Angus MacInnis, and Labour Party MP J. S. Woodsworth. Also involved in founding the new party were members of the League for Social Reconstruction, such as F. R. Scott, J. S. Woodsworth was unanimously appointed the temporary leader until they could hold a founding convention. The temporary name for the new party was the Commonwealth Party, at its founding convention in 1932 in Calgary, the party settled on the name Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and selected J. S. Woodsworth as party leader. Woodsworth had been an Independent Labour Party MP since 1921 and a member of the Ginger Group of MPs, the partys 1933 convention, held in Regina, Saskatchewan, adopted the Regina Manifesto as the partys program. The party affiliated to the Socialist International, in line with Albertas important role in founding the CCF, it is said that the first CCF candidate elected was Chester Ronning in the Alberta provincial constituency of Camrose, in October 1932. The UFA, under whose banner he contested the election, formalized its already-strong connection to the CCF in its next provincial convention, in its first federal election, seven CCF MPs were elected to the House of Commons in 1935. Eight were elected in the election in 1940, including their first member east of Manitoba, Clarence Gillis. The party was divided with the outbreak of World War II, Woodsworth was a passionate pacifist, Woodsworth had a physically dehabilitating stroke in May 1940 and could no longer perform his duties as leader. In October, Woodsworth wrote a letter to the 1940 CCF convention, instead, the delegates created the new position of Honorary President, abolished the Presidents position and re-elected M. J. Coldwell as the National Chairman. Coldwell was then appointed acting House Leader on 6 November, Woodsworth died on 21 March 1942, and Coldwell officially became the new leader at the July convention in Toronto and threw the partys support behind the war effort. As a memorial to Woodsworth, Coldwell suggested that the CCF create a research foundation, the party won a critical York South by-election on 8 February 1942, and in the process prevented the Conservative leader, former Prime Minister Arthur Meighen, from entering the House of Commons. In the 1945 election,28 CCF MPs were elected, however, the party was to have its greatest success in provincial politics in the 1940s. In 1943, the Ontario CCF became the opposition in that province. Federally, during the Cold War, the CCF was accused of having Communist leanings, the party moved to address these accusations in 1956 by replacing the Regina Manifesto with a more moderate document, the Winnipeg Declaration
33.
Humanist Manifesto
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Humanist Manifesto is the title of three manifestos laying out a Humanist worldview. They are the original Humanist Manifesto, the Humanist Manifesto II, the Manifesto originally arose from religious Humanism, though secular Humanists also signed. Each has been signed at its launch by various prominent members of academia, in addition, there is a similar document entitled A Secular Humanist Declaration published in 1980 by the Council for Secular Humanism. The first manifesto, entitled simply A Humanist Manifesto, was written in 1933 primarily by Roy Wood Sellars, the title A Humanist Manifesto—rather than The Humanist Manifesto—was intentional, predictive of later Manifestos to follow, as indeed has been the case. Unlike the creeds of major organized religions, the out of Humanist ideals in these Manifestos is an ongoing process. The second Manifesto was written in 1973 by Paul Kurtz and Edwin H. Wilson, nevertheless, much of the unbridled optimism of the first remained, with hopes stated that war would become obsolete and poverty would be eliminated. Furthermore, its proposal of a court has since been implemented. However, in addition to its rejection of supernaturalism, various controversial stances are strongly supported, initially published with a small number of signatures, the document was circulated and gained thousands more, and indeed the AHA website encourages visitors to add their own name. A provision at the end noted that signators do not necessarily endors every detail of the document, Humanism and Its Aspirations, subtitled Humanist Manifesto III, a successor to the Humanist Manifesto of 1933, was published in 2003 by the AHA, and was written by committee. The new document is the successor to the ones. Humans are a part of nature, the result of evolutionary change. Ethical values are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience, life’s fulfillment emerges from individual participation in the service of humane ideals. Humans are social by nature and find meaning in relationships, working to benefit society maximizes individual happiness. Humanist Manifesto is a trademark of the AHA, formulation of new statements in emulation of the three Humanist Manifestoes is encouraged, and examples follow. The document was issued in 1980 by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism, compiled by Paul Kurtz, it is largely a restatement of the content of the American Humanist Associations 1973 Humanist Manifesto II, of which he was co-author with Edwin H. Wilson. Both Wilson and Kurtz had served as editors of The Humanist, from which Kurtz departed in 1979 and thereafter set about establishing his own movement and his Secular Humanist Declaration was the starting point for these enterprises. Humanist Manifesto 2000, A Call for New Planetary Humanism is a book by Paul Kurtz published in 2000. It differs from the three in that it is a full-length book rather than essay-length, and was published not by the American Humanist Association
