1.
Suharto
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Suharto was the second President of Indonesia, holding the office for 31 years from the ousting of Sukarno in 1967 until his resignation in 1998. Suharto was born in a village, Kemusuk, in the Godean area near the city of Yogyakarta. He grew up in humble circumstances and his Javanese Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he was passed between foster parents for much of his childhood. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, Suharto served in Japanese-organised Indonesian security forces, Indonesias independence struggle saw his joining the newly formed Indonesian army. Suharto rose to the rank of major general following Indonesian independence, an attempted coup on 30 September 1965 allegedly backed by the Indonesian Communist Party was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led an anti-communist purge which the CIA described as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century and Suharto wrested power from Indonesias founding president and he was appointed acting president in 1967, replacing Indonesian founding father Sukarno, and elected President the following year. He then mounted a campaign known as De-Soekarnoization in an effort to reduce the former Presidents influence. Support for Suhartos presidency was strong throughout the 1970s and 1980s, by the 1990s, the New Orders authoritarianism and widespread corruption were a source of discontent and, following a severe financial crisis, led to widespread unrest and his resignation in May 1998. Suharto died in 2008 and was given a state funeral, the legacy of Suhartos 31-year rule is debated both in Indonesia and abroad. Under his New Order administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government, an ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-Communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialisation, dramatically improving health, education, plans to bestow Suharto with a National Hero title are currently being considered by the Indonesian government and has been highly debated in Indonesia. According to Transparency International, Suharto is the most corrupt leader in modern history, Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 during the Dutch East Indies era, in a plaited bamboo walled house in the hamlet of Kemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean. The village is 15 kilometres west of Yogyakarta, the heartland of the Javanese. Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the child of his fathers second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage, and was a village irrigation official and his mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related to Sultan Hamengkubuwono V by his first concubine. Five weeks after Suhartos birth, his mother suffered a breakdown and he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt. Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suhartos life and both later remarried, at the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies. Over the following two years, he was back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father
2.
Mohammad Jusuf
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Jusuf was born in Kayuara, Bone, South Sulawesi on 23 June 1928. Not much is known about Jusufs early life other than the fact he was a Bugis aristocrat as witnessed by the titular name Andi in front of his name, Jusuf would later denounce his aristocratic background by dropping Andi from his name. When Nationalist leaders, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta proclaimed Indonesias Independence on 17 August 1945, towards the end of 1945, with the Dutch Government preparing to retake Indonesia, Jusuf and his fellow KRIS members sailed for Java to join in the fighting. Jusuf actually started his career in the Navy, becoming the adjutant of Navy Lieutenant Colonel Kahar Muzakkar at the 10th Navy Staff Commando headquarters in Yogyakarta. By 1949, Jusuf had switched over to the Army, becoming a part of the Military Police before becoming a member of the Eastern Indonesia Military Commission. In 1950, Jusuf became the adjutant of Colonel Alexander Evert Kawilarang, in this position, Jusuf participated in putting down rebellions by the Republic of South Maluku. Jusuf then continued his career, serving as a Regimental Chief of Staff in Manado, an Operations Assistant to the Commander of KODAM VII/Wirabuana. During the mid-1950s there was a concern among the people of Sulawesi that the Central Government in Jakarta was not catering to their needs and they were calls made for decentralization in all aspects of Governance, ranging from economic development to security. Jusuf also showed concern by the fact that KODAM VII/Wirabuanas security brief covered all of Eastern Indonesia whereas the KODAMs in Western Indonesia had an area to cover. This concern for decentralization culminated in the Permesta statement which was signed by important figures in Sulawesi on 2 March 1957, the statement also declared a state of emergency in Eastern Indonesia. At this time, Jusuf became an officer for Permesta. It was not long however, before Jusuf abandoned the movement, in May 1957, Army Chief of Staff Abdul Haris Nasution, authorized the formation of KODAM XIV/Hasanuddin, KODAM/South East Sulawesi and KODAM XVI/Udayana to cover the security of Sulawesi. With his request now fulfilled, there was no reason for Jusuf to stay with Permesta, instead, Jusuf became a spy, reporting the results of meetings to the Central Government who were suspicious that Permesta was a separatist movement. Jusuf dropped his charade with Permesta in May 1958 with his appointment as Commander of KODAM/South East Sulawesi, from his position, Jusuf assisted the Central Government in putting down the Permesta movement. In October 1959, Jusuf was transferred to KODAM XIV/Hasanuddin to become its Commander, as Commander of KODAM XIV/Hasanuddin, Jusuf was responsible for the security of South Sulawesi. In August 1964, Jusuf was named as Minister of Industry, although this was a civilian post, it was not a surprise that Jusuf was appointed to this position as Sukarno had other members of ABRI in his Cabinet for reasons other than defense and security. On 11 March 1966, Jusuf attended a Cabinet meeting at the Presidential Palace, the meeting did not last long before Sukarno, after receiving a note from the Commander of his Bodyguards, suddenly left the room. When the meeting was over, Jusuf and the Minister of Veterans Affairs, Basuki Rachmat, Jusuf was then updated on what happened and was informed that Sukarno had left for Bogor by helicopter because it was not secure in Jakarta
3.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
4.
North Sumatra
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North Sumatra, is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the island of Sumatra, and its capital is Medan, after independence, the first session of the National Committee of Regions, Sumatra was then divided into three sub-provinces namely North Sumatra, Central Sumatra and South Sumatra. North Sumatra province itself is an amalgamation of three regions called residency namely, Residency of Aceh, East Sumatra Residency, and residency of Tapanuli. With the publication of the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No, date 15 April 1948 subsequently determined as the anniversary of North Sumatra Province. In early 1949, the reorganization of government back in Sumatra, with the decision of the Government Emergency R. I. No.22 / Govt / Emergency Government on May 17,1949, furthermore, the Government Emergency Decree R. I. on December 17,1949, established the province of Aceh and Tapanuli Province / East Sumatra. Then, with a Government Regulation in lieu of Law No.5 Year 1950 on August 14,1950, such provisions shall be lifted and reshaped North Sumatra Province. No.24 of 1956, promulgated on December 7,1956, established an autonomous region of Aceh province, the province of North Sumatra stretches across the island of Sumatra between the Indian Ocean and the Strait Malacca. It borders Aceh province on the northwest and Riau and West Sumatra provinces in the southeast and it has an area of 72,981 km². The province contains a broad, low plain along the Strait of Malacca on which the provincial capital, Medan, is located. In the south and west, the rises to the mountain range that runs the length of Sumatra. Several large islands in the Indian Ocean off the west coast of Sumatra are currently part of North Sumatra, most notably Nias Island, there are 419 islands in propisi North Sumatra. The outer islands is the island Simuk, and the island Berhala in the Strait of Sumatra, Nias archipelago consists of the island as the main island and other smaller islands in the vicinity. Nias Islands located off the coast of western Indian Ocean, administration center located in Gunung Sitoli. Batu Islands consist of 51 islands with four islands, Sibuasi, Pini, Tanahbala. Pulautelo administrative center on the island Sibuasi, Batu Islands located in the southeast of the island of Nias. Other islands in the North Sumatra, Imanna, Pasu, Bawa, Hamutaia, Batumakalele, Lego, Masa, Bau, Simaleh, Makole, Jake, in North Sumatra, there are currently two national parks, the Gunung Leuser National Park and Batang Gadis National Park. According to the Ministerial Decree, No.44 of 2005, but this figure character is de jure alone
5.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
6.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
7.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
8.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
9.
Empire of Japan
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The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces
10.
Pembela Tanah Air
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PETA or Kyōdo Bōei Giyūgun was an Indonesian volunteer army established on 3 October 1943 in Indonesia by the occupying Japanese. The Japanese intended PETA to assist their forces in opposing an invasion by the Allies. The word PETA itself means map in local language, by the end of the war, there were a total of 69 battalions in Java and Sumatra. On 17 August 1945, the day after the Indonesian Declaration of Independence, the Japanese ordered the PETA daidan to surrender and hand over their weapons, which most of them did. During the Indonesian National Revolution, former PETA officers and troops, such as Suharto and Sudirman, Suharto Supriyadi Sudirman Gatot Soebroto Pembela Tanah Air Museum Bachtiar, Harsja W. Siapa Dia. C. A History of Modern Indonesia, c.1300 to the present
11.
Indonesian Army
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The Indonesian Army, the land component of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, has an estimated strength of 300,000 active personnel. The history of the Indonesian Army has its roots in 1945 when the Tentara Keamanan Rakyat Civil Security Forces first emerged as a paramilitary and police corps. The Indonesia Army is composed of a headquarters,12 military area commands, a reserve command KOSTRAD, a special forces command Kopassus. In the week following the Japanese surrender of 1945, the Giyugun, most PETA and Heiho members did not yet know about the declaration of independence. Command structures and membership vital for an army were consequently dismantled. In the self-created Indonesian army, Japanese-trained Indonesian officers prevailed over those trained by the Dutch, a thirty-year-old former school teacher, Sudirman, was elected commander-in-chief at the first meeting of Division Commanders in Yogyakarta on 12 November 1945. At critical moments during the revolution, the managed to manifest itself as a peoples army, the army of the revolution. As the power of the newborn, in addition to arranging the TNI itself, at the time must also face various challenges. From within the country, the military face-undermining undermining both a political dimension as well as military dimensions, political undermining sourced from the communist groups who want to put the military under their influence through political officers, the Bureau of Struggle, and TNI community. Challenges from abroad, namely TNI twice face the Dutch military aggression that had a more advanced weaponry, thus, the integrity and existence of the Unitary Republic of Indonesia has been able to be maintained by military force with the people. In accordance with the decision of the Round Table Conference, at the end of 1949 formed the United States of Indonesia, correspondingly, also formed the Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia Serikat which is combined with the TNI and the former KNIL as its core. In August 1950 RIS was disbanded and returned to form unitary State, APRIS was renamed to Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia. The period is called the period of liberal democracy is characterized by various rebellions in the country. The army also need to confront the uprising in Makassar led by Andi Azis, meanwhile, DaruI Tslam in West Java widen its influence to South Kalimantan, South Sulawesi and Aceh. In 1958 the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia / Peoples Struggle started arebellion in large parts of Sumatra, all of the rebellion were crushed by the military along with the strength of other national components. On 17 November 1952, General Nasution is suspended as army chief of staff following army indiscipline over command, on 5 July 1959, Sukarno, with armed forces support, issued a decree dissolving the Constituent Assembly and reintroducing the Constitution of 1945 with strong presidential powers. He assumed the role of Prime Minister, which completes the structure of Guided Democracy. At the same time, the Indonesian government started sending their troops on UN peacekeeping mission, the first batch of soldiers were sent to Sinai, Egypt and were known as Garuda Contingent 1
12.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
13.
Indonesian National Revolution
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It took place between Indonesias declaration of independence in 1945 and the Dutch recognition of Indonesias independence at the end of 1949. The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the Year of National Awakening, the struggle lasted for over four years and involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces were able to control the towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra. In 1949 international pressure on the Netherlands became such that, together with the existing partial military stalemate, the revolution marked the end of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, except for Netherlands New Guinea. It also significantly changed ethnic castes, as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers and it did not significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the majority of the population, although a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated Volksraad in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule, others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, the occupation of Indonesia by Japan for three and a half years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, in Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra, the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, on 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set. For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese, under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee elected Sukarno as President, PROCLAMATION We, the people of Indonesia, hereby declare the independence of Indonesia. Matters which concern the transfer of power and other things will be executed by careful means, as the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. External power had shifted, it would be weeks before Allied Forces entered Indonesia, the resulting power vacuums in the weeks following the Japanese surrender, created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans. Many pemuda joined pro-Republic struggle groups, the most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded Giyugun and Heiho groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit, in the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations. To spread the message, pemuda set up their own radio stations and newspapers. On most islands, struggle committees and militia were set up, Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment, some wanted passionate armed struggle, others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the idea that this was a struggle to be led
14.
Indonesian invasion of East Timor
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The Indonesian invasion of East Timor, known in Indonesia as Operation Lotus began on 7 December 1975, when the Indonesian military invaded East Timor under the pretext of anti-colonialism. East Timor owes its territorial distinctiveness from the rest of Timor, following the war, the Dutch East Indies secured its independence as the independent Republic of Indonesia and the Portuguese, meanwhile, re-established control over East Timor. When East Timor was invaded by Indonesia in December 1975, it had few links to the rest of the archipelago. As a former Portuguese colony, it lacked a shared experience with other regions. According to the pre-1974 Constitution of Portugal, East Timor, known then as Portuguese Timor, was an overseas province. Unlike the African colonies, East Timor did not experience a war of national liberation, however, indigenous political parties rapidly sprang up in Timor, The Timorese Democratic Union was the first political association to be announced after the Carnation Revolution. UDT was originally composed of senior leaders and plantation owners. These leaders had conservative origins and showed allegiance to Portugal, meanwhile, Fretilin was composed of administrators, teachers, and other newly recruited members of the urban elites. Fretilin quickly became more popular than UDT due to a variety of programs it introduced to the populace. However, UDT and Fretilin entered into a coalition by January 1975 with the goal of self-determination. This coalition came to represent almost all of the educated sector, APODETI, a third minor party, also sprang up, and its goal was integration with Indonesia. However, the party had little popular appeal, by April 1975, internal conflicts split the UDT leadership, with Lopes da Cruz leading a faction that wanted to abandon Fretilin. Lopes da Cruz was concerned that the wing of Fretilin would turn East Timor into a communist front. However, Fretilin called this accusation an Indonesian conspiracy, as the wing did not have a power base. On 11 August, Fretilin received a letter from UDT leaders terminating the coalition, UDT leaders arrested more than 80 Fretilin members, including future leader Xanana Gusmão. UDT members killed a dozen Fretilin members in four locations, the victims included a founding member of Fretilin, and a brother of its vice-president, Nicolau Lobato. Fretilin responded by appealing successfully to the Portuguese-trained East Timorese military units, uDTs violent takeover thus provoked the three-week long civil war, in pitting its 1,500 troops against the 2,000 regular forces now led by Fretilin commanders. When the Portuguese-trained East Timorese military switched allegiance to Fretilin, it came to be known as Falintil, by the end of August, the UDT remnants were retreating toward the Indonesian border
15.
New Order (Indonesia)
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The New Order is the term coined by the second Indonesian President Suharto to characterise his regime as he came to power in 1966. Suharto used this term to contrast his rule with that of his predecessor, the term New Order in more recent times has become synonymous with the Suharto years. The generation of 66 epitomised talk of a new group of young leaders, strident anti-communism remained a hallmark of the regime for its subsequent 32 years. Within a few years, however, many of its allies had become indifferent or averse to the New Order. Among much of the movement which forced Suharto to resign in the 1998 Indonesian Revolution and then gained power. It is frequently employed to describe figures who were tied to the Suharto period, or who upheld the practises of his authoritarian regime, such as corruption, collusion. Sukarno was Indonesias founding president, a position he had held since the Republics formation in 1945, in 1955, the first general parliamentary elections delivered an unstable parliament and from the late 1950s, Sukarnos rule became increasingly autocratic under his Guided Democracy. To the resentment of the Military and Muslim groups, this arrangement became increasingly reliant on the PKI which had become the country’s strongest political party, Sukarno’s anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union and China which was met with indignation from Western countries. Sukarno’s administration became increasingly ineffective in providing an economic system to lift its citizens out of poverty. Meanwhile, Sukarno led Indonesia into Konfrontasi, a confrontation with Malaysia, removed Indonesia from the United Nations. By 1965 at the height of the Cold War, the PKI penetrated all levels of government, with the support of Sukarno and the Air Force, the party gained increasing influence at the expense of the Army, thus ensuring the Armys enmity. Muslim clerics, many of whom were landowners, felt threatened by the PKIs rural land confiscation actions, the army was alarmed at Sukarno’s support for the PKI’s wish to quickly establish a fifth force of armed peasants and labourers. On 30 September 1965, six generals were killed by a group calling themselves the 30 September Movement who alleged a plot to kill the President. General Suharto led the army in suppressing the coup attempt. The Communist Party of Indonesia were quickly blamed and the led an anti-communist purge which killed an estimated 500,000 people. Student groups, such as KAMI, were encouraged by, and sided with, in March 1966, Suharto secured a presidential decree, which gave him authority to take any action necessary to maintain security. A June session of the parliament banned Marxism-Leninism, ratified the Supersemar. In August–September 1966, and against the wishes of Sukarno, the New Order ended Indonesias confrontation with Malaysia, in March 1967, the MPRS stripped Sukarno of his remaining power, and Suharto was named Acting President
16.
Batak
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Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, Angkola, while the archaeology of southern Sumatra testifies to the existence of neolithic settlers, it seems that the northern part of Sumatra was settled by agriculturalists at a considerably later stage. Reliable historical records of the Batak before 1800 are virtually non-existent, the Batak may be mentioned in Zhao Ruguas 13th-century Description of the Barbarous People, which refers to a Ba-ta dependency of Srivijaya. The Suma Oriental, of the 15th century, also refers to the kingdom of Bata, bounded by Pasai and it has been suggested that the important port of Barus in Tapanuli was populated primarily by Batak people. Tamil remains have been found on key trade routes to the Batak lands, tamil influence on Karo religious practices are also noted, with the pekualuh secondary cremation ritual being specific to the Karo and Dairi people. Moreover the Pustaka Kembaren, a story of the Sembiring Kembaren suggests linkages with Pagarruyung in Minangkabau Highlands. From the 16th century onward, Aceh increased the production of pepper, an important export commodity, in exchange for rice, which grew well in the Batak wetlands. Batak people in different areas cultivated either sawah or ladang, the increasing importance of rice had religious significance, which increased the power of the Batak high priests, who had responsibility for ensuring agricultural success. The Batak speak a variety of related languages, all members of the Austronesian language family. Simalungun is an offspring of the southern branch. Some Simalungun dialects can be understood by speakers of Batak Karo and this is due to the existence of a linguistic continuum that often blurs the lines between the Batak dialects. Batak dialect still influences the dialects in Medan city today, the Batak possess their own script known as the Surat Batak. The writing has chiefly ceremonial importance within traditional religious ceremonies, and was subject to change for this reason. It is likely that the Batak people originally received their writing system from southern Sumatra, the traditional occupation of the Batak was agriculture, hunting and farming. The great lake of Toba provided vast opportunity for freshwater aquaculture since ancient times, the port of Barus on the western coast of Batak lands has become famous as the source of kapur barus. In ancient times, Batak warriors were recruited by neighboring Malay courts as mercenaries. In the colonial era, the Dutch introduced commercial cash crops, such as coffee, sawit palm oil, throughout the history of modern Indonesia, the Batak community has been a significant contributor. Batak people have filled a range of occupations, from running modest tire service workshops to serving as state ministers
17.
Principal (school)
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In Scotland, the holder of this position is sometimes known as the rector, most commonly in independent schools. As in Scotland, the rector is still in use in the United States in independent religious schools. Some American state schools, such as Boston Latin School, Brooklyn Latin School, in recent years, however, most state schools have switched to the gender-neutral head teacher as the official title. Nevertheless, the terms are still in common use, and are still the official titles at some of the remaining state grammar schools. Some use other terms, such as high master, public schools in the United States generally use the title principal whereas private schools in the United States sometimes use the title Head of School. While some head teachers still do some teaching themselves, in most larger schools most of their duties are managerial and pastoral and they are considered part of the school executive, and often a head teacher position is a stepping-stone into administration. In larger schools, the principal is assisted by one or more vice-principals, assistant principals, associate principals and their position is secondary to the principal with regard to school governance. In many Australian and New Zealand schools, a headmaster/principal is the administrator of a school who has been appointed to her/his position by the school board, superintendent. The principal, often in conjunction with the board, makes the executive decisions that govern the school. The principal is often the chief disciplinarian of the students, in 1999, there were about 133,000 principals and assistant principals in the United States. Yet the term Headmaster and Head of School is still used in older schools. School principals in the United States are expected to have school administrator licensure, and, often, while there has been considerable anecdotal discussion about the importance of school leaders, there has been very little systematic research into their impact on student outcomes. Recent analysis in the United States has examined how the gains in student achievement at a change after the principal changes. This outcome-based approach to measuring effectiveness of principals is very similar to the value-added modeling that has applied to the evaluation of teachers. Such research in the state of Texas found that principals have a large impact on student achievement. Effective school leaders have shown to significantly improve the performance of all students at the school. Ineffective principals have a large negative effect on school performance. The impact of principals has also measured in non-traditional ways
18.
Imperial Japanese Army
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The Imperial Japanese Army or IJA, literally Army of the Greater Japanese Empire, was the official ground-based armed force of the Empire of Japan, from 1871 to 1945. Later an Inspectorate General of Military Aviation became the agency with oversight of the army. During the Meiji Restoration, the forces loyal to Emperor Meiji were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist daimyōs of Satsuma. This central army, the Imperial Japanese Army, became even more essential after the abolition of the han system in 1871. One of the differences between the samurai and the peasant class was the right to bear arms, this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. In 1878, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, based on the German General Staff, was established directly under the Emperor and was given broad powers for military planning and strategy. The Japanese invasion of Taiwan under Qing rule in 1874 was an expedition by Japanese military forces in response to the Mudan Incident of December 1871. The Paiwan people, who are indigenous peoples of Taiwan, murdered 54 crewmembers of a merchant vessel from the Ryukyu Kingdom on the southwestern tip of Taiwan. 12 men were rescued by the local Chinese-speaking community and were transferred to Miyako-jima in the Ryukyu Islands and it marked the first overseas deployment of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. Not surprisingly, the new led to a series of riots from disgruntled samurai. One of the riots, led by Saigō Takamori, was the Satsuma Rebellion. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution, top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the Emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were mostly from the peasantry, tended to draw the military closer to the people. In time, most people came to look more for guidance in matters more to military than to political leaders. By the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia, well-trained, well-equipped, however, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. The Sino-Japanese War would come to symbolize the weakness of the military of the Qing dynasty and this was the result by Japans 120, 000-strong western-style conscript army of two armies and five divisions, which was well-equipped and well-trained when compared with their Qing counterparts. The Treaty of Shimonoseki made the Qing defeat official, with a shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan. In 1899–1900, Boxer attacks against foreigners in China intensified eventually resulting in the siege of the legations in Beijing
19.
Civil service
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A civil servant or public servant is a person so employed in the public sector employed for a government department or agency. The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the service varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom, for instance, only Crown employees are referred to as civil servants whereas county or city employees are not, many consider the study of service to be a part of the field of public administration. Workers in non-departmental public bodies may also be classed as servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms. Collectively a states civil servants form its service or public service. An international civil servant or international staff member is an employee who is employed by an intergovernmental organization. These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation but are governed by internal staff regulations, All disputes related to international civil service are brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations such as, for instance, the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO. Specific referral can be made to the International Civil Service Commission of the United Nations and its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service. The origin of the modern civil service can be traced back to Imperial examination founded in Imperial China. The Imperial exam based on merit was designed to select the best administrative officials for the states bureaucracy and this system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit, after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the Nine-rank system. This system was reversed during the short-lived Sui Dynasty, which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations, the first civil service examination system was established by Emperor Wen of Sui. The examination tested the candidates memorization of the Nine Classics of Confucianism and his ability to compose poetry using fixed and traditional forms, the system was finally abolished by the Qing government in 1905 as part of the New Policies reform package. The Chinese system was admired by European commentators from the 16th century onward. In the 18th century, in response to changes and the growth of the British Empire, the bureaucracy of institutions such as the Office of Works. Each had its own system, but in general, staff were appointed through patronage or outright purchase, by the 19th century, it became increasingly clear that these arrangements were falling short. The origins of the British civil service are better known, during the eighteenth century a number of Englishmen wrote in praise of the Chinese examination system, some of them going so far as to urge the adoption for England of something similar. The first concrete step in this direction was taken by the British East India Company in 1806, in that year, the Honourable East India Company established a college, the East India Company College, near London to train and examine administrators of the Companys territories in India
20.
Allies of World War II
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The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese, at the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland was a minor factor after its defeat in 1939, France was a minor factor after its defeat in 1940. China had already been into a war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942, however, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the Big Three – the UK, the Soviet Union, in 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I, Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republics legitimacy became shaken, by the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German-populated Austria. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement, in Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933, after four quiet years, the Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japans actions and initiated sanctions on Japan, the United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country, also, the French had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the powers. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, a Polish government-in-exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini
21.
Sukarno
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Sukarno was the first President of Indonesia, serving in office from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of his countrys struggle for Independence from the Netherlands and he was a prominent leader of Indonesias nationalist movement during the Dutch colonial period, and spent over a decade under Dutch detention until released by the invading Japanese forces. Sukarno and his fellow nationalists collaborated to support for the Japanese war effort from the population. Upon Japanese surrender, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945 and he led Indonesians in resisting Dutch re-colonization efforts via diplomatic and military means until the Dutch acknowledgment of Indonesian independence in 1949. The early 1960s saw Sukarno veering Indonesia to the left by providing support and protection to the Indonesian Communist Party to the irritation of the military and he also embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of anti-imperialism, with aid from the Soviet Union and China. The 30 September Movement led to the destruction of the PKI and his replacement in 1967 by one of his generals, Suharto, the spelling Soekarno, based on Dutch orthography, is still frequently used, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Sukarno himself insisted on a u, not oe, but said that he had told in school to use the Dutch style. He said that it was too difficult to change his signature, official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947–1968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling. The Soekarno–Hatta International Airport which serves near Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, Indonesians also remember him as Bung Karno or Pak Karno. Like many Javanese people, he had one name. He is sometimes referred to in accounts as Achmad Sukarno. The first name was added by a British journalist, who felt his readers would be confused over someone with just a single name. He was originally named KusnoJavanese pronunciation, following Javanese custom, he was renamed after surviving a childhood illness. After graduating from a primary school in 1912, he was sent to the Europeesche Lagere School in Mojokerto. Subsequently, in 1916, Sukarno went to a Hogere Burgerschool in Surabaya, where he met Tjokroaminoto, in 1920, Sukarno married Tjokroaminotos daughter Siti Oetari. In 1921, he began to study engineering at the Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng. During his study in Bandung, Sukarno became romantically involved with Inggit Garnasih, the wife of Sanoesi, Inggit was 13 years older than Sukarno. In March 1923, Sukarno divorced Siti Oetari to marry Inggit, Sukarno later divorced Inggit and married Fatmawati
22.
Mohammad Hatta
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Mohammad Hatta was Indonesias first vice president, later also serving as the countrys prime minister. Known as The Proclamator, he and a number of Indonesians, including the first president of Indonesia, Sukarno, Hatta was born in Fort De Kock, West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies. After his early education, he studied in Dutch schools in the Dutch East Indies, Mohammad Hatta is often remembered as Bung Hatta. Hatta was born in Fort De Kock on 12 August 1902 into a prominent and his grandfather was a respected ulema in Batuhampar, near Payakumbuh. His father, Haji Mohammad Djamil, died when he was eight months old and he was left with his six sisters, as in the matrilineal society of Minangkabau tradition, he was then raised in his mothers family. His mothers family was wealthy, and Hatta was able to study Dutch as well as finishing Quran after school and he went to the Dutch language elementary school in Padang from 1913 to 1916 after he had finished Sekolah Melayu in Bukittinggi. When he was thirteen, he passed an exam that entitled him to enroll in the Dutch secondary school in Batavia, however his mother asked him to stay in Padang because he was still too young to go to the capital alone. Hatta then entered junior secondary school or MULO, during his spare time, he worked part-time in a post office. Normally, MULO students were not allowed to work, but he was able to work there because of the HBS exam qualification, Hatta was interested in football, he joined his schools football team and was made its chairman. He broadened his sphere of contacts by using his position, Hatta used to visit the office of the Sarikat Usaha, led by Taher Marah Soetan. In the office, he read Dutch newspapers, particularly about political debates in the Volksraad of the Dutch East Indies and it was at the age of sixteen that Hatta began to be interested in politics and national movements. He was chosen the treasurer of the branch of the Jong Sumatranen Bond, in 1919, Hatta finally went to the HBS in Batavia. He completed his study with distinction in 1921, and was allowed to continue to study at the Rotterdam School of Commerce in Rotterdam and he took economics as his major and earned a doctorandus degree in 1932. The degree entitled him to follow a doctorate program and he then continued to pursue the doctorate degree, and completed all requirements to be awarded it, but he never finished his thesis. Politics had taken over Hattas life, in the Netherlands, Hatta joined the Indische Vereeniging. In 1922, the changed its name to Indonesische Vereeniging and later to its Indonesian translation. Hatta was the treasurer, and then the chairman, the Perhimpoenan Indonesia then changed from being a student organization into a political organization and had an unequivocal demand for Indonesias independence. It expressed its voice through the magazine called Indonesia Merdeka of which Hatta was the editor, to gain more support from other nations, Hatta attended congresses all over Europe, always as the chairman of the Indonesian delegation
23.
Indonesian National Armed Forces
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The Indonesian National Armed Forces, in 2016 comprises approximately 395,500 military personnel including the Army, Navy including the Indonesian Marine Corps, and the Air Force. The Indonesian Armed Forces was formed during the Indonesian National Revolution, under the 1945 Constitution, all citizens are legally entitled and obliged to defend the nation. Conscription is provided for by law, yet the Forces have been able to maintain mandated strength levels without resorting to a draft, most enlisted personnel are recruited in their own home regions and generally train and serve most of their time in units nearby. The Indonesian armed forces are voluntary, the available manpower fit for military service of males aged between 16 and 49 is 75,000,000, with a further 4,500,000 new suitable for service annually. Military spending in the budget was widely estimated 3% of GDP in 2005. Before the formation of the Indonesian Republic, the authority in the Dutch East Indies was held by the Royal Dutch East Indies Army. There were military training centres, military schools and academies in the Dutch East Indies, next to Dutch volunteers and European mercenaries, the KNIL also recruited indigenous, especially Ambonese, Kai Islanders, Timorese, and Minahasan people. Some of the soldiers that had enjoyed Dutch KNIL military academy education would later become important TNI officers. Indonesian nationalism and militarism started to gain momentum and support in World War II during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, on 3 October 1943, the Japanese military formed the Indonesian volunteer army called PETA. The Japanese intended PETA to assist their forces oppose an invasion by the Allies. It also led to the formation of the Indonesian national armed force in 1945, the Indonesian armed forces have seen significant action since their establishment in 1945. Their first conflict was the 1945–1949 Indonesian National Revolution, in which the 1945 Battle of Surabaya was especially important. The decision to create a security corps and not an army, was taken to lessen the probability of the allied forces viewing it as an armed revolution and invading in full force. In January 1946, TRI was formed, in a step to professionalise the army. In June 1947 then, TRI changed its name to TNI which is a merger between the TRI with independent troopers paramilitary peoples struggle across Indonesia. From the 1950s to 1960s the Republic of Indonesia struggled to maintain its unity against local insurgencies, the TNI also helped bring the rebellion of Republic of South Maluku to a close in 1963. Meanwhile, the PRRI/Permesta rebellion holds a place in Indonesian military history because it was led by army officers in Sumatra. From 1961 to 1963, the TNI was involved in the campaign to incorporate Western New Guinea into Indonesia
24.
Sibolga
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Sibolga is a city and a port located in the natural harbour of Sibolga Bay on the west coast of North Sumatra province, in Indonesia. It is located on the side of North Sumatra, facing the Indian Ocean and is a transit harbour to the Nias island which was hard hit during the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The City has an area of 10.77 km2 and had a population of 84,444 at the 2010 Census. The city is divided into four districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population, british, Dutch, French and American traders passed through here. It is thought Stamford Raffles passed through before he moved to Bengkulu in south Sumatra, from Bengkulu Raffles, after relinquishing the Port to the Dutch, established the trade port that became Singapore. At some point between 1890-1920 there was a fire in the city, which was presumably mostly built from wood from the surrounding mountains. A presumably makeshift prison described as a camp was set up on Taroetoengweg, in the city center. It first housed 10 European men from in and around Sibolga, on May 4 they were taken to the Native Secondary School for Boys in Pearadja, which is located up in the mountains behind Sibolga. Ferries from here service the islands to the west, Simeulue. Sibolga is a step off point for trade and passenger boats to Nias Island, the local airport is Ferdinand Lumban Tobing Airport. This area has a tropical rainforest climate with no dry season. Regions with this climate typically feature tropical rainforests, and are designated by the Köppen climate classification as Af, media related to Sibolga at Wikimedia Commons
25.
Makassar
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Makassar – sometimes spelled Macassar, Mangkasara – is the provincial capital of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is the largest city on Sulawesi Island in terms of population, and the fifth largest city in Indonesia after Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, and Medan. From 1971 to 1999, the city was named Ujung Pandang, after a fort in the city. The city is located on the southwest coast of the island of Sulawesi, the citys area is 19,926 hectares and it had a population of around 1.6 million in 2013. Its built-up area has 1,976,168 inhabitants covering Makassar City and 15 districts. Its official metropolitan area, known as Mamminasata, with 17 additional districts, Makassar is mentioned in the Nagarakretagama, a Javanese eulogy composed in 14th century during the reign of Majapahit king Hayam Wuruk. In the text, Makassar is mentioned as an island under Majapahit dominance, alongside Butun, Salaya, beginning in the sixteenth century, Makassar was the dominant trading center of eastern Indonesia, and soon became one of the largest cities in island Southeast Asia. The Makassar kings maintained a policy of trade, insisting on the right of any visitor to do business in the city. Much of South Sulawesis early history was written in old texts that can be traced back to the 13th and 14th centuries, tolerant religious attitudes meant that even as Islam became the dominant faith in the region, Christians and others were still able to trade in the city. With these attractions, Makassar was a key center for Malays working in the trade, as well as a valuable base for European. The first European settlers were Portuguese sailors, Portuguese rulers called the city Macáçar. The arrival of the Dutch in the early 17th century altered events dramatically and they finally replaced the Portuguese as colonial masters in 1667. Their first objective was to create a hegemony over the trade and their first move was to capture the fort of Makassar in 1667. From this base they managed to destroy the strongholds of the Sultan of Gowa who was forced to live on the outskirts of Makassar. Following the Java War, Prince Diponegoro was exiled to Fort Rotterdam until his death in 1855, the character of this old trading centre changed as a walled city known as Vlaardingen grew. Gradually, in defiance of the Dutch, the Arabs, Malays and Buddhist returned to trade outside the fortress walls, and were joined later by the Chinese. Although the Dutch controlled the coast, it was not until the early 20th century that they gained power over the interior through a series of treaties with local rulers. Meanwhile, Dutch missionaries converted many of the Toraja people to Christianity, by 1938, the population of Makassar had reached around 84,000 – a town described by writer Joseph Conrad as the prettiest and perhaps, cleanest looking of all the towns in the islands
26.
Sulawesi
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Sulawesi, formerly known as Celebes, is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the worlds eleventh-largest island, within Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger populations. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas, the northern Minahasa Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the South Peninsula, the Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula and besi, the term sula also means tines, horn or spikes, derived from Sanskrit, as trishula refer to trident. Thus sulawesi means iron spikes, which suggested that the island was also a producer of iron edged weapons, the name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers and it is widely considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name Sulawesi. Sulawesi is the worlds eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2, the central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the islands peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesis peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and these separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, the Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. All the above-mentioned islands, and many smaller ones, are part of Sulawesis six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahassa Peninsula, stretching north to the Sangihe Islands, the northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and Karangetang. Because of its several tectonic origin, faults scar the land, as a result, Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone. Parts of the island were attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin. In the west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c.45 Mya. Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c.30,000 BC on the basis of dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sadan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested
27.
Borneo
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Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest island in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, the island is politically divided among three countries, Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory, in the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on an island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, antipodal to an area of Amazon rainforest, Borneo is itself home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world, and to Bornean orangutans. The island is known by names, internationally it is known as Borneo, after Brunei. The name Brunei possibly was derived from the Sanskrit word váruṇa, meaning either ocean or the mythological Varuna. Indonesian natives called it Kalimantan, which was derived from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, prior to that the island was also known by other names. In 977 Chinese records began to use the term Po-ni to refer to Borneo or Brunei, in 1225 it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, to the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia, Java and Sulawesi, to the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres, it is the third-largest island in the world and its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m. The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km, other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan, the Barito in South Kalimantan, and Rajang in Sarawak. Clearwater Cave, for example, has one of the worlds longest underground rivers, deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres deep. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula, the Borneo rainforest is 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees,221 species of mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo and it is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals. The Borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan
28.
Kostrad
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Kostrad is a formation of the Indonesian Army. Kostrad is a Corps level command which has up to 35,000 troops and it also supervises operational readiness among all commands and conducts defence and security operations at the strategic level in accordance with policies of the TNI commander. Kostrad falls under the chief of staff for training, personnel. However, it comes under the Commander-in-Chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces for operational command, Kostrad typically receives best equipments in the Army and its two armoured battalions will soon receive Leopard 2A4 and Leopard 2 Revolution tanks. Starting 1984 the Panglima of Kostrad has been charged to lead the conduct of operations, called defence. Kostrad came into being during military action for Indonesias take over of Western New Guinea in 1960, initially designated the Army General Reserve Corps, its name was changed to Kostrad in 1963. Kostrad had a strength of 27,000 in 1998 and its primary components consist of two divisions and an independent airborne brigade. There were as of early 1998 a total of 33 airborne, however, despite this and other announcements, no third division has yet been established. Many Kostrad commanders have gone on to very senior Indonesian posts, General Wirahadikusumah would later become Vice-President. org, Here come the Kostrad boys again
29.
30 September Movement
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Later that morning, the organization declared that it was in control of media and communication outlets and had taken President Sukarno under its protection. By the end of the day, the attempt had failed in Jakarta at least. Meanwhile, in central Java there was an attempt to control over an army division. By the time this rebellion was put down, two senior officers were dead. In the days and weeks that followed, the army, socio-political, soon a mass purge was underway, which resulted in the imprisonment and death of alleged communists and communist sympathizers. Under the New Order regime, and sometimes used by the current government, from late 1950s, President Sukarnos position came to depend on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and the PKI. His anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union, by 1965, at the height of the Cold War, the PKI penetrated all levels of government extensively. With the support of Sukarno and the air force, the party gained increasing influence at the expense of the army, by late 1965, the army was divided between a left-wing faction allied with the PKI, and a right-wing faction that was being courted by the United States. In need of Indonesian allies in its Cold War against the Soviet Union and this fostered a split in the militarys ranks, with the United States and others backing a right-wing faction against a left-wing faction overlapping with the PKI. In an attempt to curtail the right-wing militarys increasing power, the PKI, at around 3,15 am on 1 October, seven detachments of troops in trucks and buses dispatched by Lieutenant Col. Three of the victims, were killed at their homes. However his personal aide, First Lieutenant Pierre Tendean, was captured after being mistaken for Nasution in the dark, Nasutions five-year-old daughter, Ade Irma Suryani Nasution, was shot by the assault group and died on 6 October. In addition a police officer guarding Nasutions neighbour, Second Inspector Karel Satsuit Tubun, was shot, a final victim was Albert Naiborhu, General Pandjaitans nephew, who was killed during the raid on the Generals home. The generals and the bodies of their colleagues were taken to a place known as Lubang Buaya near Halim where those still alive were shot. The bodies of all the victims were thrown down a disused well near the base. They did not occupy the east side of the square – the location of the armed forces strategic reserve headquarters, commanded at the time by Major General Suharto. At some time during the night, D. N. Aidit, the Indonesian Communist Party leader and Air Vice-Marshal Omar Dhani, the Air Force commander both went to Halim pointing at their involvement. They proclaimed that this was to forestall an attempt by a Generals Council aided by the Central Intelligence Agency
30.
Supersemar
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The abbreviation Supersemar is a play on the name of Semar, the mystic and powerful figure who commonly appears in Javanese mythology including wayang puppet shows. The invocation of Semar was presumably intended to draw on Javanese mythology to lend support to Suhartos legitimacy during the period of the transition of authority from Sukarno to Suharto. In effect, the Supersemar came to be seen as the key instrument of the transfer of power from Sukarno to Suharto. The army accused its rival, the Indonesian Communist Party, of being behind the coup attempt. Over the next few months Suharto and the army seized the initiative, during a cabinet meeting, troops without insignia surrounded the presidential palace where the meeting was being held. Sukarno was advised to leave the meeting and did so, flying to the palace in Bogor,60 km south of Jakarta. The next day Suharto used the powers conferred on him to ban the PKI. Suharto changed the composition of the Provisional Peoples Consultative Assembly and a later, in March 1967. In 1968 the MPRS removed the acting and over two years after the events of September 1965 Suharto became the president of Indonesia. The process of transferring the presidency from Sukarno to Suharto had taken two years. Suharto remained in power as president until he resigned in during the crisis in Indonesia in May 1998. The Supersemar itself is a document of less than 200 words. It reads as follows, PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA ORDER I, taking into account 2.1 The need for calm and stability of the Government and the progress of the Revolution 2. Decides/Orders LIEUTENANT GENERAL SOEHARTO, MINISTER/ARMY COMMANDER To, In the name of the President/Supreme Commander/Great Leader of the Revolution 1, coordinate the execution of orders with the commanders of the other forces to the best of his ability. Report all actions related to duties and responsibilities as stated above, given that the Supersemar was supposedly signed in Bogor, it is odd that the Supersemar is signed Djakarta. In his account of the events of March 1966, Hanafi and he says that Sukarno told him Suharto had sent three generals with a document they had already prepared for him to sign. He says that Sukarno felt he had to sign it because he was in a spot, but that the generals had promised to defend Sukarno. The wording of the Supersemar itself could be read as a threat, M. Jusuf and others have denied this, and that Panggabean was even present
31.
Bogor
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Bogor is a city in the West Java province, Indonesia. Located around 60 kilometers south from the capital of Jakarta, Bogor is the 6th largest city of Jabodetabek. Bogor is an important economic, scientific, cultural and tourist center, in the Middle Ages, the city served as the capital of Sunda Kingdom and was called Pakuan Pajajaran or Dayeuh Pakuan. During the Dutch colonial era, it was named Buitenzorg and served as the residence of the Governor-General of Dutch East Indies. With several hundred people living on an area of about 20 km2. The city has a palace and a botanical garden – one of the oldest and largest in the world. It bears the nickname the Rain City, because of frequent rain showers and it nearly always rains even during the dry season. The first mentioning of a settlement at present Bogor dates to the 5th century when the area was part of Tarumanagara and it was named Pakuan Pajajaran, that in old Sundanese means a place between the parallel, and became the predecessor of the modern Bogor. Over the next centuries, Pakuan Pajajaran become one of the largest cities in medieval Indonesia with population reaching 48,000. The name Pajajaran was then used for the kingdom. The chronicles of that time were written in Sanskrit, which was the used for official and religious purposes, using the Pallava writing system. The prasasti found in and around Bogor differ in shape and text style from other Indonesian prasasti and are among the attractions of the city. In the 9–15th centuries, the capital was moving between Pakuan and other cities of the kingdom, and finally returned to Pakuan by King Siliwangi on 3 June 1482 – the day of his coronation, since 1973, this date is celebrated in Bogor as an official city holiday. In 1579, Pakuan was captured and almost completely destroyed by the army of Sultanate of Banten, the city was abandoned and remained uninhabited for decades. The formal transition occurred on 17 April 1684 by signing an agreement between the Crown Prince of Banten and the VOC. The first, and temporal, colonial settlement at Pakuan was a camp of lieutenant Tanoejiwa, in a short time, several agricultural settlements appeared around Pakuan, the largest being Kampung Baru. In 1701, they were combined into a district, Tanoejiwa was chosen as the head of the district and is regarded as the founder of the modern Bogor Regency. The district was developed during the 1703 Dutch mission headed by the Inspector General of the VOC Abraham van Riebeeck
32.
Amirmachmud
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Amirmachmud was an Indonesian Military General who was an eyewitness to the signing of the Supersemar document transferring power from President Sukarno to General Suharto. Amirmachmud was born on 21 February 1923 at Cimahi, West Java and he was the second of five siblings and his father worked for a public company under the Dutch Colonial Government. After completing his education in 1940, Amirmachmud began thinking of a career which he would undertake, in 1941 he took a topography course, although nothing ever came out of it. In 1942, the Dutch Colonial Government was defeated by the Japanese Imperial Army, by 1943, with the tide of the war beginning to turn against them, the Japanese established the Defenders of the Motherland Army. Amirmachmud joined PETA and rose to become a platoon Commander, on 17 August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta proclaimed Indonesias Independence. Days later, Sukarno called for able-bodied Indonesians to collect weapons, militia groups known as the Peoples Security Body were formed and Amirmachmud headed one in Lembang, West Java. In 1946, after the Peoples Security Army had been established, the Lembang BKR was integrated into Kodam VI/Siliwangi, Amirmachmud was then transferred to North Bandung, where he led his troops in battles against British troops and Dutch troops, who were eager to retain their colonial empire. Amirmachmud and KODAM VI/Siliwangi was then forced to leave West Java in 1948 after the signing of the Renville Agreement, under this agreement, the Indonesian Government was forced to recognize territories which had been taken under Dutch Control and this included West Java. Under the command of Colonel Abdul Haris Nasution, KODAM VI/Siliwangi was relocated in Central Java, during the same year, Amirmachmud would join his troops in a crackdown on the Communist Party of Indonesia at Madiun. In 1949, with the Dutch beginning to withdraw from Indonesia, Amirmachmud, there, Amirmachmud would be involved in skirmishes against the Darul Islam movement, a separatist group who wanted to establish a theocratic Indonesia under the religion of Islam. In 1950, Amirmachmud was also involved in a crackdown against the Just King Armed Forces, after serving in Bogor, Amirmachmud served as a Chief of Staff to the Commander of KODAM VI/Siliwangi. In 1958, Amirmachmud was transferred to Jakarta where he worked as a member at the Army headquarters for two years. In 1960, Amirmachmud was sent to Bandung to attend Seskoad, here, he learned about politics and economics, important subjects for a soldier in an Army getting more and more involved in the running of the Government. Amirmachmud also became acquainted with Suharto during his time at Seskoad, once he had completed his Seskoad course, Amirmachmud was appointed Caduad Deputy Chief of Staff. Caduad, who would go on to become Kostrad was a force which was designed to be on stand by at all times so that it can easily be summoned during the case of national emergency. Caduad was commanded by Suharto, who appeared to like Amirmachmud enough to appoint him to his position, in 1962, President Sukarno was determined that Indonesia would occupy Western New Guinea and formed a war command for the liberation of Western New Guinea. For this operation, Suharto was appointed Field Commander and once again, Amirmachmud would now have his first stint as a Regional Commander. In 1962, he was appointed Commander of KODAM X/Lambung Mangkurat and it was during this time that the G30S Movement made their alleged coup attempt in Jakarta on 1 October 1965
33.
Basuki Rahmat
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Basuki Rahmat was an Indonesian General and a witness to the signing of the Supersemar document transferring power from President Sukarno to General Suharto. Basuki Rahmat was born on 4 November 1921 in Tuban, East Java and his father, Raden Soedarsono Soenodihardjo, was assistant to a local district chief. His mother, Soeratni, died in January 1925 when Basuki was only four years old, when he was seven, Basuki was sent to elementary school. In 1932 his father died, resulting in a halt to Basukis education. In PETA, Basuki rose to become a Company Commander, on 5 October 1945, the Peoples Security Army was formed, with Basuki enlisting with TKR on the same month at the town of Ngawi in his native province of East Java. There he was stationed with KODAM VII/Brawijaya, the command charged with the security of East Java. In September 1956, Basuki was transferred to Melbourne, Australia to serve as an attache to the embassy there. Basuki returned to Indonesia in November 1959 and served as Assistant IV/Logistics to Army Chief of Staff Abdul Haris Nasution, Basuki returned to KODAM VII/Brawijaya in 1960, serving as Chief of Staff before finally becoming the Commander in 1962. By 1965, there was a deal of political tension in Indonesia. The PKI, which had slowly but surely gained a footing in Indonesian politics, was now set to become the most powerful political party because of their association with President Sukarno. In September 1965, Basuki grew wary of communist activities in East Java and went to Jakarta to report his observations to the Commander of the Army and they met on the evening of 30 September when Basuki met with Yani and reported of the goings on in his province. Yani complimented Basuki on the report and wanted him to him to his meeting with the President the following morning to relay his story of Communist activities. The next morning on 1 October, Basuki was contacted by the Army Headquarters and notified of the kidnapping of the generals, hearing this, Basuki together with an aide went in a car and took a drive around the city to check what was going on. As he was driving, Basuki noticed his troops from East Java, after being advised against approaching them by his aide, Basuki drove back to his accommodation where he was informed that he was needed at the Kostrad headquarters. Basuki went to the Kostrad headquarters to find that the Commander of Kostrad, Major General Suharto had decided to assume the leadership of the Army and take control of the situation. From Suharto, Basuki found out that a movement calling themselves the 30 September movement had used the troops to strategic points in Jakarta. Suharto then told Basuki that he needed him to negotiate the troops into surrendering before 6 pm or else he would use force and this, Basuki conveyed to the 530th Battalion who treated him with the utmost respect. Basuki was successful and by 4 pm, the 530th Battalion gave themselves up to Kostrad, during the day, the G30S Movement made an announcement of a Revolutionary Council
34.
Adam Malik
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For the Malaysian tennis player, see Adam Malik. Adam Malik Batubara was Indonesias third vice president, a diplomat, foreign minister. Malik was born in Pematang Siantar, North Sumatra, Dutch East Indies to Abdul Malik Batubara and he is from a Batak Mandailing Muslim family of Batubara clan. After completing Junior High School, he received his first job as a shopkeeper, filling in time by reading books, Malik quickly developed an interest in politics and aged just 17, became the Chairman of the Pematang Siantar branch of Partindo. In this position, Malik campaigned for the Dutch Colonial Government to grant independence to Indonesia, as a result of this, Malik was put in prison for disobeying the Colonial Governments ban on political assemblies. Once he was freed, Malik left Pematang Siantar for Jakarta, after leaving hometown, Malik pursued a job as a journalist. He wrote for Partindos Party Magazine and Pelita Andalas Newspaper, in 1937, along with like-minded colleagues, Malik formed ANTARA. ANTARA would develop to become Indonesias national news agency, Malik played an important role in the events leading up to Indonesias Declaration of Independence. On 16 August 1945 Malik and other pro-Independence youths kidnapped Nationalist movement leaders Sukarno and they took the two leaders to the town of Rengasdengklok and forced them to declare Indonesias Independence to fill the vacuum left by the Japanese Occupational Forces which had surrendered. Sukarno and Hatta finally declared Indonesias Independence, on 17 August 1945, the two were also elected as Indonesias first President and Vice President. After Indonesias independence, Malik formed the Murba Party and used it as a platform to become a Parliament member, Malik also served as the Third Deputy Chairman of the Indonesian Central National Committee. After becoming a journalist and a politician, Malik then took up the duties of a diplomat, in 1959, he was appointed ambassador to the Soviet Union and Poland. This was followed in 1962 by an appointment as Chairman of the Indonesian Delegation for the negotiations to hand over West Irian to Indonesia and he then served as Minister for Trade before being appointed Minister for the Implementation of the Guided Economy in Sukarnos Cabinet. With Sukarno being increasingly influenced by the Indonesian Communist Party in his policies and this organization aimed to translate Sukarnoist ideas in a non-Communist sense and to use the name Sukarno to criticise the PKI. Sukarno was not oblivious to this and banned BPS in 1965, together with General Abdul Haris Nasution and Ruslan Abdulgani, Malik was despised by the PKI for his anti-Communist stance. Still carrying burden of current repressive efforts targeted against PKI, the document immediately following, presumably CIAs response to this proposal from December 3,1965, was withheld in full from the volume. In 1966 was the year which saw Sukarno lose his powers as he passed them over to Lieutenant General Suharto through a Presidential decree known as Supersemar. Although Sukarno continued to keep the title of President, all the de facto power was in the hand of Suharto, a Cabinet reshuffle followed in which Malik took up the position of Minister of Foreign Affairs
35.
Southeast Asia
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Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with seismic and volcanic activity. Southeast Asia consists of two regions, Mainland Southeast Asia, also known historically as Indochina, comprising Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar. Maritime Southeast Asia, comprising Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos Islands, definitions of Southeast Asia vary, but most definitions include the area represented by the countries listed below. All of the states are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the area, together with part of South Asia, was widely known as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia includes, Maritime Southeast Asia includes, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and the Seven Sister States of India are culturally part of Southeast Asia, the eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years and their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellans voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships, Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar by the Austronesian people, as well as commerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome and this was later replaced by Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followed in 525, in the 15th century, Islamic influences began to enter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia to retreat to Bali, in Mainland Southeast Asia, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, brought to them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture, very little is known about Southeast Asian religious beliefs and practices before the advent of Indian merchants and religious influences from the 2nd century BCE onwards. Prior to the 13th century CE, Hinduism and Buddhism were the religions in Southeast Asia
36.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
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ASEAN covers a land area of 4.4 million square kilometres, 3% of the total land area of Earth. ASEAN territorial waters cover an area three times larger than its land counterpart. Member countries have a population of approximately 625 million people,8. 8% of the worlds population. In 2015, the organisations combined nominal GDP had grown to more than US$2.8 trillion, if ASEAN were a single entity, it would rank as the sixth largest economy in the world, behind the USA, China, Japan, India and Germany. ASEAN shares land borders with India, China, Bangladesh, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea, and maritime borders with India, China, Palau, both East Timor and Papua New Guinea are backed by certain ASEAN members for their membership in the organisation. As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are, To accelerate economic growth, social progress, to promote regional peace and stability. To promote collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest, to provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities. To collaborate for the better utilisation of agriculture and industry to raise the standards of the people. To maintain close, beneficial co-operation with existing international organisations with similar aims, ASEAN was preceded by an organization formed in 1961 called the Association of Southeast Asia, a group consisting of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand. The creation of ASEAN was motivated by a fear of communism. ASEAN grew when Brunei Darussalam became its sixth member on 7 January 1984, ASEAN achieved greater cohesion in the mid-1970s following the changed balance of power in Southeast Asia after the end of the Vietnam War. The regions dynamic economic growth during the 1970s strengthened the organization, on 28 July 1995, Vietnam became ASEANs seventh member. Laos and Myanmar joined two years later on 23 July 1997, Cambodia was to have joined at the same time as Laos and Burma, but its entry was delayed due to the countrys internal political struggle. It later joined on 30 April 1999, following the stabilization of its government, however, the proposal failed because of heavy opposition from the US and Japan. Member states continued to work for integration, and ASEAN Plus Three was created in 1997. This law would act as the framework for the ASEAN Free Trade Area, AFTA is an agreement by member nations concerning local manufacturing in ASEAN countries. The AFTA agreement was signed on 28 January 1992 in Singapore, after the East Asian Financial Crisis of 1997, a revival of the Malaysian proposal, known as the Chiang Mai Initiative, was put forward in Chiang Mai, Thailand. It called for integration of the economies of ASEAN as well as the ASEAN Plus Three countries, China, Japan
37.
South Vietnam
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South Vietnam, officially the Republic of Vietnam, was a state governing the southern half of Vietnam from 1955 to 1975. It received international recognition in 1949 as the State of Vietnam, the term South Vietnam became common usage in 1954, when the Geneva Conference provisionally partitioned Vietnam into communist and non-communist parts. The Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed on 26 October 1955, with Ngô Đình Diệm as its first president and its sovereignty was recognized by the United States and eighty-seven other nations. It had membership in several committees of the United Nations. After the Second World War, the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, in 1949, anti-communist Vietnamese politicians formed a rival government in Saigon led by former emperor Bảo Đại. Bảo Đại was deposed by Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm in 1955, after Diệm was killed in a military coup led by general Dương Văn Minh in 1963, there was a series of short-lived military governments. General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu led the country from 1967 until 1975, the Vietnam War began in 1959 with an uprising by Viet Cong forces armed and controlled by Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Fighting reached a climax during the Tet Offensive of 1968, when there were over 1.5 million South Vietnamese soldiers and 500,000 U. S. soldiers in South Vietnam. Despite a peace treaty concluded in January 1973, fighting continued until the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong armies overran Saigon on 30 April 1975, the creation of this republic, during the Indochina War, allowed France to evade a promise to recognise Vietnam as independent. This pre-Vietnam government prepared for a unified Vietnamese state, but the countrys full reunification was delayed for a year because of the problems posed by Cochinchinas legal status, Nguyễn Văn Xuân 1949–55 State of Vietnam. Roughly 60% of Vietnamese territory was controlled by the communist Việt Minh. Vietnam was partitioned at the 17th parallel in 1954, once highly lauded by America, he was ousted and assassinated in a U. S. -backed coup. In 1963–65, there were numerous coups and short-lived governments, several of which were headed by Dương Văn Minh or Nguyễn Khánh, Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ was the top leader in 1965–67. Surrendered to Communists when others abandoned their posts, 1975–76 Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. Huỳnh Tấn Phát Before World War II, the third of Vietnam was the concession of Cochinchina. Between Tonkin in the north and Cochinchina in the south was the protectorate of Annam, Cochinchina had been annexed by France in 1862 and even elected a deputy to the French National Assembly. It was more evolved, and French interests were stronger than in parts of Indochina. During World War II, Indochina was administered by Vichy France, japanese troops overthrew the French administration on 9 March 1945, Emperor Bảo Đại proclaimed Vietnam independent
38.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
39.
Golkar
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The Party of the Functional Groups is a political party in Indonesia. Golkar was the party from 1973 to 1999, under Suhartos New Order regime. It had been a part of the coalition of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyonos ruling coalition since 2004. In 2014 Yudhoyono was succeeded by President Joko Widodo, in 1959, President Sukarno introduced his concept of Guided Democracy, in which so-called functional groups would play a role in government in place of political parties. The Indonesian National Armed Forces supported its creation because it believed these groups would balance the strength of the Communist Party of Indonesia. In 1960, Sukarno awarded sectoral groups such as teachers, the Armed Forces, as some of the members of these functional groups were linked to political parties, this gave political influence to the National Armed Forces. By 1968 there were almost 250 organizations under the Sekber umbrella, on November 22,1969 they were organized into seven main organizations, or Kino, namely Soksi, Kosgoro, MKGR, Gerakan Karya Rakyat, Ormas Hankam, Professi, and Gerakan Pembangunan. The Joint Secretariat was one of those organizations that condemned the 30 September Movement in 1965, in March 1968, General Suharto was officially elected by the Peoples Consultative Assembly as Indonesias second president. Because of his background, Suharto was not affiliated to any political parties. Suharto had never expressed much interest in party politics, however, if he were to be elected for a second term as president, he needed to align himself with a political party. Originally, Suharto had shown interest in aligning with the Indonesian National Party — the party of his predecessor, but in seeking to distance himself from the old regime, Suharto settled on Golkar. Suharto then ordered his closest associate, Ali Murtopo, to transform Golkar, under Murtopo, and with Suhartos supervision, Golkar was turned from a federation of NGOs into a political party. Under Suharto, Golkar continued to portray itself as a non-ideological entity and it promised to focus on economic development and stability rather than a specific ideological goal. Golkar also began identifying itself with the government, encouraging civil servants to vote for it as a sign of loyalty to the government. Murtopo claimed that workers were a group, which by rights ought to be subsumed under Golkar. In order to Golkar-ize the nation, Murtopo sometimes used the military, Golkar declared on February 4,1970, that it would participate in the 1971 legislative elections. Suhartos alignment with Golkar paid dividends when Golkar won 62% of the votes, the members of DPR also doubled as members as MPR and thus Suharto was easily re-elected to a second term as President in March 1973. The 1971 legislative election was a success for Golkar and Suharto, strengthened by his re-election, Suharto quickly began tightening his grip on Golkar
40.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
41.
Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia
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The Most Esteemed Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia is a Malaysian federal award presented for meritorious service to the country. The order was instituted on 15 April 1966 and gazetted on 30 June 1966, the highest class of the order is the Grand Commander of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia. The award recipient receives the title Tun and his wife Toh Puan, the number of awards conferred is limited to 25 only. The number does not include foreign citizens who receive it as an honorary award, the fourteen-pointed star and the collar is made from silver. The badge suspends from the centre of the collar and is similar, the riband is navy blue and has red stripes on the outer edges. The end of the riband is tied with a ribbon, Commander of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia is the second class of this order. The recipient of this award receives the title Tan Sri and his wife Puan Sri and this award was limited to 250 recipients only, excluding foreign citizens who receive it as an honorary award. The badge and the design of the star are similar to that of the Grand Commander but smaller, the riband has a navy blue background and on both the edges are red stripes. In the centre are red stripes flanked by narrow ones, the lowest class of the order is the Companion of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia. Only 800 are conferred this award, excluding foreign citizens who receive it as an honorary award, the badge of the Order has the same design and make as that of the Grand Commander and the Commander. However, it is smaller with a radius of 2¼ inches, the badge suspends from a riband measuring 1¾ inches wide. It has a blue background and red stripes on both the edges. The badge is worn around the neck. M, gullick Malaysian Monarchy Royal Malaysian awards and decorations
42.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Tarutung, North Sumatera, Dutch East Indies
Jakarta, Indonesia
Empire of Japan
General
Malaysia : Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia (1971)[5]
