1.
Combat
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Combat or fighting is a purposeful violent conflict meant to weaken, establish dominance over, or kill the opposition, or to drive the opposition away from a location where it is not wanted or needed. Combat violence can be unilateral, whereas fighting implies at least a defensive reaction, a large-scale fight is known as a battle. A verbal fight is known as an argument. Combat effectiveness, in the field, requires combat readiness. In military areas, the term is applied also to personnel, Combat may take place under a specific set of rules or be unregulated. Examples of rules include the Geneva Conventions, medieval chivalry, the Marquess of Queensberry rules, Combat in warfare involves two or more opposing military organizations, usually fighting for nations at war. Warfare falls under the laws of war, which govern its purposes and conduct, Combat may be armed or unarmed. Hand-to-hand combat is combat at close range, attacking the opponent with the body and/or with a melee weapon. “Combat Motivation in Today’s Soldiers, U. S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute. ”Armed Forces & Society, vol. “Combat Casualties and Race, What Can We Learn from the 2003-2004 Iraq Conflict. ”“Undermining Combat Readiness in the Russian Military, 1992-2005. ”Armed Forces & Society, Jul 2006, vol. Http, //afs. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/32/4/513 Ben-Shalom, Uzi, Lehrer, Zeev, and Ben-Ari, Eyal. “Cohesion during Military Operations, A Field Study on Combat Units in the Al-Aqsa Intifada. ”Http, //afs. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/32/1/63 Woodruff, Todd, Kelty, Ryan, Segal, Archie Cooper, David R.2006. “Propensity to Serve and Motivation to Enlist among American Combat Soldiers. ”Armed Forces & Society, Apr 2006, vol
2.
Self-defense
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Self-defense is a countermeasure that involves defending the health and well-being of oneself from harm. The use of the right of self-defense as a justification for the use of force in times of danger is available in many jurisdictions. Physical self-defense is the use of force to counter an immediate threat of violence. Such force can be armed or unarmed. In either case, the chances of success depend on a number of parameters, related to the severity of the threat on one hand. Many styles of arts are practiced for self-defense or include self-defense techniques. Some styles train primarily for self-defense, while other martial or combat sports can be applied for self-defense. Some martial arts train how to escape from a knife or gun situation, or how to break away from a punch, a wide variety of weapons can be used for self-defense. The most suitable depends on the threat presented, the victim or victims, legal restrictions also greatly influence self-defence options. In many cases there are legal restrictions. Non-injurious water-based self-defense indelible dye-marker sprays, or ID-marker or DNA-marker sprays linking a suspect to a scene, would in most places be legal to own. Tie-wraps double as an effective restraint, weapons such as the Kubotan have been built for ease of carry and to resemble everyday objects. Ballpoint pen knives, swordsticks, cane guns and modified umbrellas are similar categories of concealed self-defense weapons that serve a dual purpose, mental self-defense is the ability to get into the proper mindset for executing a physical self-defense technique. Many martial arts schools and self-defense classes focus primarily on the nature of self-defense. If you are skilled in the aspects of a defensive technique. Controlled environments cannot easily mimic the stress and adrenaline dump which occurs during an attack, there is a very real need to be able to enter the proper warrior mindset if one is to have a realistic chance of surviving a potentially deadly encounter. The ability to go over, under, around or through any obstacle is the essence of this never quit mindset - similar to that of the Samurai of Japan, being aware of and avoiding potentially dangerous situations is one useful technique of self-defense. Attackers will typically select victims they feel they have an advantage against, such as physical size
3.
War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
4.
Law enforcement
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Most law enforcement is conducted by some type of law enforcement agency, with the most typical agency fulfilling this role being the police. Law enforcement agencies tend to be limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction, various specialized segments of society may have their own internal law enforcement arrangements. For example, military organizations may have military police, outline of law enforcement – structured list of topics related to law enforcement, organized by subject area Criminal law Biosecurity Commons
5.
Intangible cultural heritage
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Intangible cultural heritage is promoted by UNESCO as a counterpart to the World Heritage focusing mainly on intangible aspects of culture. Some of that takes the form of cultural property, formed by tangible artefacts such as buildings or works of art. Many parts of culture, however are intangible, including song, music, dance, drama, skills, cuisine, crafts and festivals. They are forms of culture that can be recorded but cannot be touched or stored in physical form, like in a museum and these cultural vehicles are called Human Treasures by the UN. The Mediterranean diet, the traditional Mexican cuisine and the Japanese dietary culture of washoku are just some examples of this booming phenomenon, digital heritage is a representation of heritage in the digital realm. Digital intangible heritage is a sub-category of Intangible Cultural Heritage, each member of the community possesses a piece of the shared knowledge. Crucial knowledge is passed on during community activities, frequently without any attention to the process. Prior to the UNESCO Convention, efforts had already made by a number of states to safeguard their intangible heritage. Other countries, including South Korea, the Philippines, the United States, Thailand, France, Romania, the Czech Republic, in 2003 UNESCO adopted the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. This went into effect on 20 April 2006, UNESCO has also created other intangible culture programs, such as a list called Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. This list began in 2001 with 19 items and a further 28 were listed in 2003 and it was superseded in 2008 by the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. The issue still remains open in legal scholarship, document from Newfoundland, Canada Exploring a Model of Living Cultural Heritage New model of Intangible heritage
6.
East Asia
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East Asia is the eastern subregion of the Asian continent, which can be defined in either geographical or ethno-cultural terms. Geographically and geopolitically, it includes China, Taiwan, Mongolia, Korea and Japan, it covers about 12,000,000 km2, or about 28% of the Asian continent, the East Asian people comprise more than 1.5 billion people. About 38% of the population of Asia and 22%, or over one fifth, the overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre, about three times the world average of 45/km2. Historically, societies in East Asia have been part of the Chinese cultural sphere, major religions include Buddhism, Confucianism or Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion in China and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, Korean shamanism in Korea. Shamanism is also prevalent among Mongolians and other populations of northern East Asia. The Chinese calendar is the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived, Chinese Dynasties dominated the region in matters of culture, trade, and exploration as well as militarily for a very long time. There are records of tributes sent overseas from the kingdoms of Korea. There were also considerable levels of cultural and religious exchange between the Chinese and other regional Dynasties and Kingdoms, as connections began to strengthen with the Western world, Chinas power began to diminish. Around the same time, Japan solidified itself as a nation state, throughout World War II, Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China, Hong Kong, and Vietnam all fell under Japanese control. Culturally, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam are commonly seen as being encompassed by cultural East Asia, there are mixed debates around the world whether these countries or regions should be considered in East Asia or not. Vietnam Siberia in Russia Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, however, in this context, the term Far East is often more appropriate which covers ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. However, being a Eurocentric term, Far East describes the geographical position in relation to Europe rather than its location within Asia. Alternatively, the term Asia Pacific Region is often used in describing East Asia and this usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both East Asia and Northeast Asia. The Council on Foreign Relations defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea, the military and economic superpower of China became the largest economy in the world in 2014, surpassing the United States of America. Currently in East Asia, trading systems are open, and zero or low duties on imports of consumer and capital goods etc. have considerably helped stimulate cost-efficiency. Free and flexible labor and other markets are important factors making for high levels of business-economic performance. East Asian populations have demonstrated highly positive work ethics, there are relatively large and fast-growing markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds. The culture of East Asia has been influenced by the civilisation of China, East Asia, as well as Vietnam, share a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, political and legal structures, and historically a common writing system
7.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
8.
Latin (language)
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
9.
Mars (mythology)
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In ancient Roman religion and myth, Mars was the god of war and also an agricultural guardian, a combination characteristic of early Rome. He was second in only to Jupiter and he was the most prominent of the military gods in the religion of the Roman army. Most of his festivals were held in March, the named for him, and in October. Under the influence of Greek culture, Mars was identified with the Greek god Ares, whose myths were reinterpreted in Roman literature and art under the name of Mars. But the character and dignity of Mars differed in fundamental ways from that of his Greek counterpart, Mars was a part of the Archaic Triad along with Jupiter and Quirinus, the latter of whom as a guardian of the Roman people had no Greek equivalent. Mars altar in the Campus Martius, the area of Rome that took its name from him, was supposed to have been dedicated by Numa, the peace-loving semi-legendary second king of Rome. Although Ares was viewed primarily as a destructive and destabilizing force, Mars represented military power as a way to secure peace, in the mythic genealogy and founding myths of Rome, Mars was the father of Romulus and Remus with Rhea Silvia. Like Ares who was the son of Zeus and Hera, Mars is usually considered to be the son of Jupiter, however, in a version of his birth given by Ovid, he was the son of Juno alone. Jupiter had usurped the mothers function when he gave birth to Minerva directly from his forehead, to restore the balance, Flora obtained a magic flower and tested it on a heifer who became fecund at once. She then plucked a flower ritually using her thumb, touched Junos belly, Juno withdrew to Thrace and the shore of Marmara for the birth. Ovid tells this story in the Fasti, his poetic work on the Roman calendar. In the earliest Roman calendar, March was the first month, Ovid is the only source for the story. The consort of Mars was Nerio or Nerine, Valor and she represents the vital force, power and majesty of Mars. Her name was regarded as Sabine in origin and is equivalent to Latin virtus, in the early 3rd century BC, the comic playwright Plautus has a reference to Mars greeting Nerio, his wife. A source from late antiquity says that Mars and Nerine were celebrated together at a festival held on March 23, in the later Roman Empire, Nerine came to be identified with Minerva. Nerio probably originates as a personification of Mars power, as such abstractions in Latin are generally feminine. Her name appears with that of Mars in an archaic prayer invoking a series of abstract qualities, the influence of Greek mythology and its anthropomorphic gods may have caused Roman writers to treat these pairs as marriages. The union of Venus and Mars held greater appeal for poets and philosophers, in Greek myth, the adultery of Ares and Aphrodite had been exposed to ridicule when her husband Hephaestus caught them in the act by means of a magical snare
10.
Roman mythology
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Roman mythology is the body of traditional stories pertaining to ancient Romes legendary origins and religious system, as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans. Roman mythology may also refer to the study of these representations. The Romans usually treated their traditional narratives as historical, even when these have miraculous or supernatural elements, the stories are often concerned with politics and morality, and how an individuals personal integrity relates to his or her responsibility to the community or Roman state. When the stories illuminate Roman religious practices, they are concerned with ritual, augury. Romes early myths and legends also have a relationship with Etruscan religion. In particular, the versions of Greek myths in Ovids Metamorphoses, written during the reign of Augustus, because ritual played the central role in Roman religion that myth did for the Greeks, it is sometimes doubted that the Romans had much of a native mythology. This perception is a product of Romanticism and the scholarship of the 19th century. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, however, Roman myths were an inspiration particularly for European painting, the Roman tradition is rich in historical myths, or legends, concerning the foundation and rise of the city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities, in Romes earliest period, history and myth have a mutual and complementary relationship. As T. P. Wiseman notes, The Roman stories still matter, as they mattered to Dante in 1300 and Shakespeare in 1600, what does it take to be a free citizen. Can a superpower still be a republic, how does well-meaning authority turn into murderous tyranny. Major sources for Roman myth include the Aeneid of Vergil and the first few books of Livys history as well as Dionysius s Roman Antiquities. Other important sources are the Fasti of Ovid, a six-book poem structured by the Roman religious calendar, scenes from Roman myth also appear in Roman wall painting, coins, and sculpture, particularly reliefs. The Aeneid and Livys early history are the best extant sources for Romes founding myths, material from Greek heroic legend was grafted onto this native stock at an early date. By extension, the Trojans were adopted as the ancestors of the Roman people. Rape of the Sabine women, explaining the importance of the Sabines in the formation of Roman culture, numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome who consorted with the nymph Egeria and established many of Romes legal and religious institutions. Servius Tullius, the king of Rome, whose mysterious origins were freely mythologized. The Tarpeian Rock, and why it was used for the execution of traitors, lucretia, whose self-sacrifice prompted the overthrow of the early Roman monarchy and led to the establishment of the Republic
11.
Boxing
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Boxing is a combat sport in which two people wearing protective gloves throw punches at each other for a predetermined set of time in a boxing ring. Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth Games sport and is a fixture in most international games—it also has its own World Championships. Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds, in the event that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, the fight is considered a draw. In Olympic boxing, due to the fact that a winner must be declared, in the case of a draw - the judges use technical criteria to choose the most deserving winner of the bout. While people have fought in combat since before the dawn of history. The earliest evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete, in Ancient Greece boxing was a well developed sport and enjoyed consistent popularity. In Olympic terms, it was first introduced in the 23rd Olympiad,688 B. C, the boxers would wind leather thongs around their hands in order to protect them. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them acknowledged defeat or could not continue, weight categories were not used, which meant heavyweights had a tendency to dominate. It was the head of the opponent which was primarily targeted, Boxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome. In order for the fighters to protect themselves against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their fists, eventually harder leather was used and the thong soon became a weapon. The Romans even introduced metal studs to the thongs to make the cestus which then led to a more sinister weapon called the myrmex, Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres. The Roman form of boxing was often a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such events, however, especially in later times, purchased slaves and trained combat performers were valuable commodities, and their lives were not given up without due consideration. Often slaves were used against one another in a circle marked on the floor and this is where the term ring came from. In AD393, during the Roman gladiator period, boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality and it was not until the late 17th century that boxing re-surfaced in London. Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again, however, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or Fist Fighting, as the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury
12.
Santorini
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Santorini, classically Thera, and officially Thira, is an island in the southern Aegean Sea, about 200 km southeast of Greeces mainland. It is the largest island of a small, circular archipelago which bears the name and is the remnant of a volcanic caldera. It forms the southernmost member of the Cyclades group of islands, with an area of approximately 73 km2, the municipality of Santorini includes the inhabited islands of Santorini and Therasia and the uninhabited islands of Nea Kameni, Palaia Kameni, Aspronisi, and Christiana. The total land area is 90.623 km2, Santorini is part of the Thira regional unit. Santorini is essentially what remains after a volcanic eruption that destroyed the earliest settlements on a formerly single island. A giant central, rectangular lagoon, which measures about 12 by 7 km, is surrounded by 300 m high, the main island slopes downward to the Aegean Sea. On the fourth side, the lagoon is separated from the sea by another smaller island called Therasia. The islands principal port is Athinios, the capital, Fira, clings to the top of the cliff looking down on the lagoon. The volcanic rocks present from the prior eruptions feature olivine, and have a presence of hornblende. It is the most active volcanic centre in the South Aegean Volcanic Arc, the volcanic arc is approximately 500 km long and 20 to 40 km wide. The island is the site of one of the largest volcanic eruptions in recorded history, the Minoan eruption, another popular theory holds that the Thera eruption is the source of the legend of Atlantis. Before then, it was known as Kallístē, Strongýlē, or Thēra, the name Thera was revived in the nineteenth century as the official name of the island and its main city, but the colloquial name Santorini is still in popular use. During the Ottoman Empires domination of the Aegean Sea, the Turkish exonym for the island was Santurin or Santoron, Oia is now called a Κοινότητα, within the municipality of Thera, and it consists of the local subdivisions of Therasia and Oia. The two main sources of wealth in Santorini are agriculture and tourism, in recent years, Santorini has been voted one of the worlds most beautiful islands. Santorini remains the home of a small, but flourishing wine industry, white varieties also include Athiri and Aidani, whereas red varieties include mavrotragano and mandilaria. The Cyclades are part of a complex that is known as the Cycladic Massif. The complex formed during the Miocene and was folded and metamorphosed during the Alpine orogeny around 60 million years ago, Thera is built upon a small, non-volcanic basement that represents the former non-volcanic island, which was approximately 9 by 6 km. The basement rock is composed of metamorphosed limestone and schist
13.
Folk wrestling
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A folk wrestling style is any traditional style of wrestling, which may or may not be codified as a modern sport. Most cultures have developed regional forms of grappling, Lancashire wrestling is a historic wrestling style from Lancashire in England known for its Catch-as-catch-can, or no wrestling holds barred, style. Catch wrestling, or Catch-as-catch-can, originated from Lancashire wrestling but was developed during the traveling circus phenomenon of the 19th. Styles of Backhold are distinct from Lancashire Wrestling because they enforce rules designed to minimize injury to the participants by disallowing ground fighting, Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling, or Cumbrian Wrestling, is practiced in the northern counties of England. It is a form of Backhold Wrestling where the wrestlers put the left arm over the right arm. Throws and trips are important since the first wrestler to touch the ground or break hold loses, competitors often wear stockings, singlet and trunks. Scottish Backhold is a form of Backhold practiced in Scotland, almost identical in style to Cumberland & Westmorland style apart from variations in rules. Cornish wrestling, from Cornwall, is a form of jacket wrestling and it is related to Breton Gouren wrestling. Devon wrestling, or Devonshire wrestling, was a similar to the Cornish style in that jackets were worn. Devonshire wrestlers, however, also wore heavy clogs and were able to kick the opponents, in matches between Cornish and Devon, Devonshire wrestlers might have worn one only shoe. Unlike Cornish wrestling, the style is considered to be extinct. Collar-and-elbow wrestling is native to Ireland and can be traced back to the 17th century and it has ties to the Tailteann Games between 632 BC and 1169 AD. Glíma, the sport of Iceland, traces its history to the Vikings. It is practised both outdoors and indoors, kragkast, type of folk wrestling originating from Sweden, similar to Freestyle wrestling Western Europe Gouren - traditional Breton jacket wrestling. Ranggeln - meaning to wrangle in German, Ranggeln is a prominent form of wrestling in Austria, the winner is the man who pins his opponents to the ground Schwingen - Swiss style of wrestling considered to be one of the oldest forms of wrestling. Narodno rvanje, is a style from Serbia, In Narodno Rvanje there are three disciplines, depending on the hold, they can be chest hold, belt hold or back hold. Pelivan is a wrestling style practiced in Albania and Serbia Northern Europe Pakištynės more practised in North, ristynės more practised in East and South Lithuania. Bökh - traditional Khalkha Mongolian jacket wrestling where touching the ground with anything other than a foot loses the match, bökh means wrestling or wrestler in Mongolian
14.
Hand-to-hand combat
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Hand-to-hand combat is a lethal or non-lethal physical confrontation between two or more persons at very short range that does not involve the use of firearms or other distance weapons. Combat within close quarters is commonly termed close combat or close-quarters combat and it may include lethal and non-lethal weapons and methods depending upon the restrictions imposed by civilian law, military rules of engagement, or ethical codes. Close combat using firearms or other weapons by military combatants at the tactical level is modernly referred to as close quarter battle. Hand-to-hand combat is the most ancient form of fighting known, a majority of cultures have their own particular histories related to close combat, and their own methods of practice. There are many varieties within the arts, including boxing and wrestling. Other variations include the gladiator spectacles of ancient Rome and medieval tournament events such as jousting, military organizations have always taught some sort of unarmed combat for conditioning and as a supplement to armed combat. Soldiers in China were trained in unarmed combat as early as the Zhou Dynasty, by 1944 some German rifles were being produced without bayonet lugs. Close Quarters Combat, or World War II combatives, was codified by William Ewart Fairbairn. After the May Thirtieth Movement riots, which resulted in a massacre, Fairbairn was charged with developing an auxiliary squad for riot control. After absorbing the most appropriate elements from a variety of experts, from China, Japan and elsewhere. The aim of his system was simply to be as brutally effective as possible. It was also a system that, unlike traditional Eastern martial-arts that required years of intensive training, the method incorporated training in point shooting and gun combat techniques, as well as the effective use of more ad hoc weapons such as chairs or table legs. During the Second World War, Fairbairn was brought back to Britain, during this period, he expanded his Shanghai Method into the Silent Killing Close Quarters Combat method for military application. This became standard training for all British Special Operations personnel. He also designed the pioneering Fairbairn-Sykes fighting knife, which was adopted for use by British, in 1942, he published a textbook for close quarters combat training called Get Tough. U. S. Applegate published his work in 1943, called Kill or Get Killed, during the war, training was provided to British Commandos, the Devils Brigade, OSS, U. S. Army Rangers and Marine Raiders. The prevalence and style of combat training often changes based on perceived need. Elite units such as forces and commando units tend to place higher emphasis on hand-to-hand combat training
15.
Swordsmanship
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Swordsmanship or swordfighting refers to the skills of a swordsman, a person versed in the art of the sword. The term is modern, and as such was used to refer to smallsword fencing. The word gladiator itself comes from the Latin word gladius, meaning sword, the sword in ancient Egypt was known by several names, but most are variations of the words sfet, seft or nakhtui. The earliest bronze swords in the date back 4000 years. The khopesh was used region-wide and is depicted as early as the Sixth Dynasty and it was thick-backed and weighted with bronze, sometimes even with gold hilts in the case of pharaohs. The blade may be edged on one or both sides, and was made from iron or blue steel, the double-edge sword had a leaf-shaped blade, and a handle which hollows away at the centre and thickens at each end. These swords are of lengths, and were paired with shields. Middle Eastern swords became dominant throughout North Africa after the introduction of Islam, the process of both iron smelting and forging was introduced to Sub-Saharan Africa from the north, thus many African swords were of Egyptian derivation. Among some communities, swords were restricted to royalty or tribal leaders, forms vary from one area to another, such as the billao of Somalia, boomerang-sword in Niger or the single-edge swords of the Gold Coast. The Abyssinian shotel took the form of a sickle, like the Egyptian khopesh. The edge was on the inside of the blade, which has a mid-rib running along its entire length, double-edge swords similar to those of Europe and ancient Arabia occurred in some areas such as the takoba and kaskara. Two types of sword existed in Zanzibar, the shortsword and the standard sword with a blade measuring 3–3.5 feet. The latter weapon was wielded with both hands like a quarterstaff, greece provides the foundation for the widespread use of the sword as a weapon in its own right in the West. The Roman legionaries and other forces of the Roman military, until the 2nd century A. D. used the gladius as a short thrusting sword effectively with the scutum, gladiators used a shorter gladius than the military. The Empires legionary soldiers were trained and prided themselves on their disciplinary skills. This probably carried over to their training with weaponry, but we have no Roman manuals of swordsmanship, one translation of Juvenals poetry by Barten Holyday in 1661 makes note that the Roman trainees learned to fight with the wooden wasters before moving on to the use of sharpened steel. In fact, it is found that Roman gladiators trained with a wooden sword. This training would have provided the Roman soldier with a foundation of skill
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Stick-fighting
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Some techniques can also be used with a sturdy umbrella or even a sword in its scabbard. Whatever their history, many stick-fighting techniques lend themselves to being treated as sports, traditional European systems of stick-fighting included a wide variety of methods of quarterstaff combat, which were detailed in numerous manuscripts written by masters-at-arms. Many of these became extinct but others adapted and survived as folk-sports. Examples include Portugals jogo do pau, the related juego del palo of the Canary Islands, Frances canne de combat or la canne, and Italys scherma di bastone. Giuseppe Cerris 1854 manual Trattato teorico e pratico della scherma di bastone is influenced by masters of the Italian school of swordsmanship, Achille Marozzo, the French system of la canne is still practised as a competitive sport. A self-defense adaptation of la canne developed by Swiss master-at-arms Pierre Vigny in the early 1900s has been revived as part of the curriculum of bartitsu, nivkh people from Sakhalin used long sticks called zar tar for sacralized ritual fighting. Singlestick was developed as a method of training in the use of such as the cavalry sabre. It was a pastime in the UK from the 18th to the early 20th century. The art continues to gain a following amongst the martial art community in the UK, Australia, Canada. For example, eskrima, of the Philippines uses sticks traditionally crafted from rattan or from butterfruit tree, arnis Bataireacht Kalarippayattu stick fighting Shillelagh
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Grappling
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Grappling is a general term that covers techniques used in many disciplines, styles and martial arts that are practiced both as combat sports and for self-defense. Grappling most commonly does not include striking or the use of weapons, however, some fighting styles or martial arts known especially for their grappling techniques teach tactics that include strikes and weapons either alongside grappling or combined with it. Grappling techniques can be subdivided into Clinch fighting, Takedowns and Throws, Submission holds and Pinning or Controlling Techniques, and Sweeps, Reversals, Turnovers. Clinching, or clinch work, takes place with both competitors on their feet using various clinch holds applied to the body of the opponent. Clinch work is used to set up or defend against throws or takedowns. Takedowns A takedown is used by one grappler to manipulate his opponent from a position where both are standing, to a position on the ground. The grappler completing the takedown aims to end on top of the opponent in a position of relative control, Throws, A throw is a technique in which one grappler lifts or off-balances his opponent and maneuvers him forcefully through the air or to the ground. Sprawling, A sprawl is a defensive technique done usually when the opponent attempts a takedown and it is performed by shifting the legs backwards and spread out in one fast motion. If done correctly one will land on their opponents back and gain control, in sport grappling, a competitor is expected to submit, either verbally or by tapping the opponent, to admit defeat when he is caught in a submission hold that he cannot escape. Competitors who refuse to tap out risk unconsciousness or serious injury, securing or Controlling Techniques, A pin involves holding an opponent on his back in a position where he is unable to attack. In some styles of competitive grappling a pin is an instant victory, other controlling techniques are used to hold an opponent face down on the ground or on all fours in order to prevent an escape or attack. Either of these types of technique may also be used as a prelude to a submission hold. Turnovers, used to maneuver an opponent who is on all fours or flat on their stomach to their back, in order to score points, prepare for a pin or in order to gain a more dominant position. Reversals or Sweeps, These occur when a grappler who was underneath his opponent on the ground is able to maneuver so that he gains a top position over his opponent, the degree to which grappling is utilized in different fighting systems varies. Some systems, such as wrestling, Pehlwani, Pehlwani submission wrestling, judo, sumo. Examples of these include boxing, kickboxing, taekwondo, karate, while prolonged grappling in muay Thai will result in a separation of the competitors, the art extensively uses the clinch hold known as a double collar tie. Grappling techniques and defenses to grappling techniques are considered important in self-defense applications. The most common grappling techniques taught for self-defense are escapes from holds, Grappling can be trained for self-defense, sport, and mixed martial arts competition
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Strike (attack)
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A strike is a directed physical attack with either a part of the human body or with an inanimate object intended to cause blunt trauma or penetrating trauma upon an opponent. There are many different varieties of strikes, an attack with the hand closed into a fist is called a punch, an attack with the leg or foot is referred to as a kick, and an attack with the head is called a headbutt. There are also other variations employed in arts and combat sports. Buffet or beat refer to repeatedly and violently striking an opponent, other sports and arts, such as wrestling employ no strikes in focusing on grappling techniques. There is also a form of karate called goju ryu which focuses on points in the legs. Arm strikes is the act of striking with some part of the palm, knuckle, arm, elbow and this is usually the elbow, the hand, the forearm, or the back of the wrist. A strike using the palm of the hand, whether the hand is open or the fingertips are folded against the bottom knuckles, palm strikes hit with the bottom part of the palm, where the hand meets the wrist. The hand is perpendicular to the wrist to avoid hitting the softer inner wrist tissue against the target. The bottom ridge of the palm is a surprisingly solid striking surface, the palm strike is useful as it is thrown in a more relaxed manner than a clenched fist. This is because clenching the fist shortens the extensor muscles of the wrist which counter the action of muscles of the wrist used in punching. Many martial arts teach to keep the fist clench relaxed until impact in order to maximize the speed of the punch. Targets are numerous and some include the nose, jaw, ears, back of the head, the groin, the kidneys. Some combat sports, such as Pancrase, have forbidden strikes using the clenched fist, a strike using the part of the hand opposite the thumb, familiar to many people as a karate chop, Shuto or Tegatana. This refers to strikes performed with the side of the knuckle of the small finger. Suitable targets for the knife hand strike include the muscles of the neck, the jugular, the throat, the collar bones, the 3rd vertebra, the upper arm, the wrist, the elbow. In many Japanese and Chinese martial arts systems, the hand is used to block as well as to strike. Ridge-hand strikes commonly are delivered with a motion, or with a straight arm swinging sideways. Suitable targets include the muscles of the neck, the jugular, throat, nose, jaw, the eyes
19.
Stand-up fighting
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In martial arts and combat sports, stand-up fighting is hand-to-hand combat between opponents in a standing position, as distinguished from ground fighting. Fighters employ striking, including striking combinations, using body parts or mêlée weapons. Combattants use blocking techniques to block the opponents attacks, martial arts and combat sports that emphasize stand-up fighting include boxing, jōdō, karate, kendo, kickboxing, kung fu, Muay Thai, savate, silat, and Taekwondo. The nature of the stand-up fighting depends on whether the combatants are unarmed or use mêlée weapons, batons become less effective at short, especially clinching range, where they cannot be swung properly. Knives on the hand do not need as much thrusting space to generate damage. In stand-up fighting without weapons, it is possible to separate the distances between the combatants according to which strikes can reach the opponent. Comfort zone, The comfort zone is a distance from which it is not possible to kick the opponent without closing the distance considerably. From this zone the combatant might carefully close in on the opponent to engage with strikes, kicking distance, The kicking distance is the most distant unarmed fighting position in which consistent contact can be made with the opponent. The combatants can use far-reaching quick kicks to the legs, body or head of the opponent, martial arts such as Taekwondo, emphasize the kicking distance in fighting. Punching distance, The punching distance refers to the zone where punches can be thrown, in addition to punches, this distance often also allows for elbows and knees. Boxing is a sport that concerns itself exclusively with the punching distance. However many martial arts, particularly those that employ extreme close range fighting train ranges within punch range and this collection of ranges is often called the in-fighting range. This zone involves a multitude of striking and grappling techniques, and is discussed in its own article Clinch fighting
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Ground fighting
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Ground fighting is hand-to-hand combat which takes place while the combatants are on the ground, generally involving grappling. It is the focus of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and is featured in varying amounts in Catch wrestling, Judo, Sambo, Shoot wrestling. Similarly to clinch fighting, ground fighting implies that the combatants are at a close range. Traditionally neglected by most grappling arts, striking on the ground is an important aspect of ground fighting, another factor is gravity, which is in favor of the top combatant when he or she is striking downwards. In addition, the effect of ground strikes may be amplified, depending on the area struck, the types of strikes that can be employed effectively depend on the particular grappling position, common ones include elbows, headbutts, knees and punches. Clinch fighting Combatives Grappling Stand-up fighting Submission grappling Sweep
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Combat sport
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A combat sport, or fighting sport, is a competitive contact sport with one-on-one combat. Determining the winner depends on the contests rules. In many fighting sports, a contestant wins by scoring points than the opponent or by disabling the opponent. Mixed Martial Arts, Boxing, wrestling, Muay Thai, Tae Kwon Do, Judo, Brazilian Jiu-jitsu, folk wrestling exists in many forms and in most cultures, and can be considered a cultural universal. The Ancient Olympic Games were largely composed of sports that tested skills related to combat, such as armored foot races, boxing, wrestling, pankration and chariot racing, Combat sports are first recorded during the Olympic games of 648 B. C. with pankration. Pankration allowed competitors to use all striking and grappling techniques, the only rules for this sport in its origin were no biting and no eye gouging. A winner was decided by submission, unconsciousness, or even death of an opponent and it is a common occurrence for matches to last for hours. Pankration grew in popularity during the Hellenic Period, matches were in small square arenas to promote engagement. This tradition of sports was taken even further by the Romans with gladiators who would fight with weapons. Through the Middle ages and Renaissance the tournament became popular, with jousting as a main event, while the tournament was popular amongst aristocrats, combative sports were practiced by all levels of society. The German school of medieval martial arts distinguished sportive combat from serious combat. In the German Renaissance, sportive combat competitions were known as Fechtschulen, out of these Prize Playing events developed the English boxing of the 18th century, which evolved into modern boxing with the introduction of the Marquess of Queensberry rules in 1867. Amateur boxing was part of the modern Olympic Games since their introduction in 1904, professional boxing became popular in the United States in the 1920s and experienced a golden age after World War II. The creation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu is attributed to the Gracie family of Brazil in 1925 after Asian martial arts were introduced to Brazil, vale-tudo, wrestling, muay thai kickboxing and luta livre gained popularity. Modern Muay Thai was developed in the 1920s to 1930s, Sambo was introduced in the Soviet Union. Modern Taekwondo also emerged after the Japanese occupation of Korea and became an Olympic sport in 2000, sanshou as part of modern wush was developed in the Peoples Republic of China since the 1950s. Kickboxing and full contact karate were developed in the 1960s and became popular in Japan, Modern Mixed Martial Arts developed out of the interconnected subcultures of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and shoot wrestling. It was introduced in Japan in the form of Shooto in 1985, unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts were introduced in 2000, and the sport experienced a peak of popularity in the 2000s
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Physical fitness
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Physical fitness is a general state of health and well-being and, more specifically, the ability to perform aspects of sports, occupations and daily activities. Physical fitness is generally achieved through proper nutrition, moderate-vigorous physical exercise, before the industrial revolution, fitness was defined as the capacity to carry out the day’s activities without undue fatigue. Fitness is defined as the quality or state of being fit, around 1950, perhaps consistent with the Industrial Revolution and the treatise of World War II, the term fitness increased in western vernacular by a factor of ten. Modern definition of fitness describe either a person or machines ability to perform a function or a holistic definition of human adaptability to cope with various situations. This has led to an interrelation of human fitness and attractiveness which has mobilized global fitness and fitness equipment industries, regarding specific function, fitness is attributed to person who possess significant aerobic or anaerobic ability, i. e. strength or endurance. A well rounded fitness program will improve a person in all aspects of fitness, rather than one, a comprehensive fitness program tailored to an individual typically focuses on one or more specific skills, and on age- or health-related needs such as bone health. Many sources also cite mental, social and emotional health as an important part of overall fitness and this is often presented in textbooks as a triangle made up of three points, which represent physical, emotional, and mental fitness. Physical fitness can also prevent or treat many chronic health conditions brought on by unhealthy lifestyle or aging, working out can also help some people sleep better and possibly alleviate some mood disorders in certain individuals. Developing research has demonstrated many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans was created by the Office of Disease Prevention and this publication suggests that all adults should avoid inactivity to promote good health mentally and physically. Aerobic activity should be performed in episodes of at least 10 minutes, additional health benefits are gained by engaging in physical activity beyond this amount. Specific or task-oriented fitness is an ability to perform in a specific activity with a reasonable efficiency, for example. Specific training prepares athletes to perform well in their sport, examples are,100 m sprint, in a sprint the athlete must be trained to work anaerobically throughout the race, an example of how to do this would be interval training. Middle distance running, athletes require both speed and endurance to gain out of this training. The hard working muscles are at their peak for a period of time as they are being used at that level for longer period of time. Marathon, in case the athlete must be trained to work aerobically. Many fire fighters and police officers undergo regular fitness testing to determine if they are capable of the demanding tasks required of the job. Members of armed forces will often be required to pass a fitness test – for example soldiers of the US Army must be able to pass the Army Physical Fitness Test
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Meditation
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The word meditation carries different meanings in different contexts. Meditation has been practiced since antiquity as a component of religious traditions. Meditation often involves an internal effort to self-regulate the mind in some way, Meditation is often used to clear the mind and ease many health concerns, such as high blood pressure, depression, and anxiety. It may be sitting, or in an active way—for instance. Prayer beads or other objects are commonly used during meditation in order to keep track of or remind the practitioner about some aspect of that training. The term meditation can refer to the state itself, as well as to practices or techniques employed to cultivate the state, Meditation may also involve repeating a mantra and closing the eyes. The mantra is chosen based on its suitability to the individual meditator, Meditation has a calming effect and directs awareness inward until pure awareness is achieved, described as being awake inside without being aware of anything except awareness itself. In brief, there are dozens of styles of meditation practice. The English meditation is derived from the Latin meditatio, from a verb meditari, meaning to think, contemplate, devise, in the Old Testament, hāgâ means to sigh or murmur, and also, to meditate. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, hāgâ became the Greek melete, the Latin Bible then translated hāgâ/melete into meditatio. The use of the term meditatio as part of a formal, the term meditation in English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism, or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah and Christian Hesychasm. An edited book about meditation published in 2003, for example, included contributions by authors describing Hindu, Buddhist, Taoist, Jewish, Christian. Christian, Judaic, and Islamic forms of meditation are typically devotional, scriptural or thematic, the history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced. Some of the earliest references to meditation are found in the Hindu Vedas of Nepal, wilson translates the most famous Vedic mantra Gayatri thus, We meditate on that desirable light of the divine Savitri, who influences our pious rites. Around the 6th to 5th centuries BC, other forms of meditation developed via Confucianism and Taoism in China as well as Hinduism, Jainism, and early Buddhism in Nepal and India. In the west, by 20 BC Philo of Alexandria had written on some form of exercises involving attention and concentration. The Pāli Canon, which dates to 1st century BC considers Indian Buddhist meditation as a step towards liberation, by the time Buddhism was spreading in China, the Vimalakirti Sutra which dates to 100 AD included a number of passages on meditation, clearly pointing to Zen. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced meditation to other Asian countries, returning from China around 1227, Dōgen wrote the instructions for zazen
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Chinese culture
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Chinese culture is one of the worlds oldest cultures, tracing back to thousands of years ago. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a geographical region in eastern Asia with customs. Important components of Chinese culture include ceramics, architecture, music, literature, martial arts, cuisine, visual arts, philosophy, there are 56 officially labelled ethnic groups in China. In terms of numbers however, Han Chinese is by far the largest group, throughout history, many groups have merged into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared. At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic, the term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the family name and they were located on the Yellow and Yangtze River. Traditional Chinese Culture covers large geographical territories, where region is usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Each region is represented by three ancestral items. For example, Guangdong is represented by chenpi, aged ginger, others include ancient cities like Linan, which include tea leaf, bamboo shoot trunk, and hickory nut. Such distinctions give rise to the old Chinese proverb, 十里不同風, 百里不同俗/十里不同风, 百里不同俗, literally the praxis vary within ten li, since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of Chinese monarch has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society, conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials ranking high in the hierarchy, and the rest of the population under regular Chinese law. From the late Zhou Dynasty onwards, traditional Chinese society was organized into a system of socio-economic classes known as the four occupations. However, this system did not cover all groups while the distinctions between all groups became blurred ever since the commercialization of Chinese culture in the Song Dynasty. This led to the creation of a meritocracy, although success was only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics and those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. A major mythological structure developed around the topic of the mythology of the imperial exams, trades and crafts were usually taught by a shifu. The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women in the Han Dynasty and outlined the four women must abide to, while scholars such as Zhu Xi. Chinese marriage and Taoist sexual practices are some of the rituals, most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism
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Styles of Chinese martial arts
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There are hundreds of different styles of Chinese martial arts, each with their own sets of techniques and ideas. The concept of martial arts styles appeared from around the Ming dynasty, before the Ming period, martial skills were differentiated only by their lineage. There are common themes among these styles which allow them to be grouped according to generalized families, sects, class, there are styles that mimic movements from animals and others that gather inspiration from various Chinese philosophies or mythologies. Some styles put most of their focus into the belief of the harnessing of qi energy, the rich variety of styles has led to the creation of numerous classification schemes. Geographical location such as regional affiliation is one well-known example, a particular Chinese martial arts style can be referred to as either a northern fist or a southern fist depending on its point of origin. Additional details such as province or city can further identify the particular style, other classification schemes include the concept of external and internal. This criterion concerns the training focus of a particular style, religious affiliation of the group that found the style can also be used as a classification. The three great religions of Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism have associated martial arts styles, there are also many other criteria used to group Chinese martial arts, for example, imitative-styles and legendary styles, historical styles and family styles. Another more recent approach is to describe a style according to their combat focus, the traditional dividing line between the northern and southern Chinese martial arts is the Yangtze River. A well-known adage concerning Chinese martial arts is the term Southern fists and this saying emphasizes the difference between the two groups of Chinese martial arts. However, such differences are not absolute and there are many Northern styles that excel in hand techniques and conversely, a style can also be more clearly classified according to regional landmarks, province, city and even to a specific village. The group of Northern martial arts includes many styles such as Baguazhang, Bajiquan, Chāquán, Chuojiao, Eagle Claw, Northern Praying Mantis. Chángquán is often identified as the representative Northern style and forms a division in modern Wushu curriculum. Northern styles exhibit a different flavor from the martial arts practiced in the South. In general, the characteristics of northern styles put more focus on legwork, kicking. The influence of Northern styles can be found in traditional Korean martial arts, Southern Chinese martial arts feature low stable stances and short powerful movements that combine both attack and defense. In practice, Nanquan focus more on the use of the arm, there are various explanations for those characteristics. The influence of Southern styles can be found in Goju Ryu, the term Southern styles typically applies to the five family styles of Southern China, Choy Gar, Hung Ga, Lau Gar, Li Family and Mok Gar
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Punch (combat)
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A punch is a striking blow with the fist. It is used in martial arts and combat sports, most notably boxing where it is the only type of offensive technique allowed. In sports, hand wraps or other padding such as gloves may be used to protect athletes, the use of punches varies between different martial arts and combat sports. Styles such as boxing or Russian fist fighting use punches alone, others such as wrestling and judo do not use punches at all. There are many types of punches and as a result, different styles encompass varying types of punching techniques. This is not a comprehensive list of all punches, due to the diversity of schools of practice whose techniques, employing arm, shoulder, hip and leg work. In boxing, punches are classified according to the motion and direction of the strike, there are four primary punches in boxing, the jab, cross, hook, and uppercut. Punching techniques in Karate are called tsuki or zuki, contact is made with the first two knuckles. If any other part of the hand is used to strike with, such as the back of the fist or the bottom of the fist, then the blow is classified as a strike. Karate punches include the thrust punch oi-zuki made using the lead-hand, straight punch choku-zuki, reverse punch gyaku-zuki, made from the opposite hand, and many other variations. Media related to Punches at Wikimedia Commons Kung Fu magazine, One punch-The Wing Chun Warriors Attack Strategy Bruce Lee discusses the Jeet Kune Do punch Basic Boxing Punches
27.
Wing Chun
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Wing Chun is a concept-based Chinese martial art and form of self-defense utilising both striking and grappling while specializing in close range combat. The earliest known mentions of Wing Chun date to the period of Red Boat Opera, the common legend as told by Yip Man involves the young woman named Yim Wing-chun during the period after the destruction by the Qing government of the Southern Shaolin and its associated temples. Having rebuffed the local warlords marriage offer, Yim Wing-Chun said shed reconsider the proposal if he could beat her in a fight. She soon crossed paths with a Buddhist nun named Ng Mui, who was one of the Shaolin Sect survivors, and asked the nun to teach her to fight. According to legend, Ng Mui taught Yim Wing-Chun a new system of art that had been inspired by the nuns observations of a confrontation between a Snake and a Crane. This then-still nameless style enabled Yim Wing-Chun to beat the warlord in a one-on-one fight, Yim Wing-Chun thereafter married Leung Bok-Chau and taught him the style, which was later named after her. This is often given as a reason to explain the difficulty in determining the creator or creators of Wing Chun. Wing Chun is the most common romanization, from the Cantonese pronunciation and it is also romanized as Ving Tsun or Wing Tsun, and sometimes the characters are substituted with a homonym 永春. Even though it could be considered a linguistically erroneous romanization at least from English-speaking countries perspective, especially in Finland, Germany, the alternative characters 永春 eternal spring are also associated with some other southern Chinese martial arts, including Weng Chun Kung Fu and Yong Chun. One who excels as a warrior does not appear formidable, one who excels in fighting is never aroused in anger. One who excels in defeating their enemy does not join issues, one who excels in employing others humbles themself before them. This is the virtue of non-contention and matching the sublimity of heaven, many Wing Chun lineages emphasize fighting on the outside of the opponent rather than facing them head on. This is often referred to as taking the blindside or fighting on the outside gate, some Wing Chun practitioners believe that the person with better body structure will win. A correct Wing Chun stance is like a piece of bamboo, firm but flexible, rooted and this structure is used to either deflect external forces or redirect them. Balance is related to structure because a well-balanced body recovers more quickly from stalled attacks, Wing Chun trains the awareness of ones own body movement derived from muscular, tendon, and articular sources. Performing Wing Chuns forms such as Chum Kiu or the Wooden Dummy form greatly improve proprioception, Wing Chun favours a high, narrow stance with the elbows kept close to the body. Shifting or turning within a stance is carried out variantly on the heels, balls, all attacks and counter-attacks are initiated from this firm, stable base. Wing Chun rarely compromises structure for more powerful attacks because this is believed to create defensive openings which may be exploited, as described more below, some Wing Chun styles discourage use high kicks which open ones groin to counter-attack to the groin
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Karate
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Karate is a martial art developed in the Ryukyu Kingdom. It developed from the martial arts of Ryukyu Islands under the influence of Chinese martial arts. Karate is now predominantly a striking art using punching, kicking, knee strikes, elbow strikes and open-hand techniques such as knife-hands, spear-hands, historically, and in some modern styles, grappling, throws, joint locks, restraints, and vital-point strikes are also taught. A karate practitioner is called a karateka, Karate developed on the Ryukyu Islands in what is now Okinawa, Japan. It was brought to the Japanese mainland in the early 20th century during a time of cultural exchanges between the Japanese and the Chinese and it was systematically taught in Japan after the Taishō era. In 1922 the Japanese Ministry of Education invited Gichin Funakoshi to Tokyo to give a karate demonstration, in 1924 Keio University established the first university karate club in mainland Japan and by 1932, major Japanese universities had karate clubs. After World War II, Okinawa became an important United States military site and karate became popular among servicemen stationed there, Karate schools began appearing across the world, catering to those with casual interest as well as those seeking a deeper study of the art. Shigeru Egami, Chief Instructor of Shotokan Dojo, opined that the majority of followers of karate in overseas countries pursue karate only for its fighting techniques, depict karate as a mysterious way of fighting capable of causing death or injury with a single blow. The mass media present a pseudo art far from the real thing, shōshin Nagamine said, Karate may be considered as the conflict within oneself or as a life-long marathon which can be won only through self-discipline, hard training and ones own creative efforts. On September 28,2015, karate was featured on a shortlist along with baseball, softball, skateboarding, surfing, on June 1,2016, the International Olympic Committees executive board announced they were supporting the inclusion of all five sports for inclusion in the 2020 Games. Web Japan claims there are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide, while the World Karate Federation claims there are 100 million practitioners around the world, Karate began as a common fighting system known as te among the Pechin class of the Ryukyuans. There were few formal styles of te, but rather many practitioners with their own methods, one surviving example is the Motobu-ryū school passed down from the Motobu family by Seikichi Uehara. Early styles of karate are often generalized as Shuri-te, Naha-te, each area and its teachers had particular kata, techniques, and principles that distinguished their local version of te from the others. Members of the Okinawan upper classes were sent to China regularly to various political and practical disciplines. The incorporation of empty-handed Chinese Kung Fu into Okinawan martial arts occurred partly because of these exchanges, Traditional karate kata bear a strong resemblance to the forms found in Fujian martial arts such as Fujian White Crane, Five Ancestors, and Gangrou-quan. Many Okinawan weapons such as the sai, tonfa, and nunchaku may have originated in, Sakukawa Kanga had studied pugilism and staff fighting in China. In 1806 he started teaching an art in the city of Shuri that he called Tudi Sakukawa. This was the first known recorded reference to the art of Tudi, around the 1820s Sakukawas most significant student Matsumura Sōkon taught a synthesis of te and Shaolin styles
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Kick
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A kick is a physical strike using the leg, foot, heel, tibia, thigh or knee. This type of attack is used frequently by hooved animals as well as humans in the context of stand-up fighting. Kicks play a significant role in many forms of arts, such as savate, taekwondo, MMA, sikaran, karate, Pankration, Kung fu, Vovinam, kickboxing, Muay Thai, capoeira, silat. Kicking is also prominent from its use in sports, especially those called football. The best known of these sports is association football, also known as soccer, Kicks as an act of human aggression have likely existed worldwide since prehistory. However, high kicks, aiming above the waist or to the appear to have originated from Asian martial arts. Such kicks were introduced to the west in the 19th century with early hybrid martial arts inspired by Asian styles such as Bartitsu and Savate. Practice of high kicks became more universal in the half of the 20th century with the more widespread development of hybrid styles such as kickboxing. The history of the kick in Asian martial arts is difficult to trace. It appears to be prevalent in all forms of Indochinese kickboxing. For example, Muay Boran or ancient boxing in Thailand was developed under Rama V, while it is known that earlier forms of boxing existed during the Ayutthaya Kingdom, the details regarding these techniques are unclear. Some stances that look like low kicks, but not high kicks, are visible in the Shaolin temple frescoes, dated to the 17th century. The Mahabharata, an Indian epic compiled at some point before the 5th century AD, describes an unarmed hand-to-hand battle, including the sentence and they gave each other violent kicks. As the human leg is longer and stronger than the arm, kicks are used to keep an opponent at a distance, surprise him or her with their range. On the other hand, stance is very important in any combat system, the application of kicks is thus a question of the tradeoff between the power that can be delivered vs. the cost incurred to balance. Since combat situations are fluid, understanding this tradeoff and making the decision to adjust to each moment is key. Self-defense experts, such as author and teacher Marc Macyoung, claim that kicks should be aimed no higher than the waist/stomach, thus, the fighter should not compromise their balance while delivering a kick, and retract the leg properly to avoid grappling. It is often recommended to build and drill simple combinations that involve attacking different levels of an opponent, a common example would be distracting an opponents focus via a fake jab, following up with a powerful attack at the opponents legs and punching
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Taekwondo
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Taekwondo is a Korean martial art, characterized by its emphasis on head-height kicks, jumping and spinning kicks, and fast kicking techniques. Gyeorugi, a type of sparring, has been an Olympic event since 2000. The body known for taekwondo in the Olympics is the World Taekwondo Federation, beginning in 1945, shortly after the end of the occupation of Korea by Imperial Japan, new martial arts schools called kwans were opened in Seoul. These schools were established by Korean martial artists who had studied primarily in Japan during the Japanese rule, during this time taekwondo was also adopted for use by the South Korean military, which increased its popularity among civilian martial arts schools. After witnessing a martial arts demonstration by the military in 1952, beginning in 1955 the leaders of the kwans began discussing in earnest the possibility of creating a unified style of Korean martial arts. The name Tae Soo Do was used to describe this notional unified style and this name consists of the hanja 跆 tae to stomp, trample, 手 su hand and 道 do way, discipline. Choi Hong Hi advocated the use of the name Tae Kwon Do, i. e. replacing su hand by 拳 kwon fist, the new name was initially slow to catch on among the leaders of the kwans. In 1959 the Korea Taekwondo Association was established to facilitate the unification of Korean martial arts, in 1966, Choi established the International Taekwon-Do Federation as a separate governing body devoted to institutionalizing a common style of taekwondo. Cold War politics of the 1960s and 1970s complicated the adoption of ITF-style taekwondo as a unified style, the South Korean government wished to avoid North Korean influence on the martial art. Conversely, ITF president Choi Hong Hi sought support for the art from all quarters. In response, in 1973 South Korea withdrew its support for the ITF, after Chois retirement the ITF split in 2001 and then again in 2002 to create three separate federations each of which continues to operate today under the same name. In 1973 the South Korean governments Ministry of Culture, Sports, Kukkiwon now served many of the functions previously served by the KTA, in terms of defining a government-sponsored unified style of taekwondo. In 1973 the KTA supported the establishment of the World Taekwondo Federation to promote taekwondo specifically as an international sport, since 2000, taekwondo has been one of only two Asian martial arts that are included in the Olympic Games. It became an event at the 1988 games in Seoul. In 2010, taekwondo was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport, Taekwondo is characterized by its emphasis on head-height kicks, jumping and spinning kicks, and fast kicking techniques. In fact, World Taekwondo Federation sparring competitions award additional points for strikes that incorporate spinning kicks, to facilitate fast, turning kicks, taekwondo generally adopts stances that are narrower and hence less-stable than the broader, wide stances used by martial arts such as karate. The tradeoff of decreased stability is believed to be worth the increase in agility. The emphasis on speed and agility is a characteristic of taekwondo and has its origins in analyses undertaken by Choi Hong Hi
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Capoeira
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Capoeira is a Brazilian martial art that combines elements of dance, acrobatics and music. It was developed in Brazil mainly by Angolans, at the beginning of the 16th century and it is known for its quick and complex maneuvers, predominantly using power, speed, and leverage across a wide variety of kicks, spins and techniques. The most widely accepted origin of the word comes from the Tupi words kaa e pûer. A practitioner of the art is called a capoeirista, on 26th November 2014 capoeira was granted a special protected status as intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO. Capoeiras history begins with the beginning of African slavery in Brazil, since the 16th century, Portuguese colonists began exporting slaves to their colonies, coming mainly from Angola. Brazil, with its vast territory, received most of the slaves, but oral tradition, language, and evidence leaves little doubt about its Afro-Brazilian roots. In the 16th century, Portugal had claimed one of the largest territories of the colonial empires, in the Brazilian colony, the Portuguese, like many European colonists, chose to use slavery to build their economy. In its first century, the economic activity in the colony was the production. Portuguese colonists created large sugarcane farms called engenhos, which depended on the labor of slaves, slaves, living in inhumane conditions, were forced to work hard and often suffered physical punishment for small misbehaviors. In this environment, capoeira was born as a method of survival. Soon several groups of escaping slaves would gather and establish quilombos, primitive settlements in far, some quilombos would soon increase in size, attracting more fugitive slaves, Brazilian natives and even Europeans escaping the law or Christian extremism. Some quilombos would grow to a size, becoming a real independent multi-ethnic state. Everyday life in a quilombo offered freedom and the opportunity to revive traditional cultures away from colonial oppression, in this kind of multi-ethnic community, constantly threatened by Portuguese colonial troops, capoeira evolved from a survival tool to a martial art focused on war. The biggest quilombo, the Quilombo dos Palmares, consisted of villages which lasted more than a century. Portuguese soldiers sometimes said that it more than one dragoon to capture a quilombo warrior. The provincial governor declared it is harder to defeat a quilombo than the Dutch invaders, in 1808, the prince and future king Dom João VI, along with the Portuguese court, escaped to Brazil from the invasion of Portugal by Napoleons troops. Formerly exploited only for its resources and commodity crops, the colony finally began to develop as a nation. The Portuguese monopoly effectively came to an end when Brazilian ports opened for trade with foreign nations
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Savate
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Only foot kicks are allowed, unlike some systems such as Muay Thai, Silat and Yaw-Yan, which allow the use of the knees or shins. Savate is a French word for old shoe, Savate is one of the few styles of kickboxing in which the fighters habitually wear shoes. A male practitioner of savate is called a tireur while a female is called a tireuse, Savate takes its name from the French for old shoe. The modern formalized form is mainly an amalgam of French street fighting techniques from the beginning of the 19th century, there are also many types of savate rules. Savate was then a type of street fighting common in Paris, in the south, especially in the port of Marseille, sailors developed a fighting style involving high kicks and open-handed slaps. It was known as jeu marseillais, and was later renamed chausson, in contrast, at this time in England, kicking was seen as unsportsmanlike. Traditional savate was a northern French development, especially in Paris slums, street fighting savate, unlike chausson, kept the kicks low, almost never targeted above the groin, and were delivered with vicious, bone-breaking intent. Parisian Savate also featured open hand blows, in thrusting or smashing palm strikes or in stunning slaps targeted to facial nerves, techniques of savate or chausson were at this time also developed in the ports of northwest Italy and northeastern Spain—hence one Savate kick named Chasse Italiane. The two key figures in the history of the shift from street fighting to the modern sport of savate are Michel Casseux. Casseux opened the first establishment in 1825 for practicing and promoting a regulated version of chausson, however the sport had not shaken its reputation as a street-fighting technique. Casseuxs pupil Charles Lecour was exposed to the English art of boxing when he witnessed an English boxing match in France between English pugilist Owen Swift and Jack Adams in 1838 and he also took part in a friendly sparring match with Swift later in that same year. Lecour felt that he was at a disadvantage, only using his hands to bat his opponents fists away and he then trained in boxing for a time before combining boxing with chausson and savate to create the sport of savate. At some point la canne and le baton stick fighting were added and those who train purely for competition may omit this. Savate was developed professionally by Lecours student Joseph Charlemont and then his son Charles Charlemont, Charles continued his fathers work and in 1899 fought an English boxer named Jerry Driscoll. He won the match with a fouetté médian in the eighth round although the English said that it was a kick to the groin, angle also said that, The contest ended in Jerry being counted out to a blow in the groin from the Frenchmans knee. He further alleged that the timekeeper saved Charlemont several times, after the fight Driscoll bore no grudges, considering the blow to have been an accident. The French claimed victory to their man by stoppage, following a round-kick to Driscolls stomach, Savate was later codified under a Committee National de Boxe Française under Charles Charlemonts student Count Pierre Baruzy. The Count is seen as the father of modern savate and was 11-time Champion of France and its colonies, his first ring combat, Savate de Dėfense, Défense Savate or Savate de Rue is the name given to those methods of fighting excluded from savate competition
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Muay Thai
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Muay Thai is a combat sport of Thailand that uses stand-up striking along with various clinching techniques. Muay Thai became widespread internationally in the century, when practitioners defeated notable practitioners of other martial arts. The professional league is governed by The Professional Boxing Association of Thailand sanctioned by The Sport Authority of Thailand, the history of Muay Thai can also be traced to the middle of the 16th century. During the battles between the Burmese of the Konbaung Dynasty and Siam, the famous fighter Nai Khanomtom was captured in the year 1767, the Burmese knew of his expertise in hand-to-hand combat and gave him an opportunity to fight for his freedom. Soon after winning the match, he was freed by his captors and he was acknowledged as a hero, and his fighting style became known as Siamese-Style boxing, later to be known as Muay Thai. This fighting style was soon to be recognized as a national sport, Muay boran, and therefore Muay Thai, was originally called by more generic names such as Toi muay or simply muay. As well as being a fighting technique for use in actual warfare. These muay contests gradually became a part of local festivals and celebrations. Eventually, the previously bare-fisted fighters started wearing lengths of rope around their hands. This type of match was called muay khat chueak, Kickboxing was also a component of military training and gained prominence during the reign of King Naresuan in 1560 CE. A practitioner of muay Thai is known as a nak muay, Western practitioners are sometimes called Nak Muay Farang, meaning foreign boxer. The ascension of King Chulalongkorn to the throne in 1868 ushered in an age not only for muay. Muay progressed greatly during the reign of Rama V as a result of the kings personal interest in the sport. The country was at peace and muay functioned as a means of exercise, self-defense, attacking, recreation. 1909-1910, King Chulalongkorn formalizes Muay by awarding 3 muen to victors at the fights for his son. The region style, Lopburi, Korat, and Chaiya,1913, British boxing introduced into the curriculum of the Suan Kulap College. The 1st descriptive use of the term “Muay Thai”1919, British boxing,1921, 1st permanent ring in Siam at Suan Kulap College. Used for both Muay and British Boxing, first international style 3-rope ring with red and blue padded corners, near Lumpinee Park
34.
Chinese martial arts
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Chinese martial arts, often named under the umbrella terms kung fu and wushu, are the several hundred fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in China. These fighting styles are classified according to common traits, identified as families. Examples of such traits include Shaolinquan physical exercises involving Five Animals mimicry, or training methods inspired by Chinese philosophies, religions, styles that focus on qi manipulation are called internal, while others that concentrate on improving muscle and cardiovascular fitness are called external. Geographical association, as in northern and southern, is another popular classification method, Kung fu and wushu are loanwords from Cantonese and Mandarin respectively that, in English, are used to refer to Chinese martial arts. However, the Chinese terms kung fu and wushu have distinct meanings, the Chinese equivalent of the term Chinese martial arts would be Zhongguo wushu. In Chinese, the kung fu refers to any skill that is acquired through learning or practice. It is a word composed of the words 功 meaning work, achievement, or merit. It is formed from the two words 武術, 武, meaning martial or military and 術 or 术, which translates into art, discipline, Quan fa is another Chinese term for Chinese martial arts. It means fist method or the law of the fist, although as a term it usually translates as boxing or fighting technique. The name of the Japanese martial art Kempō is represented by the same hanzi characters, the genesis of Chinese martial arts has been attributed to the need for self-defense, hunting techniques and military training in ancient China. Hand-to-hand combat and weapons practice were important in training ancient Chinese soldiers, since the 1950s, the Peoples Republic of China has organized Chinese martial arts as an exhibition and full-contact sport under the heading of Wushu. In 495 AD, Shaolin temple was built in the Song mountain, the first monk who preached Buddhism there was the Indian monk named Buddhabhadra, simply called Batuo by the Chinese. There are historical records that Batuos first Chinese disciples, Huiguang and Sengchou, for example, Sengchous skill with the tin staff is even documented in the Chinese Buddhist canon. After Buddhabadra, another Indian Central Asian monk, Bodhidharma, simply called Damo by the Chinese and his Chinese disciple, Huike, was also a highly trained martial arts expert. There are implications that these first three Chinese Shaolin monks, Huiguang, Sengchou, and Huike, may have military men before entering the monastic life. According to legend, Chinese martial arts originated during the semi-mythical Xia Dynasty more than 4,000 years ago and it is said the Yellow Emperor introduced the earliest fighting systems to China. The Yellow Emperor is described as a general who, before becoming China’s leader, wrote lengthy treatises on medicine, astrology. One of his opponents was Chi You who was credited as the creator of jiao di
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Throw (grappling)
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Throws can however also be followed into a top position, in which case the person executing the throw does not disengage from the opponent. Certain throwing techniques called sacrifice throws involve putting oneself in a disadvantageous position, such as on the ground. There are several types of throw, among Asian martial arts, judo has the most developed throwing techniques. Most throws are named by describing the point of the throw. The names used here are attributed to Jujutsu throws are descriptions in Japanese, in judo, throws are divided into six categories—hand techniques, leg techniques, hip techniques, shoulder techniques, as well as sacrifice throws to the rear and side. A shoulder throw involves throwing an opponent over the shoulder, seoi-nage is one of the most used throws in Judo competition. One study indicated that approximately 56% of judokas implemented the technique, a common shoulder throw is judos ippon seoinage or the similar flying mare in wrestling. In a leg reap, the attacker uses one of their legs to one or both of their opponents legs off the ground. Generally the opponents weight is placed on the leg that is reaped away and this coupled with the attacker controlling the opponents body with their hands causes the opponent to fall over. Common leg reaps are judos Ouchi Gari, Kouchi Gari, Osoto Gari, somewhat similar to leg reaps involve a hooking or lifting action with the attacking leg instead of a reaping action. Common leg trips are hooking variations of Ouchi Gari and Osoto Gari along with Kosoto Gake, a hip throw involves using the throwers hip as a pivot point, by placing the hip in a lower position than an opponents center of gravity. There are several types of hip throws such as O Goshi, hip throws in Judo are called Koshi Waza, and in Aikido or Sumo they are called koshinage. Sacrifice throws require the thrower to move into a disadvantageous position in order to be executed. The momentum of the body adds power to the throw and requires comparatively little strength. In Judo these throws are called Sutemi Waza and are divided into rear. In Judo, these throws are limited to a specific grade, pickups involve lifting the opponent off the ground and then bringing them down again. Variations of the suplex are common in most forms of wrestling, in Judo the ura-nage throw is a version of the suplex, but it is importantly classified as a sacrifice throw. Some of the more common throwing techniques are listed below and this is not an exhaustive list and the techniques may be referred to by other names in different styles
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Hapkido
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Hapkido is a highly eclectic Korean martial art. It is a form of self-defense that employs joint locks, grappling, and throwing techniques similar to those of martial arts, as well as kicks, punches. Hapkido emphasizes circular motion, redirection of force, and control of the opponent, practitioners seek to gain advantage over their opponents through footwork and body positioning to incorporate the use of leverage, avoiding the use of brute strength against brute strength. The art was adapted from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu as it was taught by Choi Yong-Sool when he returned to Korea after World War II after having lived in Japan for 30 years. Hapkido is rendered 합기도 in the native Korean writing system known as hangul, the arts name can also however be written 合氣道 utilizing the same traditional Chinese characters which would have been used to refer to the Japanese martial art of aikido in the pre-1946 period. The current preference in Japan is for the use of a simplified second character, substituting 気 for the earlier. The character 合 hap means coordinated or joining, 氣 ki describes internal energy, spirit, strength, or power and it is most often translated as the way of coordinating energy, the way of coordinated power or the way of harmony. Although Japanese aikido and Korean hapkido share common origins, in time they have become separate. They differ significantly in philosophy, range of responses and manner of executing techniques, Choi Yong-Sool s training in martial arts is a subject of contention. It is known that Choi was sent to Japan as a boy and returned to Korea with techniques characteristic of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu. In the interview with Chin Il Chang, Choi is claimed to have adopted by Takeda Sōkaku when he was 11 years old and was given the Japanese name. He claims to have taken to Takedas home and dojo in Akita on Shin Shu mountain where he lived and trained with the master for 30 years. This is contradicted by other claims asserting that Choi was simply a worker in the home of Takeda, the meticulous enrollment and fee records of Tokimune Takeda, Takedas eldest son and Daitō-ryūs successor, do not seem to include Chois name among them. Therefore, except for claims made by Choi himself, there is evidence that Choi was the adopted son of Takeda. Stanley Pranin, then of Aiki News and now editor of the Aikidojournal, at the height of dispute, it is claimed by hapkido practitioners that Koreans were excluded from listing, though this is contradicted by Takedas records which contain other Korean names. While some commentators claim hapkido has a Japanese lineage, others state that its origins lay with indigenous Korean martial arts. Choi Yong-Sools first student, and the man whom some claim helped him develop the art of hapkido was Seo Bok-Seob, a Korean judo black belt when they met. A direct student of Choi, Chin Il Chang inherited the title of Doju in Chois personal and complete system of Hapkido on January 15,1985, on April 5,1985 Choi personally awarded Chang the only existing 10th Dan certificate in Hapkido history
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Judo
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Judo was created as a physical, mental and moral pedagogy in Japan, in 1882, by Jigoro Kano. It is generally categorized as a martial art which later evolved into a combat. Strikes and thrusts by hands and feet as well as defenses are a part of judo. A judo practitioner is called a judoka, the philosophy and subsequent pedagogy developed for judo became the model for other modern Japanese martial arts that developed from koryū. The early history of judo is inseparable from its founder, Japanese polymath and educator Kanō Jigorō, Kano was born into a relatively affluent family. His father, Jirosaku, was the son of the head priest of the Shinto Hiyoshi shrine in Shiga Prefecture. He married Sadako Kano, daughter of the owner of Kiku-Masamune sake brewing company and was adopted by the family and he ultimately became an official in the Shogunal government. Jigoro Kano had an academic upbringing and, from the age of seven, he studied English, shodō, when he was fourteen, Kano began boarding at an English-medium school, Ikuei-Gijuku in Shiba, Tokyo. The culture of bullying endemic at this school was the catalyst that caused Kano to seek out a Jūjutsu dōjō at which to train, early attempts to find a jujutsu teacher who was willing to take him on met with little success. With the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in the Meiji Restoration of 1868, many of those who had once taught the art had been forced out of teaching or become so disillusioned with it that they had simply given up. Nakai Umenari, an acquaintance of Kanōs father and a soldier, agreed to show him kata. The caretaker of Jirosakus second house, Katagiri Ryuji, also knew jujutsu, Another frequent visitor, Imai Genshiro of Kyūshin-ryū school of jujutsu, also refused. Several years passed before he found a willing teacher. In 1877, as a student at the Tokyo-Kaisei school, Kano learned that many jujutsu teachers had been forced to pursue alternative careers, frequently opening Seikotsu-in. After inquiring at a number of these, Kano was referred to Fukuda Hachinosuke, a teacher of the Tenjin Shinyō-ryū of jujutsu, Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kanos emphasis on randori in judo. On Fukudas death in 1880, Kano, who had become his keenest and most able student in both randori and kata, was given the densho of the Fukuda dojo, Kano chose to continue his studies at another Tenjin Shinyō-ryū school, that of Iso Masatomo. Iso placed more emphasis on the practice of kata, and entrusted randori instruction to assistants, Iso died in June 1881 and Kano went on to study at the dojo of Iikubo Tsunetoshi of Kitō-ryū. Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on randori, with Kitō-ryū having a focus on nage-waza
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Sumo
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The characters 相撲 literally mean striking one another. The sport originated in Japan, the country where it is practiced professionally. It is generally considered a gendai budō, but this definition is misleading, life as a wrestler is highly regimented, with rules regulated by the Japan Sumo Association. In recent years, a number of controversies and scandals have rocked the sumo world, with an associated effect on its reputation. These have also affected the ability to attract new recruits. It was an important ritual at the court, where representatives of each province were ordered to attend the contest at the court. The contestants were required to pay for their travels themselves, the contest was known as sumai no sechie, or sumai party. Over the rest of Japanese recorded history, sumos popularity has changed according to the whims of its rulers, the form of wrestling combat changed gradually into one where the main aim in victory was to throw ones opponent. The concept of pushing ones opponent out of a defined area came some time later, at this point, wrestlers would wear loose loincloths rather than the much stiffer mawashi wrestling belts of today. During the Edo period, wrestlers would wear a fringed decorative apron called a kesho-mawashi during the match, most of the rest of the current forms within the sport developed in the early Edo period. Professional sumo roots trace back to the Edo period in Japan as a form of sporting entertainment, the original wrestlers were probably samurai, often rōnin, who needed to find an alternative form of income. Current professional sumo tournaments began in the Tomioka Hachiman Shrine in 1684, western Japan also had its own sumo venues and tournaments in this period, with the most prominent center being in Osaka. Osaka sumo continued to the end of the Taishō period in 1926, for a short period after this, four tournaments were held a year, two tournaments in locations in western Japan such as Nagoya, Osaka, and Fukuoka, and two in the Ryōgoku Kokugikan in Tokyo. From 1933 onward, tournaments were held almost exclusively in the Ryōgoku Kokugikan, until the American occupation forces appropriated it, then, an alternate location, the Kuramae Kokugikan near Ryōgoku, was built for sumo. Also in this period, the Sumo Association began expanding to venues in western Japan again, reaching a total of six tournaments a year by 1958, in 1984, the Ryōgoku Kokugikan was rebuilt and sumo tournaments in Tokyo have been held there ever since. For example, a wrestler using an illegal technique automatically loses, a wrestler failing to show up for his bout also automatically loses. Matches consist solely of a round and often last only a few seconds. However, they can occasionally last for several minutes, each match is preceded by an elaborate ceremonial ritual
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Wrestling
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Wrestling is a combat sport involving grappling type techniques such as clinch fighting, throws and takedowns, joint locks, pins and other grappling holds. The sport can either be theatrical for entertainment, or genuinely competitive, a wrestling bout is a physical competition, between two competitors or sparring partners, who attempt to gain and maintain a superior position. There are a range of styles with varying rules with both traditional historic and modern styles. Wrestling techniques have incorporated into other martial arts as well as military hand-to-hand combat systems. The term wrestling is attested in late Old English, as wræstlunge, Wrestling represents one of the oldest forms of combat. The origins of wrestling go back 15,000 years through cave drawings in France, babylonian and Egyptian reliefs show wrestlers using most of the holds known in the present-day sport. Literary references to it occur as early as in the ancient Indian Vedas, the Iliad contains references, in which Homer recounts the Trojan War of the 13th or 12th century BC. Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata contain references to martial arts including wrestling, in ancient Greece wrestling occupied a prominent place in legend and literature, wrestling competition, brutal in many aspects, served as the focal sport of the ancient Olympic Games. The ancient Romans borrowed heavily from Greek wrestling, but eliminated much of its brutality, during the Middle Ages wrestling remained popular and enjoyed the patronage of many royal families, including those of France, Japan and England. Early European settlers in America brought a strong wrestling tradition with them if they came from England, the settlers also found wrestling to be popular among Native Americans. Amateur wrestling flourished throughout the years of the North American colonies and served as a popular activity at country fairs, holiday celebrations. The first organized national wrestling tournament took place in New York City in 1888, the international governing body for the sport, United World Wrestling, was established in 1912 in Antwerp, Belgium as the International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles. The 1st NCAA Wrestling Championships were also held in 1912, in Ames, USA Wrestling, located in Colorado Springs, Colorado, became the national governing body of amateur wrestling in 1983. It conducts competitions for all age-levels, some of the earliest references to wrestling, can be found in wrestling mythology. The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh established his credibility as a leader, after wrestling Enkidu, Greek mythology celebrates the rise of Zeus as ruler of the earth after a wrestling match with his father, Cronus. Both Heracles and Theseus were famous for their wrestling against man, the Mahabharata describes a malla-dwandwa between the accomplished wrestlers Bhima and Jarasandha. Rustam of the Shahnameh is regarded by Iranian pahlevans as the greatest wrestler, in Pharaonic Egypt, wrestling has been evidenced by documentation on tombs and Egyptian artwork. Greek wrestling was a form of martial art, at least in Ancient Greece
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Aikido
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Aikido is a modern Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy, and religious beliefs. Aikido is often translated as the way of unifying life energy or as the way of harmonious spirit, Ueshibas goal was to create an art that practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attacker from injury. Aikido techniques consist of entering and turning movements that redirect the momentum of an attack. Aikido derives mainly from the art of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s. Ueshibas early students documents bear the term aiki-jūjutsu, Ueshibas senior students have different approaches to aikido, depending partly on when they studied with him. Today aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles, with ranges of interpretation. However, they all share techniques formulated by Ueshiba and most have concern for the well-being of the attacker and this has led to many possible interpretations of the word. 合 is mainly used in compounds to mean combine, unite, join together, meet, examples being 合同, 合成, 結合, 連合, 統合, and 合意. The term dō is also found in martial arts such as judo and kendo, one applies aiki by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique. Aikido was created by Morihei Ueshiba, referred to by some aikido practitioners as Ōsensei, the term aikido was coined in the twentieth century. Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training, during Ueshibas lifetime and continuing today, aikido has evolved from the Aiki that Ueshiba studied into a variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world. Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the martial arts that he had studied. The core martial art from which aikido derives is Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu, which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Sōkaku, the art of Daitō-ryū is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the spear, short staff, however, aikido derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship. Ueshiba moved to Hokkaidō in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915 and his official association with Daitō-ryū continued until 1937. However, during the part of that period, Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda. At that time Ueshiba was referring to his art as Aiki Budō. After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in 1919, he met and was influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi
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Joint lock
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A joint lock is a grappling technique involving manipulation of an opponents joints in such a way that the joints reach their maximal degree of motion. In judō these are referred to as, 関節技 kansetsu-waza, joint locking technique) and these typically involve isolating a particular joint and lever it in an attempt to force the joint to move past its normal range of motion. In judo, the combining of standing locks with throws is forbidden due to the risk of harm to the falling opponent, while jujutsu, taijutsu. Joint locks are commonly featured in all forms of grappling, whether it be in martial arts, self-defense, the variants involving lesser levering on a smaller joint are often featured in law-enforcement or self-defense application, where they are used as pain compliance holds. Joint locks that involve full body leverage can on the hand be used in hand to hand combat to partially or fully disable an opponent. They are usually practiced in a safe manner, with controlled movements. The types of joint locks allowed in competitions featuring them varies according to the danger in their application. Armlocks are generally considered safer, while small joint manipulation and spinal locks are banned in all combat sports. Chokehold Compression lock Grappling hold Iverson, Steven
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Chokehold
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A chokehold, choke, stranglehold or, in Judo, shime-waza is a general term for a grappling hold that critically reduces or prevents either air or blood from passing through the neck of an opponent. The restriction may be of one or both and depends on the used and the reaction of the victim. The lack of blood or air often leads to unconsciousness or even if the hold is maintained. Chokeholds are used in arts, combat sports, self-defense, law enforcement. They are considered superior to brute-force manual strangling, which requires a large disparity in physical strength to be effective. Rather than using the fingers or arms to attempt to crush the neck, the terminology used varies, in most martial arts, the term chokehold or choke is used for all types of grappling holds that strangle. This can be misleading as most holds aim to strangle not choke with the exception of air chokes, in Judo terminology, blood chokes are referred to as strangleholds or strangles while air chokes are called chokeholds or chokes. In forensics the terms strangle and stranglehold designate any type of neck compression, an air choke or tracheal choke specifically refers to a true choke that compresses the upper airway, hence interfering with breathing, and leading to asphyxia. Air chokes have been associated with fractures of the larynx or hyoid bone, the arm bar choke is an air choke done by placing the forearm across the front of the neck from behind. The free hand grabs the wrist and pulls back the forearm, a well applied blood choke may lead to unconsciousness in a matter of seconds. Compared to strangulation with the hands, properly applied blood chokes require little physical strength, most chokeholds featured in combat sports and martial arts are blood chokes, although some air chokes or combinations occur as well. Blood chokes, especially the rear naked choke, triangle chokes, in judo, chokeholds, known as shime-waza, are often subject to restrictions based on age or rank. Chokeholds are not allowed in sport sambo but are allowed in combat sambo, the chokeholds used in catch wrestling and shoot wrestling are the inspiration for the chokeholds in modern professional wrestling performances. In law enforcement the goal is to force an uncooperative subject to submit without causing death or permanent injury, in this situation it is vital to distinguish between air and blood chokes. A hold that simultaneously blocks both the left and right carotid arteries results in ischemia and loss of consciousness within seconds. If properly applied, the hold produces almost immediate cessation of resistance, however to avoid injury the hold cannot be maintained more than a few seconds. When pressure on the carotids is released, the flow of oxygenated blood resumes immediately, even if the hold is released at this point, the blood circulating through the brain contains no oxygen, and consequently the subject may not regain consciousness or resume spontaneous breathing. Possibly the most important element of training for the use of chokeholds in law enforcement is the understanding that the subject should always be able to breathe freely
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Grappling hold
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A grappling hold is a specific grappling, wrestling, judo or other martial arts grip that is applied to an opponent. Holds are principally used to control the opponent, and to advance in points or positioning, holds may be categorized by their function such as clinching, pinning or submission, while others can be classified by their anatomical effect, chokehold, joint-lock or compression lock. A clinch hold is a hold which is used in clinch fighting with the purpose of controlling the opponent. In wrestling it is referred to as the tie-up, the use of a clinch hold results in the clinch. Clinch holds can be used to close in on the opponent, as a precursor to a takedown or throw, pinning holds where both the opponents shoulders touch the ground are considered winning conditions in several combat sports. An effective pinning hold is a condition in many styles of wrestling. Pinning holds maintained for 20 seconds are also a condition in Judo. Pinning holds are used in submission wrestling and mixed martial arts. A submission hold is a combat sports term for a hold which is applied with the purpose of forcing an opponent to submit out of either extreme pain or fear of injury. Submission holds are used primarily in ground fighting and can be separated into constrictions and manipulations, when used, these techniques may cause dislocation, torn ligaments, bone fractures, unconsciousness or even death. Some of the common names for grappling holds in contemporary English include, Joint lock. Can opener, A type of neck crank, crucifix, A type of neck crank. Neck crank, Applies pressure to the neck by pulling or twisting the head, nelson, The arm is circled under the opponents arm, and secured at the neck. Twister, A type of body bend and neck crank, wristlock, A general term for joint locks on the wrist or radioulnar joint. Wristlocks form the trademark offense of Aikido, and are used in combination with Keylocks in catch wrestling, small joint manipulation, Joint locks on the fingers or toes. Spine crank, Applies pressure to the spine by twisting or bending the body, armlock, A general term for joint locks at the elbow or shoulder. Americana, BJJ term for a lateral keylock, armbar, An armlock which hyperextends the elbow. Chicken wing, Term for various hammer/keylocks, especially among Shoot wrestling, flying armbar, A type of armbar that is performed from a stand-up position
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Jujutsu
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Jujutsu is a Japanese martial art and a method of close combat for defeating an armed and armored opponent in which one uses no weapon or only a short weapon. Jū can be translated to mean gentle, soft, supple, flexible, pliable, Jutsu can be translated to mean art or technique and represents manipulating the opponents force against himself rather than confronting it with ones own force. Jujutsu developed to combat the samurai of feudal Japan as a method for defeating an armed and armored opponent in which one uses no weapon, or only a short weapon. Because striking against an armored opponent proved ineffective, practitioners learned that the most efficient methods for neutralizing an enemy took the form of pins, joint locks and these techniques were developed around the principle of using an attackers energy against him, rather than directly opposing it. There are many variations of the art, which leads to a diversity of approaches, Jujutsu schools may utilize all forms of grappling techniques to some degree. In addition to jujutsu, many schools teach the use of weapons, today, jujutsu is practiced in both traditional and modern sports forms. Jujutsu, the current standard spelling, is derived using the Hepburn romanization system, since Japanese martial arts first became widely known of in the West in that time period, these earlier spellings are still common in many places. Ju-Jitsu is still a common spelling in France, Canada, the United Kingdom, some define jujutsu and similar arts rather narrowly as unarmed close combat systems used to defeat or control an enemy who is similarly unarmed. Basic methods of attack include hitting or striking, thrusting or punching, kicking, throwing, pinning or immobilizing, strangling, as jujutsu is a collective term, some schools or ryu adopted the principle of ju more than others. Furthermore, the term jujutsu was also used to refer to tactics for infighting used with the warriors major weapons, katana or tachi, yari, naginata. These close combat methods were an important part of the different martial systems that were developed for use on the battlefield and they can be generally characterized as either Sengoku Jidai katchu bu Jutsu or yoroi kumiuchi, or Edo Jidai suhada bu Jutsu. The Chinese character 柔 is the same as the first one in 柔道/judo, the Chinese character 術 is the same as the second one in 武術. The original forms of such as Takenouchi-ryū also extensively taught parrying and counterattacking long weapons such as swords or spears via a dagger or other small weapon. The term jūjutsu was not coined until the 17th century, after which time it became a term for a wide variety of grappling-related disciplines and techniques. Prior to that time, these skills had names such as short sword grappling, grappling, body art, softness, art of harmony, catching hand, and even the way of softness. Today, the systems of unarmed combat that were developed and practiced during the Muromachi period are referred to collectively as Japanese old-style jujutsu. In battle, it was impossible for a samurai to use his long sword or polearm. When fully armored, the use of such minor weapons necessitated the employment of grappling skills
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Brazilian jiu-jitsu
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Brazilian jiu-jitsu is a martial art, combat sport system that focuses on grappling and especially ground fighting. Brazilian jiu-jitsu was formed from Kodokan judo ground fighting fundamentals that were taught by a number of individuals including Takeo Yano, Mitsuyo Maeda, BJJ training can be used for sport grappling tournaments and in self-defense situations. Sparring and live drilling play a role in training. Geo Omori opened the first jiu-jitsu / judo school in Brazil in 1909 and he would go on to teach a number of individuals including Luiz França. Later, Mitsuyo Maeda was one of five of the Kodokans top groundwork experts that judos founder Kano Jigoro sent overseas to demonstrate, Gastão Gracie was a business partner of the American Circus in Belém. In 1916, Italian Argentine circus Queirolo Brothers staged shows there, in 1917 Carlos Gracie, the eldest son of Gastão Gracie, watched a demonstration by Maeda at the Da Paz Theatre and decided to learn judo. Maeda accepted Carlos as a student and Carlos learned for a few years, although the Gracie family is typically synonymous with BJJ, another prominent lineage started from Maeda via another Brazilian disciple, Luiz França. This lineage had been represented particularly by Oswaldo Fadda, Fadda and his students were famous for influential use of footlocks and the lineage still survives through Faddas links with todays teams such as Nova União and Grappling Fight Team. Jiu-Jitsu is an older romanization that was the spelling of the art in the West. When Maeda left Japan, judo was still referred to as Kano jiu-jitsu, or. Higashi, the co-author of Kano Jiu-Jitsu wrote in the foreword, to make the matter clear I will state that jiudo is the term selected by Professor Kano as describing his system more accurately than jiu-jitsu does. Professor Kano is one of the educators of Japan. But the Japanese people generally still cling to the popular nomenclature. Outside Japan, however, this distinction was noted even less, thus, when Maeda and Satake arrived in Brazil in 1914, every newspaper announced their art as being jiu-jitsu despite both men being Kodokan judoka. It was not until 1925 that the Japanese government itself officially mandated that the name for the martial art taught in the Japanese public schools should be judo rather than jujutsu. In Brazil, the art is still called jiu-jitsu, the art is sometimes referred to as Gracie Jiu-Jitsu, this name was trademarked by Rorion Gracie, but after a legal dispute with his cousin Carley Gracie, his trademark to the name was voided. While each style and its instructors have their own unique aspects, today there are four major branches of BJJ from Brazil, Gracie Humaita, Gracie Barra, Carlson Gracie Jiu-Jitsu and Alliance Jiu Jitsu. Each branch can trace its roots back to Mitsuyo Maeda via the Gracie family or Oswaldo Fadda, since judo was introduced to Brazil there have been changes in the rules of sport judo – some to enhance it as a spectator sport, and some for improved safety
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Sambo (martial art)
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Sambo is a Soviet martial art and combat sport. The word SAMBO is an acronym for SAMozashchita Bez Oruzhiya, which translates as self-defense without weapons. Sambo is relatively modern since its development began in the early 1920s by the Soviet Red Army to improve their combat abilities. It was intended to be a merger of the most effective techniques of martial arts. The pioneers of Sambo were Viktor Spiridonov and Vasili Oshchepkov, Oshchepkov died in prison as a result of the Great Purge after being accused of being a Japanese spy. Oshchepkov spent several years living in Japan and training in judo under its founder Jigoro Kano, Spiridonov and Oshchepkov independently developed two different styles, which eventually cross-pollinated and became what is known as Sambo. Compared to Oshchepkovs system, called Free wrestling in Russia, Spiridonovs style was softer and this was in large part due to injuries Spiridonov sustained during World War I. Anatoly Kharlampiev, a student of Vasili Oshchepkov, is considered a founder of Sambo. In 1938, it was recognized as a sport by the USSR All-Union Sports Committee. There are multiple competitive sport variations of Sambo, below are the main formats that are recognized by FIAS. Sport Sambo is stylistically similar to old time Catch wrestling and Judo, but with differences in rules, protocol. More akin to Catch wrestling, and in contrast with Judo, Sambo allows various types of leg locks and it also focuses on throwing, ground work and submissions, with very few restrictions on gripping and holds. Utilized and developed for the military, Combat Sambo resembles modern mixed martial arts, Combat Sambo allows punches, kicks, elbows, knees, headbutts and groin strikes. Competitors wear jackets as in sport sambo, but also hand protection and sometimes shin, the first FIAS World Combat Sambo Championships were held in 2001. The World Combat Sambo Federation, based in Russia, also sanctions international combat sambo events, Freestyle Sambo – Created and debuted by the American Sambo Association in 2004. These rules differ from traditional Sport Sambo in that they allow choke holds and other submissions that are not permitted in Sport Sambo such as certain neck cranks, Freestyle Sambo, like all Sambo, focuses on throwing skills and fast ground work. No strikes are permitted in Freestyle Sambo, the ASA created this rule set in order to encourage non-Sambo practitioners from judo and jujutsu to participate in Sambo events. Oschepkov taught judo to elite Red Army forces at the Central Red Army House, Vasili Oschepkov was one of the first foreigners to learn Judo in Japan and had earned his nidan from judos founder, Kano Jigoro
