1.
Protests of 1968
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In capitalist countries, these protests marked a turning point for the civil rights movement in the United States, which produced revolutionary movements like the Black Panther Party. In reaction to the Tet Offensive, protests also sparked a movement in opposition to the Vietnam War all over the United States and even into London, Paris, Berlin. Mass socialist movements grew not only in the United States but also in most European countries, in the socialist countries there were also protests against lack of freedom of speech and violation of other civil rights by the Communist bureaucratic and military elites. In Central and Eastern Europe there were protests that escalated, particularly in the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia, in Warsaw in Poland. Background speculations of overall causality vary about the political protests centering on the year 1968, some argue that protests could be attributed to the social changes during the twenty years following the end of World War II. Many protests were a response to perceived injustices, such as those voiced in opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War. After World War II, much of the experienced a unusual surge in births. These babies were born during a time of peace and prosperity for most countries and this was the first generation to grow up with television in their homes. Television had an effect on this generation in two ways. First, it gave them a perspective from which to view the world. The children growing up in this era shared not only the news and programs that they watched on television, secondly, television allowed them to experience major public events. Public education was becoming more widely attended and more standardized, creating another shared experience, chain stores and franchised restaurants were bringing shared shopping and dining experiences to people in different parts of the world. These factors all combined to create a generation that was more self-aware and more united as a group than the generations before it, the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Cold War was another shared experience of this generation. The knowledge that an attack could end their life at any moment was reinforced with classroom bomb drills creating an atmosphere of fear. As they became older teens, the movement and the feminist movement were becoming a force in much of the world. The feminist movement made a generation question their belief that the family was more important than the individual, the peace movement made them question and distrust authority even more than they had already. By the time they started college, many were part of the anti-establishment culture and became the impetus for a wave of rebellion that started on college campuses, waves of social movements throughout the 1960s began to shape the values of the generation that were college students during 1968. In America, the Civil Rights Movement was at its most violent, so, too, in Northern Ireland, where it paved the way for an organised revolt against British governance
2.
Barricade
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Barricade, from the French barrique, is any object or structure that creates a barrier or obstacle to control, block passage or force the flow of traffic in the desired direction. Adopted as a term, a barricade denotes any improvised field fortification. Stripes on barricades and panel devices slope downward in the traffic must travel. There are also pedestrian barricades - sometimes called bike rack barricades for their resemblance to a now obsolete form of bicycle stand and they originated in France approximately 50 years ago and are now produced around the world. They were first produced in the U. S.40 years ago by Friedrichs Mfg for New Orleanss Mardi Gras parades, anti-vehicle barriers and blast barriers are sturdy barricades that can respectively counter vehicle and bomb attacks. Contrary to a number of sources, barricades were present in various incidents of the great French Revolution of 1789. The barricade had, by the middle of the nineteenth century, Barricade references appear in many colloquial expressions and are used, often metaphorically, in poems and songs celebrating radical social movements. Bulwark Border barrier Rampart Jersey barrier Visi-Flash Barricade Lights
3.
Bordeaux
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Bordeaux is a port city on the Garonne River in the Gironde department in southwestern France. The municipality of Bordeaux proper has a population of 243,626, together with its suburbs and satellite towns, Bordeaux is the centre of the Bordeaux Métropole. With 749,595 inhabitants and 1,178,335 in the area, it is the fifth largest in France, after Paris, Lyon, Marseille and Lille. It is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture of the Gironde department and its inhabitants are called Bordelais or Bordelaises. The term Bordelais may also refer to the city and its surrounding region, Bordeaux is the worlds major wine industry capital. It is home to the main wine fair, Vinexpo. Bordeaux wine has been produced in the region since the 8th century, the historic part of the city is on the UNESCO World Heritage List as an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble of the 18th century. After Paris, Bordeaux has the highest number of preserved buildings of any city in France. In historical times, around 300 BC it was the settlement of a Celtic tribe, the Bituriges Vivisci, the name Bourde is still the name of a river south of the city. In 107 BC, the Battle of Burdigala was fought by the Romans who were defending the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe allied to Rome, the Romans were defeated and their commander, the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, was killed in the action. The city fell under Roman rule around 60 BC, its importance lying in the commerce of tin, later it became capital of Roman Aquitaine, flourishing especially during the Severan dynasty. In 276 it was sacked by the Vandals, further ravage was brought by the same Vandals in 409, the Visigoths in 414 and the Franks in 498, beginning a period of obscurity for the city. In the late 6th century, the city re-emerged as the seat of a county and an archdiocese within the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks, the city started to play a regional role as a major urban center on the fringes of the newly founded Frankish Duchy of Vasconia. Around 585, a certain Gallactorius is cited as count of Bordeaux, the city was plundered by the troops of Abd er Rahman in 732 after storming the fortified city and overwhelming the Aquitanian garrison. After Duke Eudess defeat, the Aquitanian duke could still save part of its troops, the following year, the Frankish commander descended again over Aquitaine, but clashed in battle with the Aquitanians and left to take on hostile Burgundian authorities and magnates. In 745, Aquitaine faced yet another expedition by Charles sons Pepin and Carloman against Hunald, Hunald was defeated, and his son Waifer replaced him, who in turn confirmed Bordeaux as the capital city. During the last stage of the war against Aquitaine, it was one of Waifers last important strongholds to fall to King Pepin the Shorts troops. Next to Bordeaux, Charlemagne built the fortress of Fronsac on a hill across the border with the Basques, in 778, Seguin was appointed count of Bordeaux, probably undermining the power of the Duke Lupo, and possibly leading to the Battle of Roncevaux Pass that very year
4.
General strike
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A general strike is a strike action in which a substantial proportion of the total labour force in a city, region, or country participates. General strikes are characterised by the participation of workers in a multitude of workplaces, General strikes first occurred in the mid-19th century, and have characterised many historically important strikes. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells recorded the general strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike, which now makes its first appearance in history. Wells noted that he made a mean use of their political advantages to grow rich through the national conquests at the expense not only of the defeated enemy. The plebeians, who were expected to obey the laws, but were not allowed to know the laws, were successful, in 450 BC. in a concession resulting from the rebellion of the plebeians, the laws of Rome were written for all to peruse. The general strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, the first theorist to formulate and popularise the idea of a general strike for the purpose of political reform was the radical pamphleteer William Benbow. On 28 January 1832 Benbow published a pamphlet entitled Grand National Holiday, Benbow began to advocate direct and even violent action for political reform, in particular he advanced his idea for a national holiday and national convention. The striking workers were to support themselves with savings and confiscated parish funds, benbows idea of a Grand National Holiday was adopted by the Chartist Congress of 1839, Benbow having spent time in Manchester during 1838-9 promoting his the cause and his pamphlet. In 1842 the demands for wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by a hard-headed agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak - over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshaled a growing working class tradition to politically organise their followers to mount a challenge to the capitalist. The mass abandonment of plantations by black slaves and poor whites during the American Civil War has, controversially, in his classic history Black Reconstruction in America, W. E. B. The trickling streams of fugitives swelled to a flood, once begun, the general strike of black and white went madly and relentlessly on like some great saga. The next large scale strike took place over half a century later in Belgium
5.
French legislative election, 1968
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French legislative elections took place on 23 and 30 June 1968 to elect the fourth French National Assembly of the Fifth Republic. They were held in the aftermath of the events of May 1968, the Far-Left and the Unified Socialist Party protested against the passivity of the left-wing parties. The Gaullist Union for the Defence of the Republic became the first party in the French Republics history to obtain a parliamentary majority. However, the relation between the two heads of the power had deteriorated during the crisis. One month later, Georges Pompidou resigned and was replaced by Maurice Couve de Murville
6.
General Confederation of Labour (France)
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The General Confederation of Labour is a national trade union center, the first of the five major French confederations of trade unions. It is the largest in terms of votes, and second largest in terms of membership numbers. Its membership decreased to 650,000 members in 1995–96, before increasing today to between 700,000 and 720,000 members, slightly fewer than the Confédération Française Démocratique du Travail. The CGT is concentrating its attention, in particular since the 1995 general strikes, the CGT was most recently in the news for briefly delaying Stage 3 of the Tour de France on July 7,2008. The CGT was founded in 1895 from the merger of the Fédération des bourses du travail, up until 1919 the CGT was dominated by anarcho-syndicalist tendencies, with Émile Pouget as vice-secretary and leader of the union from 1906 to 1909. The CGT was violently opposed to both the authorities and employers, moreover, it refused to become affiliated with a political party. In 1906, the Charte dAmiens proclaimed the independence of trade union. In 1909, members of the management and hundreds of CGT members were killed by the French government led by Georges Clémenceau. Under the leadership of Léon Jouhaux, the Confederation joined the union during World War I. They welcomed news of the 1917 October Revolution with hope, one outcome of this division was the expulsion of the revolutionaries. Radicals created the Confédération générale du travail unitaire, where communists initially cohabited with anarchists, in 1934, left-wing parties united to counteract the far-right ligues. Two years later, the Popular Front won the 1936 legislative election, at the same time, the CGT and the CGTU were reunited. It became increasingly influenced by the French Communist Party. S, the FO criticized the Communist influence as being incompatible with the Charte dAmiens, and they were generally socialist, some trotskyist, some anarchist. In order to preserve its unity, the Federation for National Education left the CGT, the Communist Benoît Frachon became leader of the CGT. Although the CGT was dominant in French trade unionism, it was isolated until 1966, at this moment, it chose to coordinate its actions with the French Democratic Confederation of Labour. In the 1970s, it supported the Union of Left (alliance between the French Communist Party, Socialist Party and Parti Radical de Gauche, after the defeat of the 1978 legislative election, the alliance with the CFDT was broken. However, at the end of his term, Krasucki began to distance himself from the PCF and his successor, Louis Vianet, did the same, going as far as resigning from the political bureau of the party. Thus, during the 1990s, under the leadership of Louis Viannet and Bernard Thibault and it has succeeded in remaining one of the two major French union confederations, while the Communist Party has declined severely
7.
Workers' Force
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The General Confederation of Labor - Workers Force, is one of the five major union confederations in France. In terms of following, it is the third behind the CGT, Force Ouvrière was founded in 1948 by former members of the General Confederation of Labor who denounced the dominance of the French Communist Party over that federation. FO is a member of the European Trade Union Confederation, after World War II, members of the French Communist Party attained considerable influence within the CGT, controlling 21 of its 30 federations. Senior figures such as Robert Bothereau and the secretary general, Léon Jouhaux. These opponents denounced Communist influence as a threat to the independent position of trade unions and they founded a paper, Force ouvrière. In 1947, a strike, fought against the backdrop of the developing Cold War. The Communist ministers were excluded from the government led by Paul Ramadier, in this context, the internal CGT opposition created a new trade-union confederation, called FO. The majority of its founders were from the socialist ranks, in February 1958 the African branches of FO became an independent organization, Confédération Africaine des Syndicats Libres-FO. In the 1960s, when André Bergeron became leader of the Confederation, indeed, if Bergeron was an SFIO member, he was also the main partner of the employers and the right-wing governments. In this, FO presided the security offices. Besides, it welcomed Conservatives and Far-Left, notably members of the Trotskyist Internationalist Communist Organization, the hostility to the CGT and to the French Communist Party is the cement of the confederation. In the 1970s, FO leaders were sceptical about the Socialist strategy of alliance with the Communist Party, then, they criticized the nomination of Communist ministers in 1981. After François Mitterrands election, FO presented like the only independent trade-union confederation, in 1989, Marc Blondel was elected leader of FO, against the will of Bergeron. He wanted to preserve the independence of the confederation, supported by the Trotskyist minority, he adopted a more combative attitude. In this, he participated in the 1995 social conflict against Alain Juppés plans for welfare reform, in consequence, FO lost the precedence of social security offices for the benefit of the Confédération Française Démocratique du Travail. In 2003, Blondel called for a strike against the plan of pensions reforms. Then, he let his function to Jean-Claude Mailly, FO participated in the 2006 campaign against the Contrat première embauche. In his Saturday Evening Post expose, Braden wrote of the CGT strike, Into this crisis stepped Lovestone and his assistant, with funds from Dubinskys union, they organized Force Ouvrière, a non-Communist union
8.
Anarchists
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
9.
French Communist Party
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The French Communist Party is a communist party in France. Although its electoral support has declined in recent decades, the PCF retains an influence in French politics. In 2012, the PCF claimed 138,000 members including 70,000 who have paid their membership fees and this would make it the third largest party in France in terms of membership after the Republicans and the Socialist Party. It was also once the largest French left-wing party in a number of elections, from 1945 to 1960. The PCF has lost further ground to the Socialists since that time, since 2009 the PCF has been a leading member of the Left Front, alongside Jean-Luc Mélenchons Left Party. The PCF is a member of the Party of the European Left, the new SFIC defined itself as revolutionary and democratic centralist. The 1920s saw a number of splits within the party over relations with other left-wing parties, the party entered the French parliament, but also promoted strike action and opposed colonialism. Pierre Sémard, leader from 1924 to 1928, sought party unity and alliances with other parties, with the rise of Fascism after 1934 the PCF supported the Popular Front, which came to power under Léon Blum in 1936. The party supported the Spanish Republicans, and opposed the 1938 Munich agreement with Hitler, PCFs Members of Parliament vote declaration of war against Germany in 1939. But the party was banned after German–Soviet Non-aggression Pact by the government of Édouard Daladier, the leadership, threatened with execution, fled abroad. After the German invasion of 1940 the party began to organise opposition to the occupation, at the same time the PCF began to work with de Gaulles Free France government in exile, and later took part in the National Council of the Resistance. By the time the German occupation ended in 1944, the party had become a force in many parts of France. It was among the parties in elections in 1945 and 1946, and entered into the governing Tripartite alliance. However, amid concerns within France and abroad over the extent of communist influence, under pressure from Moscow, the PCF thereafter distanced itself from other parties and focussed on agitation within its trade union base. For the rest of the Fourth Republic period the PCF, led by Thorez and Jacques Duclos, remained isolated, still taking a Stalinist line. Although the PCF opposed de Gaulles formation of the Fifth Republic in 1958, the years saw a rapprochement with other left-wing forces. With Waldeck Rochet as its new secretary-general, the party supported François Mitterrands unsuccessful presidential bid in 1965, during the student riots and strikes of May 1968, the party supported the strikes while denouncing the revolutionary student movements. Under the Common Programme, however, the PCF steadily lost ground to the PS, initially allotted a minor share in Mitterrands government, the PCF resigned in 1984 as the government turned towards fiscal orthodoxy
10.
Situationist International
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Overall, situationist theory represented an attempt to synthesize this diverse field of theoretical disciplines into a modern and comprehensive critique of mid-20th century advanced capitalism. When the Situationist International was first formed, it had a predominantly artistic focus, emphasis was placed on concepts like unitary urbanism, gradually, however, that focus shifted more towards revolutionary and political theory. Situationist theory sees the situation as a tool for the liberation of everyday life, the experimental direction of situationist activity consisted of setting up temporary environments favorable to the fulfillment of true and authentic human desires in response. However, despite their insistence on this point, the term situationism is still used in reference to the Situationist International. By 1950, a younger and more left-wing part of the Lettrist movement began to emerge. André Breton prominently came out in solidarity with the action in a letter that spawned a debate in the newspaper Combat. The schism finally erupted when the members of the radical Lettrists disrupted a Charlie Chaplin press conference for Limelight at the Hôtel Ritz Paris. They distributed a polemic entitled No More Flat Feet. which concluded, All we can see now is a lugubrious and mercenary old man. Isou was upset with this, his own attitude being that Chaplin deserved respect as one of the creators of the cinematic art. During this period of the Letterist International, many of the important concepts, the meeting established the foundation for the development of the Situationist International, which was officially formed in In July 1957 at a meeting in Cosio. Later, the Situationist International drew ideas from other such as Socialisme ou Barbarie. The most prominent member of the group, Guy Debord, generally considered the organizations de facto leader. In June 1957, Debord wrote the manifesto of the Situationist International and this manifesto plans a systematic rereading of Karl Marxs Das Kapital and advocates a cultural revolution in western countries. During the first few years of the SIs founding, avant-garde artistic groups began collaborating with the SI, Gruppe SPUR, a German artistic collective, collaborated with the Situationist International on projects beginning in 1959, continuing until the group officially joined the SI in 1961. The role of the artists in the SI was of significance, particularly Asger Jorn, Constant Nieuwenhuys. Asger Jorn, who invented Situgraphy and Situlogy, had the role of catalyst. Jorn’s role in the situationist movement was that of a catalyst, Guy Debord on his own lacked the personal warmth and persuasiveness to draw people of different nationalities and talents into an active working partnership. As a prototype Marxist intellectual Debord needed an ally who could patch up the petty egoisms, when Jorns leadership was withdrawn in 1961, many simmering quarrels among different sections of the SI flared up, leading to multiple exclusions
11.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
12.
Government of France
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The Government of the French Republic exercises executive power. It is composed of a minister, who is the head of government. Senior ministers are titled as Ministers, whereas junior ministers are titled as Secretaries of State, a smaller and more powerful executive body, called the Council of Ministers, is composed only of the senior ministers, though some Secretaries of State may attend Council meetings. By comparison, the Government of France is equivalent to Her Majestys Government in the United Kingdom, all members of the French government are nominated by the President of the Republic on the advice of the Prime Minister. Members of the government are ranked in an order, which is established at the time of government formation. In this hierarchy, the Prime Minister is the head of government and he is nominated by the President of the Republic. After being nominated to lead a government, the Prime Minister nominee must propose a list of ministers to the President, the President can either accept or reject these proposed ministers. Ministers are ranked by importance, Ministers of State are senior ministers and it is an honorary rank, granted to some Ministers as a sign of prestige. Ministers are senior ministers, and are members of the Council of Ministers, Secretaries of State are junior ministers. This is the lowest rank in the French ministerial hierarchy, Secretaries work directly under a Minister, or sometimes directly under the Prime Minister. While the Council of Ministers does not include Secretaries of State as members, according to the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic, the government directs and decides the policy of the nation. In practice, the government writes bills to be introduced to parliament, all political decisions made by the government must be registered in the government gazette. All bills and some decrees must be approved by the Council of Ministers, furthermore, it is the Council of Ministers that defines the collective political and policy direction of the government, and takes practical steps to implement that direction. In addition to writing and implementing policy, the government is responsible for national defence, the workings of the government of France are based on the principle of collegiality. Meetings of the Council of Ministers take place every Wednesday morning at the Élysée Palace and they are presided over by the President of the Republic, who promotes solidarity and collegiality amongst government ministers. These meetings follow a set format, in the first part of a meeting, the Council deliberates over general interest bills, ordinances, and decrees. In the second part, the Council discusses individual decisions by each Minister regarding the appointment of civil servants. In addition, the Minister of Foreign Affairs provides the Council with weekly updates on important international issues, most government work, however, is done elsewhere
13.
Minister of the Interior (France)
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The Ministry of the Interior in France is one of the most important French government cabinet positions. The Minister of Interior also take on the role of former Ministre des cultes and is consulted in the process of appointment of Catholic diocesan bishops. The Minister of Cults used to be a minister. While the ministry of the Interior supervises police forces, it does not supervise criminal enquiries, the Ministrys headquarters are located on the place Beauvau, facing the Élysée Palace. Place Beauvau is often used as a metonym for the ministry, the current Minister of the Interior is Matthias Fekl. List of Interior Ministers of France Official website
14.
National Police (France)
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The National Police, formerly the Sûreté nationale, is one of two national police forces and the main civil law enforcement agency of France, with primary jurisdiction in cities and large towns. The other main agency is the military Gendarmerie, with jurisdiction in smaller towns and rural. The National Police comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior and has about 145,699 employees, the National Police operates mostly in large cities and towns. The police is commanded by the director-general who is currently Jean-Marc Falcone, the director-general is directly in charge of the General Directorate of the National Police and the immediate subordinate of the Minister of the Interior. The main Sub-Directorates of the Judicial Police are, Sous-direction anti-terroriste SDAT, groupes dIntervention de la Police Nationale, Nine regional SWAT teams. Direction centrale de la police aux frontières, performs identity checks with La douane française, Inspection générale de la police nationale, headed by the Inspector General and responsible for internal affairs. In the Paris Area, these tasks are assigned to a dedicated service—the Inspection Générale des Services, direction centrale des compagnies républicaines de sécurité, riot police, motorway police, and mountain rescue, commonly referred to as the CRS. Service de coopération technique internationale de police, the Unité de Coordination de la Lutte Antiterroriste and its Recherche Assistance Intervention Dissuasion unit. The DCRI was placed directly under the Ministry of the Interior, the Corps de commandement corresponds approximately to the lower commissioned ranks of a military force, or to grades of inspector in a British-style civil police force. These ranks were previously known as inspecteurs if detectives or officiers de la paix if uniformed, all the ranks insignia may be worn either on the shoulders or on the chest. In the latter they are square-shaped, prior to 1995 two civilian corps existed in which plain-clothes officers were given the training and authority to conduct investigations. The closest Anglo-American equivalent is the detective, in 1951, a standardisation was performed on the RR51 pistol in 7. 65x17mm and on the MAS-38 and MAT-49 for sub-machine guns. In the 80s, a process to standardize revolvers was initiated, the 1970s also saw the introduction of assault rifles to fend off heavily armed organised crime and terrorism. In the 2000s, the police started switching to semi-automatic pistols, for some years, the standard sidearm in the National Police and the Gendarmerie Nationale was the PAMAS G1, which was French licensed and made. The weapons are planned to stay in service until the year 2022, for greater threats the police use slightly modified Ruger Mini-14s purchased in the 1970s. While the vast majority of vehicles are screen printed French brand, some vehicles are provided by Ford. Plain clothes officers or specialised branches use vehicles from a variety of builders, law enforcement in France Official site of the French National Police Official site of the French Ministry of Interior Unofficial site of the National Police
15.
French Armed Forces
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The French Armed Forces encompass the French Army, the French Navy, the French Air Force, the French National Guard and the National Gendarmerie of France. The President of the Republic heads the armed forces, with the title chef des armées, the President is the supreme authority for military matters and is the sole official who can order a nuclear strike. France maintains the tenth largest defence budget in the world and the second largest armed forces in size in the EU, France also maintains the third largest nuclear deterrent behind only Russia and the United States. The Gallo-Roman conflict predominated from 60 BC to 50 BC, with the Romans emerging victorious in the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar, after the decline of the Roman Empire, a Germanic tribe known as the Franks took control of Gaul by defeating competing tribes. The land of Francia, from which France gets its name, had points of expansion under kings Clovis I. In the Middle Ages, rivalries with England and the Holy Roman Empire prompted major conflicts such as the Norman Conquest and the Hundred Years War. The Wars of Religion crippled France in the late 16th century, in parallel, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas. Resurgent French armies secured victories in dynastic conflicts against the Spanish, Polish, at the same time, France was fending off attacks on its colonies. As the 18th century advanced, global competition with Great Britain led to the Seven Years War, internal political upheaval eventually led to 23 years of nearly continuous conflict in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The rest of the 19th century witnessed the growth of the Second French colonial empire as well as French interventions in Belgium, Spain, other major wars were fought against Russia in the Crimea, Austria in Italy, and Prussia within France itself. Following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Franco-German rivalry erupted again in the First World War, France and its allies were victorious this time. The Allies, including the government in exiles Free French Forces and later a liberated French nation, as a result, France secured an occupation zone in Germany and a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. The imperative of avoiding a third Franco-German conflict on the scale of those of two world wars paved the way for European integration starting in the 1950s. France became a power and since the 1990s its military action is most often seen in cooperation with NATO. Today, French military doctrine is based on the concepts of independence, nuclear deterrence. France is a member of NATO, and has worked actively with its allies to adapt NATO—internally. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATOs military wing, including the Military Committee, France remains a firm supporter of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe and other cooperative efforts. Paris hosted the May 1997 NATO-Russia Summit which sought the signing of the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation, France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military that will be smaller, more rapidly deployable, and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France
16.
Charles de Gaulle
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Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman. He was the leader of Free France and the head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, in 1958, he founded the Fifth Republic and was elected as the 18th President of France, a position he held until his resignation in 1969. He was the dominant figure of France during the Cold War era, born in Lille, he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1912. He was an officer of the First World War, wounded several times. During the interwar period, he advocated mobile armoured divisions, during the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division which counterattacked the invaders, he was then appointed Under-Secretary for War. Refusing to accept his governments armistice with Nazi Germany, de Gaulle exhorted the French population to resist occupation and he led a government in exile and the Free French Forces against the Axis. Despite frosty relations with Britain and especially the United States, he emerged as the leader of the French resistance. He became Head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in June 1944, frustrated by the return of petty partisanship in the new Fourth Republic, he resigned in early 1946 but continued to be politically active as founder of the RPF party. He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs, when the Algerian War was ripping apart the unstable Fourth Republic, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle founded the Fifth Republic with a presidency. He granted independence to Algeria and progressively to other French colonies and he restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations, De Gaulle openly criticised the US intervention in Vietnam and the exorbitant privilege of the US dollar. In his later years, his support for an independent Quebec, De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralization. He died a year later at his residence in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, leaving his Presidential memoirs unfinished, many French political parties and figures claim the Gaullist legacy. De Gaulle was ranked as Le Plus Grand Français de tous les temps, De Gaulle was born in the industrial region of Lille in the Nord departement, the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family and his father, Henri de Gaulle, was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college who eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy. De Gaulles mother, Jeanne, descended from a family of entrepreneurs from Lille
17.
President of France
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The President of the French Republic, is the executive head of state of the French Fifth Republic. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, and their relation with the prime minister, the current President of France is François Hollande, who took office on 15 May 2012. Hollande has announced that he stand down in the upcoming 2017 French presidential election. President Chirac was first elected in 1995 and again in 2002, at that time, there was no limit on the number of terms, so Chirac could have run again, but chose not to. He was succeeded by Nicolas Sarkozy on 16 May 2007, following a further change, the Constitutional law on the Modernisation of the Institutions of the Fifth Republic,2008, a president cannot serve more than two consecutive terms. François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac are the only Presidents to date who have served a two terms. In order to be admitted as a candidate, potential candidates must receive signed nominations from more than 500 elected officials. These officials must be from at least 30 départements or overseas collectivities, furthermore, each official may nominate only one candidate. There are exactly 45,543 elected officials, including 33,872 mayors, spending and financing of campaigns and political parties are highly regulated. There is a cap on spending, at approximately 20 million euros, if the candidate receives less than 5% of the vote, the government funds €8,000,000 to the party. Advertising on TV is forbidden but official time is given to candidates on public TV, an independent agency regulates election and party financing. After the president is elected, he or she goes through an investiture ceremony called a passation des pouvoirs. The French Fifth Republic is a semi-presidential system, unlike many other European presidents, the French President is quite powerful. The president holds the nations most senior office, and outranks all other politicians, the presidents greatest power is his/her ability to choose the prime minister. When the majority of the Assembly has opposite political views to that of the president, when the majority of the Assembly sides with them, the President can take a more active role and may, in effect, direct government policy. The prime minister is then the choice of the President. This device has been used in recent years by François Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, since 2002, the mandate of the president and the Assembly are both 5 years and the two elections are close to each other. Therefore, the likelihood of a cohabitation is lower, among the powers of the government, The president promulgates laws
18.
Georges Pompidou
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Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou was Prime Minister of France from 1962 to 1968—the longest tenure in the positions history—and later President of the French Republic from 1969 until his death in 1974. He had long been a top aide to president Charles de Gaulle, as president, he was a moderate conservative who repaired Frances relationship with the United States, and maintained positive relations with the newly-independent former colonies in Africa. He strengthened his party, the Union of Democrats for the Republic. Pompidous presidency is held in high esteem by French political commentators. Pompidou was born in the commune of Montboudif, in the department of Cantal in central France and he first taught literature at the lycée Henri IV in Paris until hired in 1953 by Guy de Rothschild to work at Rothschild. In 1956, he was appointed the general manager, a position he held until 1962. Later, he was hired by Charles de Gaulle to manage the Anne de Gaulle Foundation for Down syndrome. Jacques Chirac served as an aide to Prime Minister Pompidou and recalled, The man gave the appearance of being secretive, wily, however, it was primarily his intelligence, culture, and competence that conferred indisputable authority on him and commanded respect. Naturally reserved, little given to outbursts, Pompidou did not forge very close ties with his colleagues. His nomination was controversial because he was not a member of the National Assembly, in October 1962, he was defeated in a vote of no-confidence, but de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly. The Gaullists won the election and Pompidou was reappointed as Prime Minister. In 1964, he was faced with a miners strike and he led the 1967 legislative campaign of the Union of Democrats for the Fifth Republic to a narrow victory. Pompidou was widely regarded as being responsible for the resolution of the student uprising of May 1968. His strategy was to break the coalition of students and workers by negotiating with the trade-unions, until this crisis, he was the Prime Minister of a quiet and prosperous France. However, during the events of May 1968, disagreements arose between Pompidou and de Gaulle, Pompidou did not understand why the President did not inform him of his departure to Baden-Baden on May 29. Their relationship, until then very good, would be strained from then on, Pompidou led and won the 1968 legislative campaign, overseeing a tremendous victory of the Gaullist Party. Nevertheless, in due to his actions during the May 1968 crisis. Pompidou announced his candidature for the Presidency in January 1969, some weeks later, his wifes name was mentioned in the Markovic scandal, thus appearing to confirm her husbands status as a cuckold
19.
Prime Minister of France
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The French Prime Minister in the Fifth Republic is the head of government and of the Council of Ministers of France. During the Third and Fourth Republics, the head of government position was called President of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister proposes a list of ministers to the President of the Republic. Decrees and decisions of the Prime Minister, like almost all decisions, are subject to the oversight of the administrative court system. Few decrees are taken after advice from the Council of State, all prime ministers defend the programs of their ministry, and make budgetary choices. The extent to which those decisions lie with the Prime Minister or President depends upon whether they are of the same party, manuel Valls was appointed to lead the government in a cabinet reshuffle in March 2014, after the ruling Socialists suffered a bruising defeat in local elections. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic, the President can choose whomever they want. On the other hand, because the National Assembly does have the power to force the resignation of the government, for example, right after the legislative election of 1986, President François Mitterrand appointed Jacques Chirac prime minister. Chirac was a member of the RPR and an opponent of Mitterrand. Despite the fact that Mitterrands own Socialist Party was the largest party in the Assembly, the RPR had an alliance with the UDF, which gave them a majority. Such a situation, where the President is forced to work with a minister who is an opponent, is called a cohabitation. So far, Édith Cresson is the woman to have ever held the position of prime minister. Aristide Briand holds the record for most nomination as Prime Minister with 11 between 1909 and 1929 with some terms as short as 26 days, other members of Government are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister can engage the responsibility of his or her Government before the National Assembly and this process consists of placing a bill before the Assembly, and either the Assembly overthrows the Government, or the bill is passed automatically. In addition to ensuring that the Government still has support in the House, the Prime Minister may also submit a bill that has not been yet signed into law to the Constitutional Council. Before he is allowed to dissolve the Assembly, the President has to consult the Prime Minister, the office of the prime minister, in its current form, dates from the formation of the French Third Republic. Under the French Constitutional Laws of 1875, he was imbued with the powers as his British counterpart. In practice, however, the minister was a fairly weak figure. Most notably, the legislature had the power to force the cabinet out of office by a vote of censure
20.
Economy of France
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France has the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal figures and the tenth largest economy by PPP figures. It has the third-largest economy in Europe with Germany in 1st, the OECD is headquartered in Paris, the nations financial capital. The chemical industry is a key sector for France, helping to develop other manufacturing activities, Frances tourism industry is a major component of the economy, as France is the most visited destination in the world. Sophia Antipolis is the technology hub for the economy of France. According to the IMF, in 2013, France was the worlds 20th country by GDP per capita with $44,099 per inhabitant, in 2013, France was listed on the United Nationss Human Development Index with 0.884 and 25th on the Corruption Perceptions Index. Frances economy entered the recession of the late 2000s later and appeared to leave it earlier than most affected economies, with 31 of the 500 biggest companies of the world in 2015, France ranks 4th in the Fortune Global 500, behind the USA, China and Japan. Several French corporations rank amongst the largest in their industries such as AXA in insurance, luxury and consumer good are particularly relevant, with LOreal being the worlds largest cosmetic company while LVMH and PPR are the worlds two largest luxury product companies. France embarked on an ambitious and very successful programme of modernization under state coordination, the 1981 election of president François Mitterrand saw a short-lived increase in governmental control of the economy, nationalising many industries and private banks. This form of increased dirigisme, was criticised as early as 1982, by 1983, the government decided to renounce dirigisme and start an era of rigueur or corporatization. As a result, the government largely retreated from economic intervention, dirigisme has now essentially receded, the French economy grew and changed under government direction and planning much more than in other European countries. Labour conditions and wages are highly regulated, the government continues to own shares in corporations in a range of sectors, including banking, energy production and distribution, automobiles, transportation, and telecommunications. These differ from such as the US or UK where most of these companies have been privatized. In April and May 2012, France held an election in which the winner François Hollande had opposed austerity measures. French government bond interest rates fell 30% to record lows, less than 50 basis points above German government bond rates, the French government has run a budget deficit each year since the early 1970s. In mid-2012, French government debt levels reached €1,833 billion and this debt level was the equivalent of 91% of French GDP. In 2012 France was downgraded by ratings agencies Moodys, Standard&Poors, in December 2014 Frances credit rating was further downgraded by Fitch to the AA credit rating. Research and development spending is high in France at 2. 26% of GDP. Nuclear waste is stored on site at reprocessing facilities, due to its heavy investment in nuclear power, France is the smallest emitter of carbon dioxide among the seven most industrialized countries in the world
21.
Civil war
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The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region or to change government policies. The term is a calque of the Latin bellum civile which was used to refer to the civil wars of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. A civil war is a high-intensity conflict, often involving regular armed forces, Civil wars may result in large numbers of casualties and the consumption of significant resources. Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers, according to Patrick M. Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half-year average of the 1900–1944 period. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century while there were over 20 concurrent civil wars close to the end of the Cold War. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, ann Hironaka further specifies that one side of a civil war is the state. The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a war is contested by academics. Some political scientists define a civil war as having more than 1000 casualties, the Correlates of War, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. Based on the 1000 casualties per year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997,104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007. The Geneva Conventions do not specifically define the term civil war and this includes civil wars, however no specific definition of civil war is provided in the text of the Conventions. That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the military forces against insurgents organized as military. That the insurgents have an organization purporting to have the characteristics of a State and that the insurgent civil authority exercises de facto authority over the population within a determinate portion of the national territory. That the armed forces act under the direction of an authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war. That the insurgent civil authority agrees to be bound by the provisions of the Convention, scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories, greed versus grievance. Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war, a comprehensive study of civil war was carried out by a team from the World Bank in the early 21st century. A second source of finance is national diasporas, which can fund rebellions, the study found that statistically switching the size of a countrys diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. Opportunity cost of rebellion Higher male secondary school enrollment, per capita income, the study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings forgone by rebellion, and therefore that lower forgone earnings encourage rebellion
22.
Student protest
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Protest forms include but are not limited to, sit-ins, occupations of university offices or buildings, strikes etc. A common tactic of student protest is to go on strike and it is meant to resemble strike action by organized labour. This can cause an overload of students in one academic term, in more recent times, significant walkouts occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the French May 1968 uprisings began as a series of student strikes. An estimated four million students at more than 450 universities, colleges, the term student strike has been criticized as inaccurate by some unions and commentators in the news media. These groups have indicated that they believe the boycott is more accurate
23.
Anti-capitalism
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Anti-capitalism encompasses a wide variety of movements, ideas and attitudes that oppose capitalism. Anti-capitalists, in the sense of the word, are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system. State or worker cooperative ownership is in opposition to private ownership of means of production. Most socialists argue that capitalism unfairly concentrates power, wealth and profit, among a segment of society that controls capital. Socialists argue that the accumulation of capital generates waste through externalizations that require costly corrective regulatory measures, socialists view private property relations as limiting the potential of productive forces in the economy. For the influential German individualist anarchist philosopher Max Stirner private property is a spook which lives by the grace of law, in other words, private property exists purely through the protection of the State, through the States grace. And what is their principle, whose protector they always love, not that of labour, rather it is interest-bearing possession. Labour certainly, yet little or none at all of ones own, and so to fight against capitalism is a pointless task, since be it State capitalism or Enterprise capitalism, as long as Government exists, exploiting capital will exist. The fight, but of consciousness, is against the State and it is a negatively connoted term used to draw an analogy between slavery and wage labor by focusing on similarities between owning and renting a person. Libertarian socialists believe if freedom is valued, then society must work towards a system in which individuals have the power to economic issues along with political issues. American anarchist Emma Goldman believed that the system of capitalism was incompatible with human liberty. She also argued that capitalism dehumanized workers, turning the producer into a particle of a machine, with less will and decision than his master of steel. Noam Chomsky contends that there is little difference between chattel slavery and renting ones self to an owner or wage slavery. He feels that it is an attack on personal integrity that undermines individual freedom and he holds that workers should own and control their workplace. Many libertarian socialists argue that voluntary associations should manage industrial manufacture. As such, they see a distinction between the concepts of property and personal possession. He believes that Tucker overlooked this due to Tuckers focus on individual market transactions. The theoretical sections of Studies in Mutualist Political Economy are presented as an attempt to integrate marginalist critiques into the theory of value
24.
Consumerism
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Consumerism is a social and economic order and ideology that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts. In economics, consumerism may refer to policies which emphasise consumption. In this sense, consumerism expresses the idea not of one man, one voice, but of one dollar, one voice, the term consumerism has several definitions. These definitions may not be related to other and confusingly. One sense of the term relates to efforts to support consumers interests, by the early 1970s it had become the accepted term for the field and began to be used in these ways, Consumerism is the concept that consumers should be informed decision makers in the marketplace. Practices such as product testing make consumers informed, Consumerism is the concept that the marketplace itself is responsible for ensuring social justice through fair economic practices. Consumer protection policies and laws compel manufacturers to make products safe, Consumerism refers to the field of studying, regulating, or interacting with the marketplace. The consumer movement is the movement which refers to all actions. While the above definitions were becoming established, other people using the term consumerism to mean high levels of consumption. This definition has gained popularity since the 1970s and began to be used in ways, Consumerism is the selfish and frivolous collecting of products. In protest against this, some people promote anti-consumerism and advocate simple living, Consumerism is a force from the marketplace which destroys individuality and harms society. It is related to globalization and in protest against this some people promote the anti-globalization movement, vance Packard worked to change the meaning of the term consumerism from a positive word about consumer practices to a negative word meaning excessive materialism and waste. The ads for his 1960 book The Waste Makers prominently featured the word consumerism in a negative way, the consumer society emerged in the late seventeenth century and intensified throughout the eighteenth century. This included sugar, tobacco, tea and coffee, these were grown on vast plantations in the Caribbean as demand steadily rose. In particular, sugar consumption in Britain during the course of the 18th century increased by a factor of 20, critics argue that colonialism was indeed a driver of consumerism, but they would place the emphasis on the supply rather than the demand as the motivating factor. An increasing mass of exotic imports as well as domestic manufactures had to be consumed by the number of people who had been consuming far less than was becoming necessary. That idea was produced later, more or less strategically in order to intensify consumption domestically, marketplaces expanded as shopping centres, such as the New Exchange, opened in 1609 by Robert Cecil in the Strand. Shops started to become important as places for Londoners to meet and socialise, restoration London also saw the growth of luxury buildings as advertisements for social position with speculative architects like Nicholas Barbon and Lionel Cranfield
25.
American imperialism
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American imperialism is the economic, military and cultural philosophy that the United States affects and controls other countries. Such influence is often associated with expansion into foreign territories. In turn, historian Sidney Lens notes that the urge for expansion – at the expense of other peoples – goes back to the beginnings of the United States itself. Yale historian Paul Kennedy put it, From the time the first settlers arrived in Virginia from England and started moving westward, this was an imperial nation, a conquering nation. In a 2008 address to Boston University, Noam Chomsky stated that talking about American imperialism is rather like talking about triangular triangles, detailing George Washingtons description of the early United States as an infant empire, Benjamin Franklins writing that the Prince that acquires new Territory. Removes the Natives to give his own People Room, stuart Creighton Miller says that the publics sense of innocence about Realpolitik impairs popular recognition of U. S. imperial conduct. S. Uniquely, was proceeding along a path to no limit can be perceived. American exceptionalism is popular among people within the U. S. but its validity, some American citizens will participate in exceptionalism without even being aware of it. Such instances occur when American interests and advancements are justified solely on the basis of its economic standing or the protection of human rights, the American publics attitude towards intervention in Cuba and the Philippines was one of enthusiasm. As a Monthly Review editorial opines on the phenomenon, in Britain, and in the United States, empire does not even exist, we are merely protecting the causes of freedom, democracy and justice worldwide. When World War I broke out in Europe, President Woodrow Wilson promised American neutrality throughout the war and this promise was broken when the United States entered the war after the Zimmermann Telegram. The war for the United States was a war for empire according to the historian W. E. B, du Bois, as historian Howard Zinn explains in his book, A Peoples Republic. Zinn argues that the United States entered the war in order to create a market that could be beneficial to the United States through conquest. During the First World War, some of the American Imperialism at the time can be viewed as imperialism to stop the spread of democracy to certain countries, bourne criticizes intellectuals who gave support for the war without knowing the true intentions of the United States government. The United States invaded Haiti in July 1915 after having made eight times previously. American rule in Haiti continued through 1942, but was initiated during World War I, the historian Mary Renda in her book, Taking Haiti, talks about the American invasion of Haiti to bring about political stability through U. S. control. The American government did not believe Haiti was ready for self-governing or democracy, while Haiti had been running their own government for many years before American intervention, the U. S. government regarded Haiti as unfit for self-rule. In order to convince the American public of the justice in intervening, the Haitian government would come to agree to U. S. terms, including American overseeing of the Haitian economy
26.
Strike action
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Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances, Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. In most countries, strike actions were made illegal, as factory owners had far more power than workers. Most Western countries partially legalized striking in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard or 1981 Warning Strike, official publications have typically used the more neutral words work stoppage or industrial dispute. The first historically certain account of action was towards the end of the 20th dynasty. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs because they had not been paid, the Egyptian authorities raised the wages. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells characterized this event as the strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike. The strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, in 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshalled a growing working class tradition to organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist. Friedrich Engels, an observer in London at the time, wrote, by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, the English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer. Karl Marx has condemned the theory of Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work The Poverty of Philosophy, in 1937 there were 4,740 strikes in the United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history, the number of major strikes and lockouts in the U. S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010
27.
Demographics of France
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The demography of France is monitored by the Institut national détudes démographiques and the Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques. As of the 1 January 2017, almost 67 million people lived in the French Republic, including all the five overseas departments,64,859,000 of these lived in Metropolitan France, the part of France located in Europe. In March 2017 the population of France officially reached the 67 million mark, the 66 million mark was reached in the beginning of 2014. The population of France is growing with 1 million people every 3 years, for an average annual growth of 340,000 people, or a grow rate of +0, 6%. France was historically Europes most populous nation, during the Middle Ages, more than one quarter of Europes total population was French, by the 17th century, this had decreased slightly to one fifth. By the beginning of the 20th century, other European nations, such as Germany and Russia, had caught up with, however, the countrys population sharply increased with the baby boom following World War II. According to INSEE, since 2004,200,000 immigrants entered annually into the country, one out of two was born in Europe and one in three in Africa. Between 2009 and 2012, the number of Europeans entering France increased sharply, the national birth rate, after dropping for a time, began to rebound in the 1990s and currently the countrys fertility rate is close to the replacement level. According to a 2006 INSEE study, The natural increase is close to 300,000 people, a level that has not been reached in more than thirty years. Among the 802,000 newborns in metropolitan France in 2010,80. 1% had two French parents,13. 3% had one French parent, and 6. 6% had two non-French parents. For the same year,27. 3% of newborns in metropolitan France had at least one parent and 23. 9% had at least one parent born outside of Europe. Between 2006 and 2008, about 40% of newborns in France had one foreign-born grandparent, racial and ethnic censuses have been banned by the French government since 1978, since the term race in France invokes associations with Nazi Germany. France was historically the largest nation in Europe, during the Middle Ages more than one quarter of Europes population was French, by the 17th century it was still one fifth. Starting around 1800, the evolution of the population in France has been atypical in Europe. Unlike the rest of Europe, there was no population growth in France in the 19th. The birth rate in France diminished much earlier than in the rest of Europe, the slow growth of Frances population in the 19th century was reflected in the countrys very low emigration rate. The French population only grew by 8. 6% between 1871 and 1911, while Germanys grew by 60% and Britains by 54%, ferdinand Foch joked that the only way for France to permanently improve its relationship with Germany was to castrate 20 million Germans. If Frances population had grown at the rate as that of England
28.
Decentralization
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Decentralization is the process of redistributing or dispersing functions, powers, people or things away from a central location or authority. While centralization, especially in the sphere, is widely studied and practiced. The meaning of decentralization may vary in part because of the different ways it is applied, the word centralization came into use in France in 1794 as the post-French Revolution French Directory leadership created a new government structure. The word decentralization came into usage in the 1820s, centralization entered written English in the first third of the 1800s, mentions of decentralization also first appear during those years. In the mid-1800s Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that the French Revolution began with a push towards decentralization. in the end, pierre-Joseph Proudhon, influential anarchist theorist wrote, All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can be summed up in the words, agricultural-industrial federation. All my political ideas boil down to a formula, political federation or decentralization. In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of economic wealth and it blamed large-scale industrial production for destroying middle class shop keepers and small manufacturers and promoted increased property ownership and a return to small scale living. The decentralist movement attracted Southern Agrarians like Robert Penn Warren, as well as journalist Herbert Agar, hatfield, Mildred J. Loomis and Bill Kauffman. In the next few years a number of best-selling books promoted decentralization. ”Alvin Toffler published Future Shock, naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is from centralization to decentralization. In 1996 David Osborne and Ted Gaebler had a best selling book Reinventing Government proposing decentralist public administration theories which became labeled the New Public Management, stephen Cummings wrote that decentralization became a revolutionary megatrend in the 1980s. In 1983 Diana Conyers asked if decentralization was the latest fashion in development administration, Cornell Universitys project on Restructuring Local Government states that decentralization refers to the global trend of devolving responsibilities to regional or local governments. In 1983, Decentralization was identified as one of the Ten Key Values of the Green Movement in the United States, according to a 1999 United Nations Development Programme report, A large number of developing and transitional countries have embarked on some form of decentralization programmes. The movement toward local accountability and greater control over ones destiny is, however, not solely the result of the negative attitude towards central government. Rather, these developments, as we have noted, are principally being driven by a strong desire for greater participation of citizens and private sector organizations in governance. ”Those studying the goals and processes of implementing decentralization often use a systems theory approach. ”However. Norman Johnson of Los Alamos National Laboratory wrote in a 1999 paper, an important property of agent systems is the degree of connectivity or connectedness between the agents, a measure global flow of information or influence. If each agent is connected to all agents, then the system is highly connected. Instead each party, also called a peer, makes local autonomous decisions towards its goals which may possibly conflict with those of other peers. Peers directly interact with other and share information or provide service to other peers
29.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
30.
Riot control
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Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other security forces to control, disperse, and arrest people who are involved in a riot, demonstration, or protest. If a riot is spontaneous and irrational, actions which cause people to stop, however, these methods usually fail when there is severe anger with a legitimate cause, or the riot was planned or organized. Law enforcement officers or military personnel have long used less lethal weapons such as batons and whips to disperse crowds, since the 1980s, riot control officers have also used tear gas, pepper spray, rubber bullets, and electric tasers. In some cases, riot squads may also use Long Range Acoustic Devices, water cannons, armoured fighting vehicles, officers performing riot control typically wear protective equipment such as riot helmets, face visors, body armor, gas masks and riot shields. The first squad trained in techniques of riot control was formed in 1925 in colonial Shanghai as a response to the mismanaged riot of the May Thirtieth Movement. New policing methods, including combat pistol shooting, hand to hand combat skills, under Fairbairn, the SMP developed a myriad of riot control measures. These riot control techniques led to the introduction of Shanghais Reserve Unit - the first modern SWAT team, as a reserve unit, it was used to forcibly disband riots as well as to respond to high-level criminality like kidnappings and armed robberies. The skills developed in Shanghai have been adopted and adapted by both police forces and clandestine warfare units. For protection, officers performing riot control will often wear protective helmets and these are designed to protect the wearer from those dangers that come from direct melee and hurled objects such as bottles and bricks. The gear frequently worn by riot control officers protects the body with no vulnerable spots to exploit. For example, the worn by riot control officers have an additional outward-extending part that protects the back of the neck from assault. To provide even greater protection, the protective equipment often provides ballistic protection, if tear gas or other riot control agents are to be used, gas masks may also be worn. One of many additional concerns is to prevent people in the crowd from snatching officers side arms, in a very heavy crowd, the officer may not be able to see who is responsible for snatching a weapon, and may not even notice that it has happened. For this reason, riot police may have holsters with positive locking mechanisms or other means of retention. However, this can be a trade-off that increases the amount of time needed to draw the sidearm in an emergency, alternately, riot police may not carry sidearms at all. The initial choice of tactics determines the type of equipment used. The base choice is between lethal and less-than-lethal weaponry, the decision is based on the perceived level of threat and the existing laws, in many countries it is illegal to use lethal force to control riots in all but the most extreme circumstances. Special riot hand weapons include the wooden or rubber baton, the African sjambok, a leather or plastic whip, and the Indian lathi
31.
National Assembly (France)
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The National Assembly is the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of France under the Fifth Republic. The upper house is the Senate, the National Assemblys members are known as députés. There are 577 députés, each elected by a constituency through a two-round voting system. Thus,289 seats are required for a majority, the assembly is presided over by a president, normally from the largest party represented, assisted by vice-presidents from across the represented political spectrum. The term of the National Assembly is five years, however and it is guarded by Republican Guards. The Constitution of the French Fifth Republic greatly increased the power of the executive at the expense of Parliament, the President of the Republic can decide to dissolve the National Assembly and call for new legislative elections. This is meant as a way to resolve stalemates where the Assembly cannot decide on a political direction. The National Assembly can overthrow the government by a vote of no confidence. For this reason, the minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. The Government used to set the priorities of the agenda for the Assemblys sessions and this, however, was amended on 23 July 2008. Under the amended constitution, the Government sets the priorities for two weeks in a month, another week is designated for the Assemblys control prerogatives. And the fourth one is set by the Assembly, also, one day per month is set by a minority or opposition group. Members of the assembly can ask written or oral questions to ministers, the Wednesday afternoon 3 p. m. session of questions to the Government is broadcast live on television. Like Prime Ministers Questions in Britain, it is largely a show for the viewers, with members of the majority asking flattering questions, while the opposition tries to embarrass the government. Since 1988, the 577 deputies are elected by universal suffrage with a two-round system by constituency, for a five-year mandate. The constituencies each have approximately 100,000 inhabitants, however, districts were not redrawn between 1982 and 2009. As a result of population movements over that period, there were inequalities between the less populous rural districts and the urban districts, the constituencies were redrawn in 2009, but this redistribution was controversial. Among other controversial measures, it created eleven constituencies and seats for French residents overseas, albeit without increasing the overall number of seats beyond 577
32.
French Socialist Party
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The Socialist Party is a social-democratic political party in France, and the largest party of the French centre-left. The PS is one of the two major political parties in France, along with the Republicans. The Socialist Party replaced the earlier French Section of the Workers International in 1969, the PS is a member of the Party of European Socialists, the Socialist International and the Progressive Alliance. The PS first won power in 1981, when its candidate François Mitterrand was elected President of France in the 1981 presidential election, under Mitterrand, the party achieved a governing majority in the National Assembly from 1981 to 1986 and again from 1988 to 1993. In 2007, the candidate for the presidential election, Ségolène Royal, was defeated by conservative UMP candidate Nicolas Sarkozy. Then, the Socialist party won most of regional and local elections, in 2016, the party had 42,300 members. In 2014, the party had 60,000 members, in 2012 the party had 173,486 members. The defeat of the Paris commune greatly reduced the power and influence of socialist movements in France and its leaders were killed or exiled. Frances first socialist party, the Federation of the Socialist Workers of France, was founded in 1879 and it was characterised as possibilist because it promoted gradual reforms. Two parties split off from it, in 1882, the French Workers Party of Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, at the same time, the heirs of Louis Auguste Blanqui, a symbol of the French revolutionary tradition, created the Central Revolutionary Committee led by Édouard Vaillant. There were also some declared socialist deputies such as Alexandre Millerand, in 1899, the participation of Millerand in Pierre Waldeck-Rousseaus cabinet caused a debate about socialist participation in a bourgeois government. In 1905, during the Globe Congress, the two merged in the French Section of the Workers International. Leader of the group and director of the party paper LHumanité. The party was hemmed in between the liberals of the Radical Party and the revolutionary syndicalists who dominated the trade unions. Together with the Radicals, who wished to install laicism, the SFIO was a component of the Left Block without to sit in the government, in 1906, the General Confederation of Labour trade union claimed its independence from all political parties. The French socialists were strongly anti-war, but following the assassination of Jaurès in 1914 they were unable to resist the wave of militarism which followed the outbreak of World War I and they suffered a severe split over participation in the wartime government of national unity. In 1919 the anti-war socialists were heavily defeated in elections, the right wing, led by Léon Blum, kept the old house and remained in the SFIO. In 1924 and in 1932, the Socialists joined with the Radicals in the Coalition of the Left, the question of the possibility of a government participation with Radicals caused the split of neosocialists at the beginning of the 1930s
33.
Paris Nanterre University
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Paris Nanterre University, formerly called Paris X Nanterre and more recently Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, is a French university in the Academy of Versailles. It is one of the most prestigious French universities, mainly in the areas of law, humanities, political science, social sciences and it is one of the thirteen successor universities of the University of Paris. It is located in the suburb of Nanterre, in the La Défense area. The university is referred to as Nanterre. Nanterre was built in the 1960s on the outskirts of Paris as an extension of the Sorbonne and it was set up as an independent university in December 1970. Based on the American model, it was created as a campus, Nanterre became famous shortly after its opening by being at the center of the May 68 student rebellion. The campus was nicknamed Nanterre, la folle or Nanterre la rouge, Nanterre is the second largest campus in France after Nantes, with its own Olympic-sized swimming pool and a stadium. The university is renowned in the fields of Law and Economics, the Rene Ginouves Institute for Archaeology and Anthropology is another important institution on campus, merging the departments of the CNRS, Paris I-Panthéon Sorbonne and Paris X-Nanterre. As in most Parisian universities, there is a minority of foreign exchange students. These programs have inspired many universities and grandes écoles throughout the country and are now renowned on a national level, Law The university’s undergraduate law program is ranked 9th of France by Eduniversal, with 2 stars. La Chinoise, by Jean-Luc Godard,1967 My Sex Life
34.
Student rights in higher education
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There is very little scholarship about student rights throughout the world. In general most countries have some kind of student rights enshrined in their laws, some countries, like Romania, in the European Union, have comprehensive student bills of rights, which outline both rights and how they are to be proceduralized. Canada, like the United States, has a number of laws and court precedents which regulate higher education and this article is concerned with students in public institutions, although those in private schools can claim rights under the common law and provincial education Acts. Canada does not yet have a national student Bill of Rights or comparable document, if and when one is put in place in Canada it is likely that this document will be called a Charter of Student Rights and Freedoms. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is equivalent to the National Bill of Rights in the United States, the Canadian national student union or government is the Canadian Federation of Students and it has not put forth any such bill. In the US, students have many rights accorded by bills or laws and these have been proceduralized by the courts to varying degrees. The US does not, however, have a national Student Bill of Rights and students rely on institutions to provide this information. While some colleges are posting their own student bills, there is no requirement that they do so. Right to protection from arbitrary or capricious decision making Decision making should not be arbitrary or capricious / random and, thus, while this case concerned a private school, Healy v. Larsson found that what applied to private intuitions applied also to public. Right to have institutions follow their own rules Institutions are required, contractually, institutional documents may also be considered binding implied-n-fact contracts. Goodman v. President and Trustees of Bowdoin College ruled that documents are still contractual regardless if they have a disclaimer. Right to adherence to bulletins and circulars Students are protected from deviation from information advertised in bulletins or circulars, Right to adherence to regulations Students are protected from deviation from information advertized in regulations. Right to adherence to course catalogues Students are protected from deviation from information advertized in course catalogues, Right to adherence to student codes Students are protected from deviation from information advertized in student codes. Right to adherence to handbooks Students are protected from deviation from information advertized in handbooks, Right to a continuous contract Mississippi Medical Center v. Degree requirement changes are unacceptable. Bruner v. Petersen found also that contractual protections do not apply in the event that a student, the student may be required to meet additional requirements which support their success. This may also help avoid issues of discrimination, Right to notice of degree requirement changes Brody v. Finch University of Health Sciences Chicago Med. School determined that students have the right to notice of degree requirement changes, Right to fulfillment of verbal promises Verbal contracts are also binding. The North Carolina Court of Appeals in Long v. University of North Carolina at Wilmington found, however, dezick v. Umpqua Community College found a student was compensated because classes offered orally by the dean were not provided
35.
2010 United Kingdom student protests
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Student groups said that the intended cuts to education were excessive, would damage higher education, give students higher debts, and broke campaign promises made by politicians. The first major demonstration occurred on 10 November, jointly organised by the National Union of Students and it involved between 30,000 and 50,000 demonstrators marching through central London, with several hundred branching off to attack and occupy the Conservative Party headquarters. This measure brought condemnation from the establishment and a divide within the student movement over the appropriateness of such tactics, the National Campaign Against Fees and Cuts called for a mass walk-out and demonstration on 24 November, with occupations taking place at campuses throughout the UK. A march in central London was kettled in Whitehall, resulting in violent confrontation with protesters, further demonstrations were held in central London on 30 November, when police clashed with protesters and kettled them in Trafalgar Square, while other protests took place throughout the country. Another central London protest took place on 9 December, the day that the reforms were passed into law, with protesters clashing with police. The student protests were unsuccessful in their aim of preventing the governments reforms, the demonstrations had been highly controversial in the UK, being condemned for instances of violence and vandalism by the establishment. The behaviour of the Metropolitan Police in dealing with the protests were also criticised for instances of untruthfulness. In November 2009, the centrist Labour Party government of Prime Minister Gordon Brown commissioned a study into higher education funding in England, chaired by Lord Browne of Madingley, the former chief executive of BP, the report was to be titled the Browne Review. The Browne Review was subsequently published in October 2010, and contained the suggestion that the government should remove outright the existing cap of £3,290 on tuition fees, the government rejected this proposal, instead choosing to keep a cap but increasing it to £9,000. Contravening his pre-election pledge, Clegg expressed support for the rise in the cap on tuition fees, Student union leaders were critical of the cuts. The National Union of Students feared that the cap on tuition fees would prevent potential students from poorer backgrounds from attending university. Many protesters focused in particular on Cleggs campaign promise that he would oppose any rise in tuition fees. David Barclay, the president of the University of Oxfords student union, said, This is the day a generation of politicians learn that though they forget their promises. Two weeks before, on 28 October, a protest was held in the University of Oxford to coincide with a visit from the Liberal Democrat minister, Cable cancelled his visit after taking advice from the police about the protest. Several days later, on 3 November, there was a student protest in Dublin, the subsequent London protest was described by one Irish reporter as scenes bizarrely similar to those in the Irish capital. The initial event was the largest student protest in Britain since the Labour government first proposed the Teaching and this demonstration was officially known as Fund Our Future, Stop Education Cuts, although also termed Demo 2010 or Demo-lition 10.11.10. Arriving from all regions of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, approximately 30,000 to 52,000 protesters attended the demonstration. A few members of parliament joined the demonstration, among them Labour MP John McDonnell and it just shows what can be done when people get angry
36.
2014 Hong Kong protests
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A series of sit-in street protests, often called the Umbrella Revolution and sometimes used interchangeably with Umbrella Movement, occurred in Hong Kong from 26 September to 15 December 2014. The protests began after the Standing Committee of the National Peoples Congress issued a decision regarding proposed reforms to the Hong Kong electoral system. The decision was seen to be highly restrictive, and tantamount to the Chinese Communist Partys pre-screening of the candidates for the leader of Hong Kong. On 28 September, the Occupy Central with Love and Peace movement announced the beginning of their civil disobedience campaign, Students and other members of the public demonstrated outside government headquarters, and some began to occupy several major city intersections. Protesters blocked both east–west arterial routes in northern Hong Kong Island near Admiralty, police tactics – including the use of tear gas – and triad attacks on protesters led more citizens to join the protests and to occupy Causeway Bay and Mong Kok. The number of protesters peaked at more than 100,000 at any given time, not only were there fist fights at occupation sites and flame wars on social media, family members found themselves on different sides of the conflict. Key areas in Admiralty, Causeway Bay and Mong Kok were occupied and remained closed to traffic for 79 days, after the Mong Kok occupation site was cleared with some scuffles on 25 November, Admiralty and Causeway Bay were cleared with no opposition on 11 and 14 December respectively. Hong Kong has a different political system from mainland China, Hong Kongs independent judiciary functions under the common law framework. The declaration stipulates that the region maintain its capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights, Chief Executive CY Leung then, per procedure, submitted a report to the Standing Committee inviting them to deliberate whether it is necessary to amend the method of selection of the Chief Executive. On 31 August 2014, the session of the Standing Committee in the twelfth National Peoples Congress set limits for the 2016 Legislative Council election and 2017 Chief Executive election. After popular election of one of the candidates, the Chief Executive-elect will have to be appointed by the Central Peoples Government. The Standing Committee decision is set to be the basis for electoral reform crafted by the Legislative Council, hundreds of suffragists gathered on the night of the Beijing announcement near the government offices to protest the decision. At a gathering in Hong Kong on 1 September to explain the NPCSC decision, deputy secretary general Li Fei said that the procedure would protect the stability of Hong Kong now. About 100 suffragists attended the gathering, and some were ejected for heckling and protesting, police broke up a group of demonstrators protesting outside the hotel where Li was staying, arresting 19 people for illegal assembly. The Hong Kong Federation of Students and Scholarism mobilised students and staged a class boycott. They organised public rallies and street assemblies, tertiary students would commence a one-week boycott from 22 September. At the same time, Scholarism organised a demonstration outside of the Central Government Offices barricade on 13 September 2014 where they declared a class-boycott on 26 September. At around 22,30, up to 100 protesters led by Joshua Wong, the police mobilised on Civic Square, surrounded protesters at the centre and prepared to physically remove the protesters overnight
37.
Free school movement
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As disenchantment with social institutions spread with the 1960s counterculture, alternative schools sprouted outside the local public school system. Their philosophical influence stemmed from the counterculture, A. S. Neill and Summerhill, child-centered progressive education of the Progressive Era, the Modern Schools, the movements transference of ideas was tracked through the New Schools Exchange and American Summerhill Society. The definition and scope of schools self-classified as free schools and their movement were never clearly delineated. Some schools practiced participatory democracies for self-governance, the free schools movement was also known as the new schools or alternative schools movement. Author Ron Miller defined the free school movements principles as letting families choose for their children, allen Graubard charted the growth of the free schools from 25 in 1967 to around 600 in 1972, with estimates of 200 created between 1971 and 1972. These schools had an enrollment of 33 students. Almost all of the first American free schools were based on Summerhill, many of the schools were started in nontraditional locations, including parks, churches, and abandoned buildings. The movement peaked in 1972 with hundreds of schools opened and public interest in open education, the movement subsided with the rise of 1970s conservatism, particularly due to the Nixon administrations education policies. The Huffington Post wrote in 2012 that the movement is revving up again, the schools are mostly private in America, and generally serve middle and upper-middle-class families. Author Ron Miller credits the rise of standardization with grassroots interest in alternative schools, CBS News reported in 2006 that the remaining free schools, while unknown in number, are democratic, as the students share in the schools governance. Education historian Diane Ravitch said in 2004 that these schools function best for students from educated families due to the schools emphasis on individual contribution. Ravitch believed that the schools values would conflict with predominant student testing trends. A number of schools founded during the Free school movement period of the late-60s/early-70s are still in operation
