1.
Email
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Electronic mail, or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages between people using digital devices such as computers and mobile phones. Email first entered use in the 1960s and by the mid-1970s had taken the form now recognized as email. Email operates across computer networks, which today is primarily the Internet, some early email systems required the author and the recipient to both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Todays email systems are based on a store-and-forward model, Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Originally an ASCII text-only communications medium, Internet email was extended by Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions to carry text in character sets. International email, with internationalized email addresses using UTF-8, has been standardized, the history of modern Internet email services reaches back to the early ARPANET, with standards for encoding email messages published as early as 1973. An email message sent in the early 1970s looks very similar to an email sent today. Email played an important part in creating the Internet, and the conversion from ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current services, historically, the term electronic mail was used generically for any electronic document transmission. For example, several writers in the early 1970s used the term to describe fax document transmission, as a result, it is difficult to find the first citation for the use of the term with the more specific meaning it has today. This spelling also appears in most dictionaries, Mail was the form used in the original protocol standard, RFC524. The service is referred to as mail, and a piece of electronic mail is called a message. EMail is a form that has been used in RFCs for the Authors Address and is expressly required for historical reasons. E-mail is sometimes used, capitalizing the initial E as in similar abbreviations like E-piano, E-guitar, A-bomb, by 1968, AUTODIN linked more than 300 sites in several countries. With the introduction of MITs Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, multiple users could log in to a system from remote dial-up terminals. Informal methods of using this to pass messages were developed and expanded,1965 – MITs CTSS MAIL and it used the Unix mail client to send messages between system users. The concept was extended to communicate remotely over the Berkeley Network,1979 – EMAIL, an application written by Shiva Ayyadurai for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. 1979 – MH Message Handling System developed at RAND provided several tools for managing electronic mail on Unix, most of them only allowed communication between users logged into the same host or mainframe, although there might be hundreds or thousands of users within an organization. In the early 1980s, networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important, server-based systems similar to the earlier mainframe systems were developed
2.
Research Unix
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The term Research Unix first appeared in the Bell System Technical Journal to distinguish it from other versions internal to Bell Labs whose code-base had diverged from the primary CSRC version. However, that term was little-used until Version 8 Unix, but has been applied to earlier versions as well. Prior to V8, the system was most commonly called simply UNIX or the UNIX Time-Sharing System. AT&T licensed Version 5 to educational institutions, and Version 6 also to commercial sites, schools paid $200 and others $20,000, discouraging most commercial use, but Version 6 was the most widely used version into the 1980s. So, the first Research Unix would be the First Edition, another common way of referring to them is Version x Unix, where x is the manual edition. All modern editions of Unix—excepting Unix-like implementations such as Coherent, Minix, starting with the 8th Edition, versions of Research Unix had a close relationship to BSD. This began by using 4. 1cBSD as the basis for the 8th Edition. 1c and this continued with 9th and 10th. The ordinary user command-set was, I guess, a bit more BSD-flavored than SysVish, Version 3, Version 4 and Version 5 should not be confused with the UNIX3.0, UNIX4.0 and UNIX5.0 releases by the AT&T UNIX Support Group. After Version 10, Unix development at Bell Labs was stopped in favor of a system, Plan 9 from Bell Labs. In 2002, Caldera International released V7 Unix as FOSS under a permissive BSD-like software license, in 2017, Unix Heritage Society and Alcatel-Lucent USA Inc. List of new features in Research Unix 9th Edition
3.
Microsoft Exchange Server
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Microsoft Exchange Server is a mail server and calendaring server developed by Microsoft. It runs exclusively on Windows Server operating systems, Exchange Server was initially Microsofts internal mail server. The first version of Exchange Server to be published outside Microsoft was Exchange Server 4.0, Exchange initially used the X.400 directory service but switched to Active Directory later. Versions 4.0 and 5.0 came bundled with a client called Microsoft Exchange Client. It was discontinued in favor of Microsoft Outlook, Exchange Server uses a proprietary protocol called MAPI. Over time, however, it added support for POP3, IMAP, SMTP, Exchange Server is licensed both in the forms of on-premises software and software as a service. In the on-premises form, customer purchase client access licenses, in the software as a service form, Microsoft receives a monthly service fee instead. There have been a number of versions, Exchange Server 4.0, with five service packs being released over the next two years. Exchange Server 5.0 Exchange Server 5.5 Exchange Server 2000 Exchange Server 2003 Exchange Server 2007, Exchange Server 2010, November 9,2009. Exchange Server 2013 The latest version was released on October 1,2015 and introduced a number of changes, Mailbox Server, updates to the UI in Outlook on the web. Office 365 hybrid, The Hybrid Configuration Wizard included with Exchange 2013 is moving to become a cloud-based application, when configuring a hybrid deployment in Exchange 2016, the users will be prompted to download and install the wizard as a small app. Messaging policy and compliance, New DLP and Archiving/Retention/eDiscovery features, Exchange Server 2003 also introduced active-active clustering, but for two-node clusters only. In this setup, both servers in the cluster are allowed to be active simultaneously and this is opposed to Exchanges more common active-passive mode in which the failover servers in any cluster node cannot be used at all while their corresponding home servers are active. They must wait, inactive, for the servers in the node to fail. Subsequent performance issues with active-active mode have led Microsoft to recommend that it should no longer be used, in fact, support for active-active mode clustering has been discontinued with Exchange Server 2007. Exchanges clustering has been criticized because of its requirement for servers in the nodes to share the same data. The clustering in Exchange Server provides redundancy for Exchange Server as an application, in this scenario, the data can be regarded as a single point of failure, despite Microsofts description of this set-up as a Shared Nothing model. This void has however been filled by ISVs and storage manufacturers, through site resilience solutions, such as geo-clustering, Exchange Server 2007 introduces new cluster terminology and configurations that address the shortcomings of the previous shared data model
4.
Maildir
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The Maildir e-mail format is a common way of storing e-mail messages, where each message is kept in a separate file with a unique name, and each folder is a directory. The local filesystem handles file locking as messages are added, moved and deleted, a major design goal of Maildir is to eliminate program code having to handle locking, which is often difficult. A Maildir directory usually has three subdirectories named tmp, new, and cur, the original Maildir specification was written by Daniel J. Bernstein, the author of qmail, djbdns, and other software. Although the original specification was written specifically for Bernsteins qmail, it is enough to be implemented in many programs. Sam Varshavchik, the author of the Courier Mail Server and other software, wrote an extension to the Maildir format called Maildir++ to support subfolders, Maildir++ directories contain subdirectories with names that start with a. that are also Maildir++ folders. This extension is not a violation of the Maildir specification, which provides for the possibility to add more than tmp, new. The program that delivers a message, a mail delivery agent. The delivery process stores the message in the maildir by creating and writing to tmp/unique, the moving can be done using rename, which is atomic in many systems. Alternatively, it can be done by linking the file to new. Any leftover file will eventually be deleted and this sequence guarantees that a maildir-reading program will not see a partially written message. There can be multiple programs reading a maildir at the same time, readers should never look in tmp. When a cognizant maildir reading process finds messages in the new directory it must move them to cur and it is just a means to notify the user you have X new messages. This moving needs to be done using rename, as the non-atomic link then unlink technique may result in duplicated messages, an informational suffix is appended to filenames at this stage. It consists of a colon, a 2, a comma, the 2 specifies the version of the information that follows the comma. 2 is the only currently officially specified version,1 being an experimental version, the specification defines flags which show whether the message has been read, deleted and so on, the initial letter of Passed, Replied, Seen, Trashed, Draft, and Flagged. Dovecot uses lowercase letters to match 26 IMAP keywords, which may include standardised keywords such as $MDNSent, the Maildir standard can only be implemented on systems that accept colons in filenames. Systems that dont allow colons in filenames can use a separator, such as. It is often trivial to patch free and open software to use a different separator
5.
Daniel J. Bernstein
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In the mid 90s internet software was not designed for security, and cryptography was controlled. Bernstein addressed cryptography by suing the United States Government in 1995 Bernstein v. United States and by writing software for email, web. The software came with a security guarantee that achieved significant status during the 8 years where no bugs were found, Bernstein was merciless in his criticism of then leading email and dns software packages and both the large teams which supported them and people that distributed them. Sendmail and BIND were both significantly less efficient, more difficult to configure and bug prone by design resulting in a flow of significant bugs. His computer software programs qmail, publicfile, and djbdns were released as license-free software and this issue was resolved when Bernstein released the source code of his projects into public domain software in 2007. He attended Bellport High School, a high school on Long Island. The same year, he ranked fifth place in the Westinghouse Science Talent Search, in 1987, he achieved a Top 10 ranking in the William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition. Bernstein earned his bachelors degree in mathematics from New York University and has a PhD in mathematics from the University of California, Berkeley, Bernstein brought the court case Bernstein v. United States. The ruling in the case declared software as protected speech under the First Amendment, Bernstein was originally represented by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, but he later represented himself despite having no formal training as a lawyer. In the autumn of 2004, Bernstein taught a course about computer software security, the sixteen members of the class discovered 91 new UNIX security holes. Bernstein explained, in 2005, that he is pursuing a strategy to produce invulnerable computer systems and he concludes, I won’t be satisfied until Ive put the entire security industry out of work. In spring 2005 Bernstein taught a course on high speed cryptography and he demonstrated new results against implementations of AES in the same time period. As of April 2008, Bernsteins stream cipher Salsa20 was selected as a member of the portfolio of the eSTREAM project. In 2011, Bernstein published RFSB, a variant of the Fast Syndrome Based Hash function, Bernstein claims that the exploit does not fall within the parameters of the qmail security guarantee. In March 2009, Bernstein awarded $1000 to Matthew Dempsky for finding a security hole in djbdns, in August 2008, Bernstein announced DNSCurve, a proposal to secure the Domain Name System. Additionally, the used in OpenBSD for signing releases and packages is based entirely on the algorithms by Bernstein. Both the signed releases and the extra crypto in OpenSSH have first appeared in OpenBSD5.5, Bernstein has published a number of papers on mathematics and computation. Many of his papers deal with algorithms or implementations and he also wrote a survey titled Multidigit multiplication for mathematicians
6.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
7.
Pretty Good Privacy
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Pretty Good Privacy encryption program provides cryptographic privacy and authentication for data communication. PGP is used for signing, encrypting, and decrypting texts, e-mails, files, directories, phil Zimmermann developed PGP in 1991. PGP and similar software follow the OpenPGP standard for encrypting and decrypting data, PGP encryption uses a serial combination of hashing, data compression, symmetric-key cryptography, and finally public-key cryptography, each step uses one of several supported algorithms. Each public key is bound to a user name and/or an e-mail address, current versions of PGP encryption include both options through an automated key management server. As PGP evolves, versions that support features and algorithms are able to create encrypted messages that older PGP systems cannot decrypt. Therefore, it is essential that partners in PGP communication understand each others capabilities or at least agree on PGP settings, PGP can be used to send messages confidentially. For this, PGP combines symmetric-key encryption and public-key encryption, the message is encrypted using a symmetric encryption algorithm, which requires a symmetric key. Each symmetric key is used once and is also called a session key. The message and its key are sent to the receiver. The session key must be sent to the receiver so they know how to decrypt the message, only the private key belonging to the receiver can decrypt the session key. PGP supports message authentication and integrity checking, the latter is used to detect whether a message has been altered since it was completed and the former to determine whether it was actually sent by the person or entity claimed to be the sender. Because the content is encrypted, any changes in the message will result in failure of the decryption with the appropriate key, the sender uses PGP to create a digital signature for the message with either the RSA or DSA algorithms. To do so, PGP computes a hash from the plaintext, both when encrypting messages and when verifying signatures, it is critical that the public key used to send messages to someone or some entity actually does belong to the intended recipient. Simply downloading a public key from somewhere is not an assurance of that association. However, merely making a certificate which is impossible to modify without being detected is insufficient, users must also ensure by some means that the public key in a certificate actually does belong to the person or entity claiming it. From its first release, PGP products have included an internal certificate vetting scheme to assist with this, a given public key may be digitally signed by a third party user to attest to the association between someone and the key. There are several levels of confidence which can be included in such signatures, although many programs read and write this information, few include this level of certification when calculating whether to trust a key. Users have been willing to accept certificates and check their validity manually or to accept them
8.
Email client
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In Internet, an email client, email reader or more formally mail user agent is a computer program in the category of groupware environments used to access and manage a users email. Client is meant to be a role, for example, a web application which provides message management, composition, and reception functions may internally act as an email client, as a whole, it is commonly referred to as webmail. Likewise, email client may be referred to a piece of hardware or software whose primary or most visible role is to work as an email client. Like most client programs, a client is only active when a user runs it. The most common arrangement is for a user to make an arrangement with a remote Mail Transfer Agent server for the receipt. The MTA, using a mail delivery agent, adds email messages to a clients storage as they arrive. The remote mail storage is referred to as the users mailbox, the default setting on many Unix systems is for the mail server to store formatted messages in mbox, within the users HOME directory. Of course, users of the system can log-in and run a mail client on the computer that hosts their mailboxes, in which case. A users mailbox can be accessed in two dedicated ways, the Post Office Protocol allows the user to download messages one at a time and only deletes them from the server after they have been successfully saved on local storage. It is possible to leave messages on the server to another client to access them. However, there is no provision for flagging a specific message as seen, answered, or forwarded, alternatively, the Internet Message Access Protocol allows users to keep messages on the server, flagging them as appropriate. IMAP provides folders and sub-folders, which can be shared among different users with different access rights. Typically, the Sent, Drafts, and Trash folders are created by default, IMAP features an idle extension for real time updates, providing faster notification than polling, where long lasting connections are feasible. See also the remote messages section below, in addition, the mailbox storage can be accessed directly by programs running on the server or via shared disks. Direct access can be efficient but is less portable as it depends on the mailbox format, it is used by some email clients. Email clients usually contain user interfaces to display and edit text, some applications permit the use of a program-external editor. The email clients will perform formatting according to RFC5322 for headers and body, to better assist the user with destination fields, many clients maintain one or more address books and/or are able to connect to an LDAP directory server. For originator fields, clients may support different identities, client settings require the users real name and email address for each users identity, and possibly a list of LDAP servers
9.
Mozilla
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Mozilla is a free-software community created in 1998 by members of Netscape. The Mozilla community uses, develops, spreads and supports Mozilla products, thereby promoting exclusively free software and open standards, the community is supported institutionally by the Mozilla Foundation and its tax-paying subsidiary, the Mozilla Corporation. On January 23,1998, Netscape made two announcements, first, that Netscape Communicator would be free, second, that the code would also be free. One day later, Jamie Zawinski from Netscape registered mozilla. org, Jamie Zawinski says he came up with the name Mozilla at a Netscape staff meeting. A small group of Netscape employees were tasked with coordination of the new community, originally, Mozilla aimed to be a technology provider for companies, such as Netscape, who would commercialize their open source code. When AOL greatly reduced its involvement with Mozilla in July 2003, in a report released in November 2012, Mozilla reported that their total revenue for 2011 was $163 million, which was up 33% from $123 million in 2010. Mozilla noted that roughly 85% of their revenue comes from their contract with Google. At the end of 2013, Mozilla announced a deal with Cisco Systems whereby Firefox would download, as part of the deal, Cisco would pay any patent licensing fees associated with the binaries that it distributes. Mozillas CTO, Brendan Eich, acknowledged that this is not a complete solution, in December 2013, Mozilla announced funding for the development of non-free games through its Game Creator Challenge. In January 2017, the company rebranded away from its logo in favor of logo that includes a, // character sequence from a URL, with the revamped logo, moz. On March 24,2014, Mozilla promoted Brendan Eich to the role of CEO, Eichs donation first became public knowledge in 2012, while he was Mozilla’s chief technical officer, leading to angry responses on Twitter—including the use of the hashtag #wontworkwithbigots. Protests also emerged in 2014 following the announcement of Eichs appointment as CEO of Mozilla, U. S. Mozilla believes both in equality and freedom of speech. Equality is necessary for meaningful speech, and you need free speech to fight for equality. Eichs resignation promoted a larger backlash from conservatives who felt he had forced out of the company internally. Reader comments on articles that were published close to the events were divided between support for OkCupids actions and opposition to them, supporters claimed the boycott was justified and saw OkCupids actions as a firm statement of opposition to intolerance towards the gay community. Mozillas manifesto mentions only its beliefs in regards to the Internet and Internet privacy, according to the Mozilla Foundation, The Mozilla Foundation pledges to support the Mozilla Manifesto in its activities. Firefox is a web browser, and is Mozillas flagship software product and it is available in both desktop and mobile versions. Firefox uses the Gecko layout engine to render web pages, which implements current, as of late 2015, Firefox has approximately 10-11% of worldwide usage share of web browsers, making it the 4th most-used web browser
10.
Network File System (protocol)
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NFS, like many other protocols, builds on the Open Network Computing Remote Procedure Call system. The NFS is a standard defined in Request for Comments. Sun used version 1 only for in-house experimental purposes, Version 2 of the protocol originally operated only over User Datagram Protocol. Its designers meant to keep the server side stateless, with locking implemented outside of the core protocol, people involved in the creation of NFS version 2 include Russel Sandberg, Bob Lyon, Bill Joy, Steve Kleiman, and others. The Virtual File System interface allows an implementation, reflected in a simple protocol. By February 1986, implementations were demonstrated for operating systems such as System V release 2, DOS, nFSv2 only allows the first 2 GB of a file to be read due to 32-bit limitations. The first NFS Version 3 proposal within Sun Microsystems was created not long after the release of NFS Version 2, the principal motivation was an attempt to mitigate the performance issue of the synchronous write operation in NFS Version 2. By July 1992, implementation practice had solved many shortcomings of NFS Version 2 and this became an acute pain point for Digital Equipment Corporation with the introduction of a 64-bit version of Ultrix to support their newly released 64-bit RISC processor, the Alpha 21064. At the time of introduction of Version 3, vendor support for TCP as a transport-layer protocol began increasing. Using TCP as a transport made using NFS over a WAN more feasible, Version 4, influenced by Andrew File System and Server Message Block, includes performance improvements, mandates strong security, and introduces a stateful protocol. Version 4 became the first version developed with the Internet Engineering Task Force after Sun Microsystems handed over the development of the NFS protocols, NFS version 4.2 is currently being developed. WebNFS, an extension to Version 2 and Version 3, allows NFS to integrate easily into Web-browsers. In 2007 Sun Microsystems open-sourced their client-side WebNFS implementation, various side-band protocols have become associated with NFS. It is also available to operating systems such as Acorn RISC OS, the classic Mac OS, OpenVMS, MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, Novell NetWare, and IBM AS/400. Alternative remote file access protocols include the Server Message Block, Apple Filing Protocol, NetWare Core Protocol, haiku recently added NFSv4 support as part of a Google Summer of Code project. The server administrator determines what to make available, exporting the names and parameters of directories, typically using the configuration file. The server security-administration ensures that it can recognize and approve validated clients, the server network configuration ensures that appropriate clients can negotiate with it through any firewall system. The client machine requests access to exported data, typically by issuing a mount command, if all goes well, users on the client machine can then view and interact with mounted filesystems on the server within the parameters permitted
