1.
Radamel Falcao
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He is sometimes nicknamed El Tigre or King of the Europa League. Falcao began his career at Lanceros Boyacá, before moving to Argentinian club River Plate where he won the 2007–08 Clausura tournament, in 2009, he joined Portuguese club Porto where he won several trophies, including the Europa League and Primeira Liga double in 2011. Falcao became their top goalscorer in international club competitions and set the record for most goals in a European campaign. He also became the first Colombian to receive the Portuguese Golden Ball award, in August 2011, Falcao transferred to Atlético Madrid for a club record €40 million, leading them to Europa League and Super Cup victories in 2012. Falcao finished as top goalscorer for the second year and became the only player in to win consecutive Europa League titles with two different teams. In May 2013, Falcao joined newly promoted Monaco for a club record €60 million, however, Falcao spent the next two seasons on loan at Premier League clubs Manchester United and Chelsea, but struggled to regain his prior form. Falcao made his debut for Colombia in 2007 and has since earned over 60 caps and scored 25 goals. He represented the country at the 2011 and 2015 Copa América, in 2000, Lanceros coach, Hernán Pacheco, began to consider the 14-year-old more seriously, Falcao played seven matches that year. On 25 July, at the Estadio Olímpico del Sol at Sogamoso, he scored his first and only goal for the club, in his two years with the club, he played eight matches and scored once. After training with Millonarios, who did not take up their option to purchase the player and he began his River career in the youth team, playing in the eighth division of Argentine football. River coach Leonardo Astrada gave Falcao his professional debut in the 2005 Torneo Clausura, on 6 March 2005, Falcao became a regular in the first team during the 2005 Torneo Apertura. He scored twice in a match for the first time in Argentina and he repeated the feat twice more during the Apertura, against Lanús, his brace contributed to a 4–1 home win, and against San Lorenzo, River won 5–1. This brought his total for the competition to seven from as many games under the management of Reinaldo Merlo, a few days earlier, he made his debut in CONMEBOL competition, in the last eight of the 2006 Copa Sudamericana against Atlético Paranaense of Brazil. He was replaced at half-time, and the match finished 2–2, so River were eliminated on aggregate and he was sent off in his only outing in the 2007 Copa Libertadores, against Colo-Colo in February 2007. Domestically, he made impression on the 2007 Torneo Clausura. He scored in one of the eight games he played. Falcao scored his first professional hat-trick on 28 September 2007, as River made a comeback against Botafogo to progress in the 2007 Sudamericana. The following week, he scored his first goal in a Superclásico, River Plate were reported to have rejected a $15 million offer from Milan for Falcao in early 2008, as well as bids from clubs including Aston Villa and Fluminense
2.
White Colombians
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White Colombians are the Colombian descendants of European and Middle Eastern people, who self identify as such. According to the 2005 Census 85% of Colombians do not identify with any group, thus being either White or Mestizo. It is nevetherless estimated that 37% of the Colombian population can be categorized as white, the various racial groups exist in differing concentrations throughout the nation, in a pattern that to some extent goes back to colonial origins. Paisa Region and Bogotá have the a largest concentration of White Colombians, Whites tend to live mainly in the urban centers, like Medellín or Bogotá, and the burgeoning highland cities. The presence of Whites in Colombia began in 1510 with the colonization of San Sebastián de Urabá, in 1526, settlers founded Santa Marta, the oldest Spanish city still in existence in Colombia. Catholic priests would provide education for Native Americans that otherwise was unavailable, within 100 years after the first Spanish settlement, nearly 95 percent of all Native Americans in Colombia had died. The majority of the deaths were the cause of diseases spread by the settlers, such as measles, some natives were also killed in armed conflicts with their new neighbours. Colombia was one of focus of Basque and Sephardi immigration. Between 1540 and 1559,28. 9% of the residents of Colombia were of Basque origin, Basque priests introduced handball into Colombia. Jewish converts to Christianity and some crypto-Jews also sailed with the early conquistadors and it has been suggested that the present day culture of business entrepreneurship in the region of Antioquia and Valle del Cauca is attributable to the Basque and Sephardi immigration. Few Colombians of Basque descent are aware of their ethnic heritage, in Bogota, there is a small colony of thirty to forty families who emigrated as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War, or because of different opportunities. Basque priests were the ones that introduced handball into Colombia, Basque immigrants in Colombia were devoted to teaching and public administration. In the first years of the Andean multinational company, Basque sailors navigated as captains, the first German immigrants arrived in the 16th century contracted by the Spanish Crown, and included explorers such as Ambrosio Alfinger. There was another wave of German immigrants at the end of the 19th and beginning of 20th century including Leo Siegfried Kopp. SCADTA, a Colombian-German air transport corporation which was established by German expatriates in 1919, was the first commercial airline in the western hemisphere, in December 1941 the United States government estimated that there were 4,000 Germans living in Colombia. Another 7,000 German Jews joined their ranks in Colombias burgeoning cities, there were some Nazi agitators in Colombia, such as Barranquilla businessman Emil Prufurt, but the majority was apolitical. Colombia asked Germans who were on the U. S. blacklist to leave, there had also been Italian immigration of a few thousand people, however it is to a much lesser degree than to other Latin American countries such as Venezuela or Brazil. The first and largest wave of immigration from the Middle East began around 1880 and they were mainly Maronite Christians from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, fleeing because of financial hardships and the repressions of the Turkish Ottoman Empire
3.
Olive skin
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Olive skin is a human skin color spectrum. It is often associated with pigmentation in the Type IV to Type V range of the Fitzpatrick scale and it generally refers to light or moderate brown, brownish, or tannish skin, and it is often described as having yellowish, greenish, or golden undertones. However, lighter olive skin on the end of the Type IV coloration range may be less brownish. Lighter olive skin nonetheless tans more easily than does fair skin, Type IV coloration is frequent among populations from the Mediterranean, as well as parts of Asia and Latin America. It corresponds with moderate brown, typical Mediterranean skin tones and this skin tone rarely burns and tans easily. Type V coloration is frequent among populations from the Middle East, parts of the Mediterranean, parts of Africa, Latin America, and it corresponds with darker brown, Middle Eastern skin tones. This skin tone is minimally reactive to ultraviolet radiation, rarely or very rarely burns, human skin color Brown Bronze Pardo Mediterranean race
4.
Afro-Colombians
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Afro-Colombians refers to Colombian citizens of African descent, this article is about the influence they have had on Colombian culture. Colombia is considered to have the fourth largest Black African population in the hemisphere, following Brazil, the United States. Enslaved Africans first began being imported into Colombia by the Spaniards, Africans were forced to work in gold mines, on sugar cane plantations, cattle ranches, and large haciendas. African labor was essential in all the regions of Colombia, even until modern times, in eastern Colombia, near the cities of Vélez, Cúcuta, Socorro, and Tunja, Africans manufactured textiles in commercial mills. Emerald mines, outside Bogotá, were dependent upon African laborers. Also, other sectors of the Colombian economy like tobacco, cotton, artisanry, in pre-abolition Colombian society, many Afro-Colombian slaves fought for their freedom as soon as they arrived in Colombia. It is clear there were strong free Black African towns called palenques, where Africans could live as cimarrones. Afro Panamanians are also related to Afro-Colombians, some consider that Chocó was a very big palenque, with a large population of cimarrones. Very popular cimarrón leaders like Benkos Biojó and Barule fought for freedom, African people played key roles in the independence struggle against Spain. Historians note that three of five soldiers in Simon Bolívars army were African. Not only that, Afro-Colombians also participated at all levels of military, slavery was not abolished until 1851, and even after emancipation, the life of the African Colombians was very difficult. African Colombians were forced to live in areas as a mechanism of self-protection. There, they learned to have a relationship with the jungle environment. From 1851, the Colombian State promoted the ideology of mestizaje, so in order to maintain their cultural traditions, many Africans and indigenous peoples went deep into the isolated jungles. In 1945 the department of El Chocó was created, it was the first predominantly African political-administrative division, El Chocó gave African people the possibility of building an African territorial identity and some autonomous decision-making power. In the 1970s, there was an influx of Afro-Colombians into the urban areas in search of greater economic. This led to an increase in the number of poor in the marginal areas of big cities like Cali, Medellín. Most Afro-Colombians are currently living in urban areas, only around 25%, or 1.2 million people, are based in rural areas, compared to 75%, or 3.7 million people in urban zones
5.
Miscegenation
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Miscegenation is the mixing of different racial groups through marriage, cohabitation, sexual relations, or procreation. The term miscegenation has been used since the 19th century to refer to marriage and interracial sexual relations. Historically, the term has been used in the context of laws banning marriage and sex. The Latin term entered historical records during European colonialism and the Age of Discovery, in the present day, the word miscegenation is avoided by many scholars, because the term suggests a concrete biological phenomenon, rather than a categorization imposed on certain relationships. The term remains in use among scholars when referring to past practices concerning multiraciality, in Spanish, Portuguese and French, the words used to describe the mixing of races are mestizaje, mestiçagem and métissage. These words, much older than the term miscegenation, are derived from the Late Latin mixticius for mixed, Portuguese also uses miscigenação, derived from the same Latin root as the English word. Today, the mixes among races and ethnicities are diverse, so it is considered preferable to use the term mixed-race or simply mixed, Intermarriage occurred significantly from the very first settlements, with their descendants achieving high rank in government and society. To this day, there are controversies if Brazilian class system would be drawn mostly around socio-economic lines, conversely, people classified in censuses as black, brown or indigenous have disadvantaged social indicators in comparison to the white population. The concept of miscegenation is tied to concepts of racial difference, Mestizo are people of mixed white and indigenous, usually Amerindian ancestry, who do not self-identify as indigenous peoples or Native Americans. Thus the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, Mixture of all races and of all times. Miscegenation comes from the Latin miscere, to mix and genus, the word was coined in an anonymous propaganda pamphlet published in New York City in December 1863, during the American Civil War. The pamphlet was entitled Miscegenation, The Theory of the Blending of the Races, Applied to the American White Man and Negro. It purported to advocate the intermarriage of whites and blacks until they were mixed, as a desirable goal. There was already much opposition to the war effort, the pamphlet and variations on it were reprinted widely in both the north and south by Democrats and Confederates. Only in November 1864 was the pamphlet exposed as a hoax, the hoax pamphlet was written by David Goodman Croly, managing editor of the New York World, a Democratic Party paper, and George Wakeman, a World reporter. By then, the word miscegenation had entered the language of the day as a popular buzzword in political and social discourse. The issue of miscegenation, raised by the opponents of Abraham Lincoln, in the United States, miscegenation has referred primarily to the intermarriage between whites and non-whites, especially blacks. Before the publication of Miscegenation, the amalgamation, borrowed from metallurgy, had been in use as a general term for ethnic
6.
Race and ethnicity in Colombia
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Race and ethnicity in Colombia descends mainly from three racial groups—Amerindians, Africans, and Caucasians—that have mingled throughout the last 500 years of the countrys history. Some demographers describe Colombia as one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the Western Hemisphere and in the World, most Colombians identify themselves and others according to ancestry, physical appearance, and sociocultural status. Social relations reflect the importance attached to certain characteristics associated with a racial group. Although these characteristics no longer accurately differentiate social categories, they contribute to ones rank in the social hierarchy. Colombia officially acknowledges three ethnic minority groups, the Afro-Colombian, indigenous, and Romani populations, the Afro-Colombian population consists mainly of blacks, mulattoes, raizals, palenqueros, and zambos. A1999 resolution of the Ministry of the Interior and Justice acknowledged the Romani population as a Colombian ethnic group, estimates vary widely, but the 2005 census found that the ethnic minority populations had increased significantly since the 1993 census, possibly owing to the methodology used. The 2005 census reported that the population, consisting of whites and mestizos. The 86 percent figure is subdivided into 49 percent mestizo and 37 percent white, a minute percentage of the insular population originated in Scotland and Syria. The various groups exist in differing concentrations throughout the nation, in a pattern that to some extent goes back to colonial origins, the Whites tend to live mainly in the urban centers, particularly like Bogotá or Medellín, and the burgeoning highland cities. The populations of the cities are primarily white and mestizo. The large Mestizo population includes most campesinos of the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors had mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos had always lived in the cities as well, as artisans and small tradesmen, according to the 2005 census, the heaviest concentration of the indigenous population is located in the departments of Amazonas, La Guajira, Guainía, Vaupés, and Vichada. The secondary concentrations of 6 to 21 percent are located in the departments of Sucre, Córdoba, Chocó, Cauca, Nariño, Amerindian communities have legal autonomy to enforce their own traditional laws and customs. Despite its small percentage of the population, the indigenous population has managed to obtain nearly a quarter of the countrys land titles under the 1991 constitution. The 1991 National Constitution of Colombia defined Territorial Entities as departments, districts, municipalities, eTIs are to be defined by the government in conformance with the Organic Law on Land Management. However, this law has yet to be sanctioned so in practice the territories are unregulated, the black and mulatto populations have largely remained in the lowland areas on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts, its islands, and along the Cauca and Magdalena Rivers. In the Chocó region, they have replaced the Amerindians. Since independence both Amerindians and blacks have continued to reside on the outskirts of national life, as a group, however, blacks have become more integrated into the national society and have left a greater mark on it for several reasons
7.
Indigenous peoples in Colombia
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Indigenous peoples of Colombia, or Native Colombians, are the ethnic groups who have been in Colombia prior to the Europeans in the early 16th century. Known as pueblos indígenas in Spanish, they comprise 3. 4% of the countrys population, approximately 80% of the indigenous peoples of Colombia live in the La Guajira, Cauca, and Nariño Departments. While the Amazonian region of Colombia is sparsely populated, it is home to over 70 different indigenous ethnic groups. Some theories claim the earliest human habitation of South America to be as early as 43,000 BC, anthropologist Tom Dillehay dates the earliest hunter-gatherer cultures on the continent at almost 10,000 BC, during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene periods. According to his evidence based on rock shelters, Colombias first human inhabitants were concentrated along the Caribbean coast. By that time, these regions were forested and had a climate resembling todays. Dillehay has noted that Tibitó, located just north of Bogotá, is one of the oldest known and most widely accepted sites of human occupation in Colombia. Colombias indigenous culture evolved from three main groups—the Quimbaya, who inhabited the western slopes of the Cordillera Central, the Chibchas, and the Kalina. The two most advanced cultures of Amerindian peoples at the time were the Muisca and Taironas, who belonged to the Chibcha group and were skilled in farming, mining, and metalcraft. D. The Taironas, who were divided into two subgroups, lived in the Caribbean lowlands and the highlands of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Muisca civilization was organized into distinct provinces governed by communal land laws and powerful caciques. At the end of the period, the native population still constituted about half of the total population. In the agricultural chiefdoms of the highlands, the Spaniards successfully imposed institutions designed to ensure their control of the Amerindians, the colonists had organized political and religious administration by the end of the sixteenth century, and they had begun attempts to religiously convert the Amerindians. The most important institution that regulated the lives and welfare of the highland Amerindians was the resguardo, under this system, Amerindians were allowed to use the land but could not sell it. As land pressures increased, however, encroachment of white or mestizo settlers onto resguardo lands accelerated, the government generally had not attempted to legislate in the past in matters affecting the forest Amerindians. During the colonial period, Roman Catholic missions were granted jurisdiction over the lowland tribes, division of the resguardos stopped in 1958, and a new program of community development began to try to bring the Amerindians more fully into the national society. New resguardos have been created, and others have been reconstituted, the 1991 constitution opened special political and social arenas for indigenous and other minority groups. For example, it allowed for creation of a commission to design a law recognizing the black communities occupying unsettled lands in the riverine areas of the Pacific Coast
8.
Mestizo
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The term was used as an ethnic/racial category in the casta system that was in use during the Spanish Empires control of their New World colonies. Mestizos are usually considered to be mixed Spaniards by the crown of Spain, the term mestizaje - taking as its root mestizo or mixed - is the Spanish word for miscegenation, the general process of mixing ancestries. To avoid confusion with the usage of the term mestizo. In colonial Venezuela, pardo was more commonly used instead of mestizo, pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture, it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Amerindian, and Black African. In colonial Brazil most of the population was mestiço in the original Iberian definition of the word. In the Philippines, which was a colony of Spain, the term came to refer to a Filipino with any foreign ancestry especially whites. In Canada, the Métis people is a community composed of those who possess combined European, in Saint Barthélemy, the term mestizo refers to people of mixed European and East Asian ancestry. The Spanish word mestizo is from Latin mixticius, meaning mixed and its usage has been documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian and a Jew. This term was first documented in English in 1582 and it is related to the particular racial identity of historical non-white Amerindian-descended Hispanic and Latino American communities in an American context. In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis, as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French, in the United States, Métis Americans and Mestizo Americans are two distinct racial and ethno-racial identities, as reflected in the use of French and Spanish loanwords, respectively. The latter was listed as a mestizo de sangley in birth records of the 19th century, with sangley as a reference to the Hokkiense word for business. Mestizo, mestiço, métis, mestís, Mischling, meticcio, mestiezen, mestee, in the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish developed an extremely vast complex system of racial hierarchy, which was used for social control and which also determined a persons standing in society. There were three categories of race during the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, White Spaniard, Amerindian. During the Spanish colonial era, a myriad of terms were created to differentiate these racial mixtures, by the end of the colonial period in 1821, over one hundred sub-categories of possible variations of mixture existed, but official church and civil records were maintained with few categories. Church baptismal and marriage registers and civil records used the terms español, castizo, mestizo, mulato, and indio. As time went on, a system of hierarchy, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas developed where society was divided based on race, wealth. Mestizo – a person of mixed White European and Amerindian ancestry, in theory, and as depicted in eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings, español status could also be attained by people of mixed origin who consistently had intermarried with Europeans. Such cases might include the offspring of a parent and one Peninsular or criollo parent
9.
Lebanese Colombians
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Lebanese Colombians are Colombians of Lebanese descent. Most of the Lebanese communitys forebears immigrated to Colombia from the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for economic, political and religious reasons. When they were first processed in the ports of Colombia, they were classified as Turks because what is modern day Lebanon was a territory of the Turkish Ottoman Empire, Lebanese immigration to Colombia has been one of the most important in migrations in South American. The first Lebanese came to the country in the nineteenth century. There was another wave in the twentieth century. It is estimated that over 10,000 Lebanese immigrated to Colombia from 1900 to 1930, the six major hubs of Lebanese population were present in Barranquilla, Cartagena, Bucaramanga, Bogotá and Cali. The number of entering the country vary from 5,000 to 10,000 in 1945. Some of these immigrants were Christian-Lebanese and others were adept to Islam, in the 1940s, another wave of Lebanese immigrants came to Colombia, settling in the town of Maicao in northern Colombia. Please see List of Lebanese people in Colombia Islam in Colombia Lebanese diaspora Race and ethnicity in Colombia White Colombians
10.
Daily Mail
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The Daily Mail is a British daily middle-market tabloid newspaper owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and published in London. Its sister paper The Mail on Sunday was launched in 1982, Scottish and Irish editions of the daily paper were launched in 1947 and 2006 respectively. A survey in 2014 found the age of its reader was 58. It had a daily circulation of 1,510,824 copies in November 2016. Its website has more than 100 million unique visitors per month, the Daily Mail has been accused of racism, and printing sensationalist and inaccurate scare stories of science and medical research. The Mail was originally a broadsheet but switched to a format on 3 May 1971. On this date it absorbed the Daily Sketch, which had been published as a tabloid by the same company. The publisher of the Mail, the Daily Mail and General Trust, is currently a FTSE250 company, the paper has a circulation of around two million, which is the fourth largest circulation of any English-language daily newspaper in the world. Circulation figures according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations in March 2014 show gross daily sales of 1,708,006 for the Daily Mail. According to a December 2004 survey, 53% of Daily Mail readers voted for the Conservative Party, compared to 21% for Labour, the main concern of Viscount Rothermere, the current chairman and main shareholder, is that the circulation be maintained. The Mail has been edited by Paul Dacre since 1992, the Daily Mail, devised by Alfred Harmsworth and his brother Harold, was first published on 4 May 1896. It cost a halfpenny at a time when other London dailies cost one penny, and was more populist in tone and more concise in its coverage than its rivals. The planned issue was 100,000 copies but the print run on the first day was 397,215, Lord Salisbury, 19th-century Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, dismissed the Daily Mail as a newspaper produced by office boys for office boys. By 1902, at the end of the Boer Wars, the circulation was over a million, from the beginning, the Mail also set out to entertain its readers with human interest stories, serials, features and competitions. In 1900 the Daily Mail began printing simultaneously in both Manchester and London, the first national newspaper to do so, the same production method was adopted in 1909 by the Daily Sketch, in 1927 by the Daily Express and eventually by virtually all the other national newspapers. Printing of the Scottish Daily Mail was switched from Edinburgh to the Deansgate plant in Manchester in 1968 and, for a while, in 1987, printing at Deansgate ended and the northern editions were thereafter printed at other Associated Newspapers plants. In 1906 the paper offered £1,000 for the first flight across the English Channel, punch magazine thought the idea preposterous and offered £10,000 for the first flight to Mars, but by 1910 both the Mails prizes had been won. Before the outbreak of World War I, the paper was accused of warmongering when it reported that Germany was planning to crush the British Empire
11.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
12.
Arhuaco
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The Arhuaco people are an indigenous people of Colombia. They are Chibchan-speaking people and descendants of the Tairona culture, concentrated in northern Colombia in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the Arhuaco are also known as the Aruaco, Arawak, Bintucua, Bintuk, Bíntukua, Ica, Ijca, Ijka, Ika, and Ike people. Their traditional territory before the Spanish colonization, was larger than todays boundaries which exclude many of their sacred sites that continue to visit today. These lost territories are the parts by the steps of the mountains, lost to colonization. The Arhuacos are distributed into 22 sections, central Zone, Nabusimake, Yechikin and Busin. Southern Zone, Zigta, Yeurwa, Gumuke, Yeiwin, Seiarukwingumu, Buyuaguenka, east Zone, Sogrome, Donachwi, Timaka, Aruamake, Seinimin and Izrwa. The Arhuacos main economic activity is agriculture, which traditionally was practiced by every family in the community in their own parcel by their houses. Each family owned two houses, one in the lands where the weather is cooler and another in the warmer, lower lands of the mountains. Nowadays they can practice this on the higher lands due to expropriation of land during the Spanish colonization. In the higher lands, they cultivate potatoes, onions, cabbages, lettuce, blueberries, tamarilloes, pumpkins, garlic and wheat. In the mid-lands, corn, beans, yuca, arracacha, malanga, coca, cotton, pineapple, papaya, guava, passion fruit, sweet granadilla, oranges and limes. Coffee is cultivated for commercial purposes only along with Arhuaca mochilas and they also raise chickens, cattle, sheep and goats. Men produce entirely the traditional clothing, but nowadays also use modern clothing. The Arhuacos are a spiritual people who follow their own unique philosophy that tends to globalize their surroundings. They consider the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta to be the heart of the world, nature and society as a unity are ruled by a single sacred law, immutable, pre-existent, primitive and survivor to everyone and everything. The material world can exist or cease to exist but this law is believed to continue without being altered and this universal law Kunsamü is represented by a boy, Mamo Niankua. To become a Mamo, they stay in a cave for nine years while the elders teach them everything they need to know and they specialize in certain knowledge areas such as philosophy, sacerdotalism, medicine and practical community or individual counselors. Their influence is decisive in their society, in 1916 the Arhuacos asked the government of Colombia for teachers to learn to read and write and also learn about mathematics, but instead the government sent Capuchin Friars
13.
Awa-Kwaiker
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The Awá, also known as the Kwaiker or Awa-Kwaiker, are an ancient indigenous people of Ecuador and Colombia. They primarily inhabit the provinces of Carchi and Sucumbios in northern Ecuador and southern Colombia, particularly the departments of Nariño and they speak a language called Awa Pit. The Awa Reserve was established in northwestern Ecuador in 1987, the reserve combines indigenous and forestry legislature, so that the Awa people could manage the forest and their own lands. The Awa traditionally hunt, gather, fish, and cultivate plants, today, they also farm livestock, such as chickens, ducks, guinea pigs, and pigs. They practice a form of agriculture called slash and mulch, which involves clearing small parcels of land and leaving the fallen plants, within days the vegetation turns to a layer of humus, favorable for planting. These parcels are cultivated for two or three seasons, then left fallow for periods of seven years. They practice intercropping and grow many different varieties of manioc and plantains. They also grow corn, Colocasia, Xanthosoma, beans, sugarcane, hot peppers, chirimoya, tomato, tamarind, mango, achiote, borojo, naranjilla, papaya, inga, avocado, peach palm, and other useful plants. The trees outlive the annual plants and foster regrowth while the plots are left fallow, Awa hunt game such as the Central American Agouti, paca, collared peccary, brocket deer, iguana, and several birds. Hunting is regulated on Awa land and their main organization is called UNIPA, which stands for Unity of Indigenous People Awa. Their main leaders are called Governors, Awa actively participate in local politics since 1993 when they elected the first mayor of the municipality of Ricaurte and several municipal counsellors. Since that year Awa people have continued to play an important role in the politics of the department of Nariño, there were several mass murders of Awá in 2009, perpetrated by members of both Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia and the Colombian army. On 11 February 2009, ten Awa members were killed by FARC guerrillas, on 4 February seventeen Awá were killed, reportedly by the FARC. Then in August, twelve Awá, all thought to belong to a single family – were killed in the Indigenous reservation of Gran Rosario, in, Stonich, Susan C. ed. Endangered Peoples of Latin America, Struggles to Survive and Thrive. The Awa, Colombias tribal people, BBC News Ecuador, The Awa People and their territory between political interests and economic pressure, World Rainforest Movement Awá Kwaiker on Every Culture
14.
Bora people
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The Bora are an indigenous tribe of the Peruvian, Colombian and Brazilian Amazon, located between the Putumayo and Napo rivers. The Bora speak a Witotan language and comprise approximately 2,000 people, in the last forty years, they have become a largely settled people living mostly in permanent forest settlements. In the animist Bora worldview, there is no distinction between the physical and spiritual worlds and spirits are present throughout the world, the Bora have an elaborate knowledge of the plant life of the surrounding rainforest. Like other indigenous peoples of the Peruvian Amazon, such as the Urarina plants, especially trees, hold a complex, bows and arrows are the main weapons of the Bora culture used in person to person conflict. The Bora are very divided and politically unorganized, the Bora have guarded their lands from both indigenous foes and outsider colonials. Around the time of the 20th century, the boom had a devastating impact on the Boras. A book which recorded the mistreatment of the Boras during that period is The Putumayo, The Devils Paradise which was published in 1912. The tribes ancestral lands are threatened by illegal logging practices. The Bora have no indigenous reserves, the Bora People Putumayo, The Devils Paradise, by W. E. Basic Beliefs of the Bora Indians Classroom Synonym Aces
15.
Calima culture
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Calima culture is a series of pre-Columbian cultures from the Valle del Cauca in Colombia. The four societies that successively occupied the valley and make up Calima culture are the Ilama, Yotoco, Sonso, by 1500 BCE the Ilama culture, the first Agricultural-Pottery society, appeared along the Calima River, near the present day towns of Restrepo and Darien. Its society had a structure of Cacicazgos that prevailed until the arrival of the Spaniards. The economy of Ilama was based on weaving, metallurgy, hunting, fishing. Yuca and beans were primary crops, the Chief or Cacique was the leader of the settlement. Other occupations were Chamanes, warriors, farmers, hunters, pottery men and their ceramics were typically red and black, featuring religious imagery. The Yotocos prevailed in the region until 1200 CE and were a stratified society headed by caciques. The population had increased, forcing them to develop effective agricultural techniques to feed its population which also improved the techniques on pottery and they created polychrome ceramics and introduction of hammered goldware. The agriculture of the Yotocos was more varied than that of the Ilamas and was based on maize, yuca, beans, arracacha, the Yotoco started declining in the 6th century CE. Sonso culture flourished during the Late Period I, population increased, government became more centralized. Sonso culture was marked by fewer ceramic styles, and their goldware was mixed with copper, the primary archaeological site for Malagana culture is Malagana. Dating from 300 BCE to 300 CE, the site was discovered in 1992, and this culture produced fine, burnished ceramics, predominantly white or terra cotta in color. Ocarinas, large bottles, and alcarrazas, double spout and bridge vessels, the Calima Darién Archaeological Museum features artifacts from the Calima culture
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Cauca culture
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Cauca culture is a pre-Columbian culture from the Valle del Cauca in Colombia, named for the Cauca River. Middle Cauca culture dates from the 9 to 10th centuries CE and their territory was near the present day city of Popayán, in the Calima River Valley. Archaeologists surmise that Cauca culture was organized into several related chiefdoms that trades and they farmed and made ceramics and goldwork. Their art often featured avian imagery, Cauca culture art shared some similarities to Yotoco culture art. They are known for ceramic slab figurines, representing humans–both female, Cauca goldsmiths hammered and cast gold to create a range of figures and ornaments, including diadems and bracelets. They created caricuri noserings from gold, Calima culture Indigenous peoples in Colombia List of pre-Columbian cultures Bruhns, Karen Olsen. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press,1994, Cauca culture artwork, National Museum of the American Indian
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Chimila
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The Chimilas or Ette Ennaka are an indigenous people in the Andes of north-eastern Colombia. Their Chimila language is part of the Chibcha language family, there were estimated to be around 1000 speakers in 1998, at the time of the Spanish Conquest the Ariguaní River valley was the strategic centre of their territory. On the Serranía del Perijá mountains the Yukpas were also part of the Chimila confederation of tribes. A Chimila cacique at the time of the Conquest lent his name to the city of Chimichagua, Colombia, while another, Upar, lent his name to Valledupar, via the Spanish. The Cesar name of the Cesar River and Cesar Department is an adaptation from the Chimila indigenous word Chet-tzar or Zazare into Spanish, there were two major cities in the region, one was called Thamara and the other was Upari named after their powerful chief. The Spanish scribes described Thamara as a large city with more than a thousand huts. The Chimila society was structured in a structure with a working class divided into fishers, hunters, artisans, miners, goldsmiths. The Chimilas used Arhuacos as their slaves, the Chimilas believed in an immortal figure called Masirguta and were monotheist believing in the god Narayajana. Chimilas also harvested the Gynerium sagittatum, a used to produce bows and arrows. Around 1720 the Chimilas began a war against the Spanish Empire. Violence continued well into the twentieth century, in 1990 a reservation called Issa Oristuna was created
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Chitarero
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The Chitarero people were an indigenous Chibcha-speaking people in the Andes of north-eastern Colombia and north-western Venezuela. They were responsible for the death of the German conquistador Ambrosius Ehinger in 1533 by means of poisoned arrows, the Chicamocha River formed a southern boundary, the Valegra a southwestern, and the Surata a southeastern. One of their settlements became the Colombian town of Chinácota, they were known in the area of Pamplona. At the refoundation of Pamplona in 1549 there were said to be 200,000 in the area. They were called Chitareros by the Spanish, because of the custom that the men had to carry hanging from the waist calabazo or totumo with maize wine or chicha as the Spanish called it. Asking how the thing they carried was called, the natives responded that it was a chitarero and they traded with other peoples in the region, including the Muisca, the Guane and Lache. Paisaje y poblamiento del nororiente andino colombiano, la de los Chitareros en el siglo XVI
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Embera-Wounaan
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The Embera–Wounaan are a semi-nomadic indigenous people in Panama living in Darién Province on the shores of the Chucunaque, Sambú, Tuira Rivers and its water ways. The Embera-Wounaan were formerly and widely known by the name Chocó, collectively they are known as the Chocó and belong to two major groups, the Embirá, of upper Atrato and San Juan rivers, and the Wuanana of the lower San Juan River. The Embirá are also known as the Atrato, Bedea, Cholo, Darién, Dariena, Eberá, Emberá, Emberak, Emperia, the Waunana are also known as the Chanco, Chocama, Noanama, Noenama, Nonama, Wounaan, or Wound Meu people. A third group of Chocó are called the Catío, who are called the Embena, Epera, Eyabida. The Chocó, or Embera, people live in villages of 5 to 20 houses along the banks of the rivers throughout the Chucunaque/Tuira/Balsas River watersheds in the Darien Province of Panama. There are generally three villages on each tributary that branches off from the river system. The villages are about a days walk apart. The villages are built on a rise, set approximately 100 feet in from the river. The houses of the village are set about 20–50 feet apart atop the rise on posts, with no walls, the hills leading down to the river from the villages are usually hard packed reddish clay. There are sometimes large boulders being played on by naked children, dugout canoes are usually seen pulled up on the riverbanks. Their houses are raised off the ground eight feet. The houses stand on large posts set in the ground, and have thatched roof made from palm fronds, all the joinery is with bejuco vines. Hanging from the posts and beams are hammocks, baskets, pots, bows and arrows, mosquito nets, clothing. The houses are accessed from the ground via a log with deep notches for a ladder. They sometimes turn the face down at night if some animal is trying to climb into the house while they sleep. The Chocó people use matrilineal descent, practice polygamy and live in family units, the cacique, or chief, of the Chocó lived in the largest village and capitol of the Chocó Nation, named Unión Chocó. The city is on the banks of the Tuira River, the Chocó have their own form of government and live by their own set of unwritten rules. They avoid relying on the Panamanian Police or any branch of the Panamanian or Colombian governments
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Guambiano
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Guambiano or Misak are an indigenous people of the department of Cauca in Colombia. Their language is known as Guambiano and is one of the Coconucan languages, the majority lives in the western part of the Colombian Andes range. Some Guambiano can be found in Huila Department. The Misak society has a kinship system, with hereditary offices, descent lines. Agriculture is the base of their economy, coffee, cassava, potatoes, beans, and cabbage are among the main products cultivated by them. Ministerio de Cultura 2010, Misak, la gente del agua, pachón, Ximena 1987, Guambía, Introducción a la Colombia Amerindia, 235-248. ISBN 958-612-051-1 Vásquez de Ruiz, Beatriz 1988, La predicaión en Guambiano, CCELA, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá
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Guane people
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The Guane were a South American people that lived mainly in the area of Santander and north of Boyacá, both departments of present-day central-Colombia. They were farmers cultivating cotton, pineapple and other crops, the Guane lived north of the Chicamocha River, around the Chicamocha Canyon in an area stretching from Vélez in the south to the capital of Santander, Bucaramanga in the north. Other sources state their territory did not extend so far north, Guane, a corregimiento of Barichara, Santander, is said to have been the capital of the Guane people. The word guane in the Chibcha of the people means tree or lower part of a leaf, the Guane made their own weapons, including arrows and spears. They interchanged plants for the stewpot with the Chitarero on the east, the mantle making of the Guanes was well known in pre-Columbian Colombia. Mantles made from cotton have been dated back to the 11th century AD, the Guane cultivated tobacco and made products of fique. Like the Maya and many other civilizations in the world, the Guane deliberately deformed the skulls of their children. In 1586 there were still some Guane left but there were no references found after that date, nevertheless. They mixed heavily with the Spanish colonizers, as the Guane were said to have European traits, like the Muisca, Uwa and Lache, the Guane spoke a Chibchan language. They adored Bochica, the god in the Muisca religion. The Guane traded with their neighbouring groups, Lache to the east, Uwa to the northeast, Muzo to the south. Rock art produced by the Guane have been found around the Chicamocha Canyon and on the Mesa de los Santos, the Guane people chewed coca combined with calcitic grains, using poporos. The Guane inhabited the area of central and south Santander, around the Chicamocha Canyon, Muisca Conquest of the Guane Muzo, Uwa Guayupe, Lache, Yarigui Video about the Guane people and their culture
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Guna people
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The Kuna, following orthographic reform in 2010 also known as Guna, and historically as Cuna, are an indigenous people of Panama and Colombia. The Congreso General de la Nación Gunadule since 2010 promotes the spelling Guna, in the Kuna language, they call themselves Dule or Tule, meaning people, and the name of the language in Kuna is Dulegaya, literally people-mouth. The Kuna live in three politically autonomous comarcas or reservations in Panama, and in a few villages in Colombia. There are also communities of Kuna people in Panama City, Colón, the most Kunas live on small islands off the coast of the comarca of Kuna Yala known as the San Blas Islands. The other two Kuna comarcas in Panama are Kuna de Madugandí and Kuna de Wargandí and they celebrate this on the 25 of February. In Kuna Yala, each community has its own political organization, the saila is traditionally both the political and spiritual leader of the community, he memorizes songs which relate the sacred history of the people, and in turn transmits them to the people. Decisions are made in meetings held in the Onmaked Nega, or Ibeorgun Nega and it is in the Onmaked Nega that the saila sings the history, legends and laws of the Kuna, as well as administering the day-to-day political and social affairs. The saila is usually accompanied by one or more voceros who function as interpreters and counselors for the saila, traditionally, Kuna families are matrilinear, with the groom moving to become part of the brides family. The groom takes the last name of the bride as well, today there are 49 communities in Kuna Yala. The region as a whole is governed by the Kuna General Congress, the Kuna are famous for their bright molas, a colorful textile art form made with the techniques of appliqué and reverse appliqué. Mola panels are used to make the blouses of the Kuna womens national dress, mola means clothing in the Kuna language. The Kuna word for a blouse is Tulemola, Kuna peoples clothing. The economy of Kuna Yala is based on agriculture, fishing, plantains, coconuts, and fish form the core of the Kuna diet, supplemented with imported foods, a few domestic animals, and wild game. Coconuts, called ogob in the Kuna language, and lobsters skungit are the most important export products, migrant labor and the sale of molas provide other sources of income. The Kuna have a deep rooted history of mercantilism and a longstanding tradition of selling goods through family owned venues. Most imported goods originate from Colombian, Mexican or Chinese ships and are sold in retail stores owned by Kuna people. The Kuna traditionally excise no tax when trading goods and place emphasis on economic success. This tradition of trade and self-determination has been credited by many as a reason why the Kuna have been able to successfully function independently compared to other indigenous groups
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Kogi people
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The Kogi or Cogui or Kágaba, meaning jaguar in the Kogi language, are an indigenous ethnic group that lives in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia. Their civilization has continued since the Pre-Columbian era, the Kogi language belongs to the Chibchan family. The Kogi are descendants of the Tairona culture, which flourished before the times of the Spanish conquest, the Tairona were an advanced civilization which built many stone structures and pathways in the jungles. They made many gold objects which they would hang from trees and they lived not much differently from modern day Kogi. Before the Spanish conquistadors arrived, the Tairona were forced to move into the highlands when the Caribs invaded around 1000 CE, the decision to flee to the mountains proved beneficial and strategic by the time the Spanish entered modern-day Colombia in the 15th century. In 1498, the Spanish arrived in Northern Colombia where they began to enslave indigenous groups, threatened by dogs and soldiers alike, the Tairona remained in isolation. Regardless, many priests were hanged, women were stolen and raped, later, missionaries came and also began to influence their way of life, building chapels and churches amidst their villages to train and convert the locals. The Kogi understand the Earth to be a living being, and they say that our actions of exploitation, devastation, and plundering for resources is weakening The Great Mother and leading to our destruction. Like many other tribes, the Kogi people honor a holy mountain which they call Gonawindua. They believe that this mountain is The Heart of the World and they also say that the outside civilization is the Younger Brothers who were sent away from The Heart of the World long ago. From birth the Kogi attune their priests, called Mamas, for guidance, healing, the Mamas are not to be confused with shamans or curers but to be regarded as tribal priests who hold highly respected roles in Kogi society. Mamas undergo strict training to assume this role, selected male children are taken from birth and put in a dark cave for the first nine years of their lives to begin this training. In the cave, elder Mamas and the childs mother care for, feed, train, through deep concentration, symbolic offerings, and divination, the Mamas believe they support the balance of harmony and creativity in the world. The Kogi Mamas have remained isolated from the rest of the world since the Spanish Conquistadors came to plunder South America for gold, in order to preserve their traditional way of life, they rarely interact with the modern world or with outside civilization. Outsiders are not allowed inside their ancestral lands, the Kogi Mamas say that the balance of the earths ecology has been suffering due to the modern-day devastation of resources by Younger Brother. The Kogi Mamas in turn believe that their work as Elder Brother is instrumental in helping to prolong, the subsequent messages and warnings were voiced in the documentary The Heart of The World, Elder Brothers Warning. After the documentary was filmed, the Kogi Mamas returned to their work in isolation, in turn they contacted the same filmmaker twenty years later to give one final message. Traditional Kogi religion is related to the structure of the cosmic universe that exists in dualistic expressions
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Muisca
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The Muisca are the Chibcha-speaking people that formed the Muisca Confederation of the central Andean highlands of present-day Colombias Eastern Range, in particular the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. As one out of four advanced civilizations of the Americas, they were encountered by the Spanish Empire in 1537 and it bordered the territories of the Panche and Pijao tribes. At the time of the conquest, the area had a large population, estimates vary from half a million to up to three million inhabitants. The Muisca spoke muysccubun, a dialect of Chibcha, also called Muysca and Mosca, the economy was based on agriculture, salt mining, metalworking and manufacturing. Today the Muisca population has almost died out, although in the municipalities and districts Cota, Chía, Tenjo, Suba, Engativá, Tocancipá, Gachancipá, a census by the Ministry of Interior Affairs in 2005 provided a total of 14,051 Muisca persons in Colombia. Excavations in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense show evidence of activity since the Archaic stage at the beginning of the Holocene era. Colombia has one of the most ancient archaeological sites of the Americas, El Abra, human skeletons were found that date to 5000 BCE. Analysis demonstrated that the people were members of the El Abra Culture, scholars agree that the group identified as Muisca migrated to the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the Formative stage, as shown by evidence found at Aguazuque and Soacha. Like the other cultures of America, the Muiscas were in a transition between being hunter-gatherers and becoming sedentary farmers. Around 1500 BCE, groups of agrarians with ceramic traditions came to the region from the lowlands and they had permanent housing and stationary camps, and worked the salty water to extract salt. In Zipacón there is evidence of agriculture and ceramics, the most ancient settlement of the highlands dates to 1270 BCE. Between 500 BCE and 800 BCE, a wave of migrants came to the highlands. Their presence is identified by multicolor ceramics, housing, and farms and these groups were still in residence upon the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. They left abundant traces of their occupation that have been studied since the 16th century and it is possible that the Muisca integrated with more ancient inhabitants, but the Muisca were the ones who molded the cultural profile and the social and political organization. Their language, a dialect of Chibcha, was similar to those peoples of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Zipa Saguamanchica was in a constant war against aggressive tribes such as the Sutagao, and especially the Panche, the Caribs were also a permanent threat as rivals of the zaque of Hunza, especially for the possession of the salt mines of Zipaquirá, Nemocón and Tausa. The Muisca people were organized in a confederation that was a union of states that each retained sovereignty. The confederation was not a kingdom, as there was no monarch, nor was it an empire
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Nukak
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The Nukak people live between the Guaviare and Inírida rivers, in the depths of the tropical humid forest, on the fringe of the Amazon basin, in Guaviare Department, Republic of Colombia. They are nomadic hunter-gatherers with seasonal nomadic patterns and in addition they practice a shifting horticulture in small scale, an uncontacted people until 1981, they have since lost half of their population, primarily to disease. Part of their territory has been used by growers, ranchers and other settlers and occupied by guerrillas, army. Responses to this crisis include protests, requests for assimilation, some 210–250 are estimated to live in provisional settlements at San José del Guaviare, while about as many live nomadically in the Nukak Reservation. The men hunt using blowguns, with darts coated with curare manyi and they specially hunt several species of monkeys, and birds. Also they use javelins of Socratea exorrhiza palm wood to hunt two species of peccaries and spectacled caimans, whose eggs they consume too. Nukak neither hunt nor eat brocket deer, Odocoileus virginianus and tapirs, the Nukak also capture rodents, armadillos tortoises, frogs, crabs, shrimps, snails, larvae of palm weevils, larvae of several species of wasps and caterpillars. The Nukak eat several species of fish, like Hoplias sp, cichla sp. surubí, catfishes, piranhas and river rays. Lately, part of activity is done using cord and metal fishooks, although the Nukak, to this day, still catch their fish in the traditional way, with bow and arrow or harpoons. They also use a very sophisticated technique that has reported in several cultures. This technique uses nuún, the root of a Lonchocarpus sp. that contains a number of substances that when dissolved in the water streams stun the fish and they collect honey of twenty species of bees and many fruits, palm fruits, Oenocarpus spp. Duroia maguirei, Duroia hirsuta, Mouriri sp, Nukak take the sweet resin from mupabuat and the rattan water. They make blades with the teeth of piranha, but lately they also use metallic ones. Until 1990 they practised pottery in small scale, producing a kind of pot to take with them on their travels. Today they prefer to obtain metallic pots, when they do not have matches or lighters, they use special wood to produce fire. At present time they do not make mirrors with the resin of Trattinickia glaziovii nor stone axes like they did in past times. The marriage, base of the group, is settled after the man has formally courted the woman with accepted gifts. The most suitable couple is one made up by crossed cousins, if the woman still lives in the home of the father, the gifts must include him
