1.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
2.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Fontainebleau
–
Fontainebleau is a commune in the metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located 55.5 kilometres south-southeast of the centre of Paris, Fontainebleau is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department, and it is the seat of the arrondissement of Fontainebleau. The commune has the largest land area in the Île-de-France region, Fontainebleau, together with the neighbouring commune of Avon and three other smaller communes, form an urban area of 39,713 inhabitants. This urban area is a satellite of Paris, inhabitants of Fontainebleau are called Bellifontains. Fontainebleau has been recorded in different Latinised forms, such as, Fons Bleaudi, Fons Bliaudi, Fons Blaadi in the 12th and 13th centuries and it became Fons Bellaqueus in the 17th century, which gave rise to the name of the inhabitants as Bellifontains. The name originates as a composite of two words, Fontaine– meaning spring, or fountainhead, followed by a person’s Germanic name Blizwald. This hamlet was endowed with a hunting lodge and a chapel by Louis VII in the middle of the twelfth century. A century later, Louis IX, also called Saint Louis, who held Fontainebleau in high esteem and referred to it as his wilderness, had a country house, philip the Fair was born there in 1268 and died there in 1314. In all, thirty-four sovereigns, from Louis VI, the Fat, to Napoleon III, the connection between the town of Fontainebleau and the French monarchy was reinforced with the transformation of the royal country house into a true royal palace, the Palace of Fontainebleau. On 18 October 1685, Louis XIV signed the Edict of Fontainebleau there, the result was that a large number of Protestants were forced to convert to the Catholic faith, killed, or forced into exile, mainly in the Low Countries, Prussia and in England. The 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, an agreement between France and Spain concerning the Louisiana territory in North America, was concluded here. Also, preliminary negotiations, held before the 1763 Treaty of Paris was signed, during the French Revolution, Fontainebleau was temporarily renamed Fontaine-la-Montagne, meaning Fountain by the Mountain. On 20 June 1812, Pope Pius VII arrived at the château of Fontainebleau, after a transfer from Savona, accompanied by his personal physician. In poor health, the Pope was the prisoner of Napoleon, from June 1812 until 23 January 1814, the Pope never left his apartments. According to contemporary sources, the occasion was very moving, the 1814 Treaty of Fontainebleau stripped Napoleon of his powers and sent him into exile on Elba. Until the 19th century, Fontainebleau was a village and a suburb of Avon, later, it developed as an independent residential city. For the 1924 Summer Olympics, the town played host to the portion of the modern pentathlon event. This event took place near a golf course, Fontainebleau also hosted the general staff of the Allied Forces in Central Europe and the land forces command, the air forces command was located nearby at Camp Guynemer
5.
Sophia Antipolis
–
Sophia Antipolis is a leading European technology park. Much of the park falls within the commune of Valbonne, which lies northwest of Antibes, created in 1970-1984, it houses primarily companies in the fields of computing, electronics, pharmacology and biotechnology. Several institutions of learning are also located here, along with the European headquarters of W3C. In the early years, one of the challenges of Sophia Antipolis was to relate people. The Human Factor is what was to distinguish the Science and Technology Park in the world as a landmark of science, invention, innovation and it was to focus on building an international environment, creating an international community. This means taking into account and improving tenant interaction, networking, the concept was that bringing together people from different intellectual horizons and making them meet, would bring added value and generate innovation. Many professional clubs were thus launched, The Sophia business angels club, many of the roads within the technology park have Greek names. There is a giant sculptured Greek urn as a centre-piece on one of the roundabouts, the residential community of Garbejaire is located within the technology park. There is a park with a play area for children. There is also a large communal corporate dining facility that is shared by several companies on the periphery of Garbejaire, several bus routes run through the technology park. There is a bus station with a ticket office. The company who runs the lines is called Envibus. fr, one of the bus routes to Antibes goes directly to Antibes railway station which provides access to the Riviera coastal railway. The station is served by trains to Nice and Monaco or westbound to Toulon. The nearest international airport is in Nice, there is a large national park around the technology park and several large villages on the outskirts of this park. Wild boar live within the park and occasionally walk through the technology park, there is a large community of small bats that become active as soon as it starts to get dark. It is possible to attract the attention of the bats which respond to mimicry, cotedAzur Directory of Organizations for Sophia Antipolis Sophia Antipolis Foundation Sophia Antipolis Economic Development Sophia Antipolis Urban Community Centre International de Valbonne
6.
PSL Research University
–
PSL Research University is a collegiate university formed from 18 institutions of research and higher education in the Paris area, and three national research organizations. The project was presented in January 2011, in response to a tender of the French Ministry for Higher Education, PSL* brings together 13 chartered institutions, located in Paris and the greater Paris area, and is represented by the Paris Sciences et Lettres - Quartier latin Foundation. Those institutions, encompassing a broad scope, decided to join forces. Its name, which means Sciences and Humanities, hints at the fact that PSL wants to push to the forefront contact points between hard and soft sciences, beyond its academic goals, PSL is equally committed to keep Paris downtown as a high place for scientific and student life. Its campus project is liable to give a new impulse Paris, with its location in the Latin Quarter, in the South of Paris. From this point of view, it runs counter with a trend that tends to delocate campuses outside of Paris. Member institutions cover a wide field, ranging from astrophysics, to arts, as well as economics and management, engineering. Liste, Within the Investments for the Future programme, €21.9 billion are to be allocated to higher-education, PSL* was constituted as a way to pool forces and reap benefits from this programme, so as to promote its excellence science and training tradition. The results of these tenders are announced following different schedules since the end of January 2011, from the very beginning, PSL has been a notable shareholder in the calls for projects. The 52 laureates had been selected by a committee, under chairmanship of the Canadian Philippe Le Prestre. The Equipex grants are intended to fund capital-intensive facilities for advanced scientific research, the overall allotment for the Equipex is €340 million, of which €260 million is immediately usable and €80 million temporarily blocked as an endowment. The selected projects will be awarded between 2 and 10 million euros, PSL* institutions have obtained seven of the 10 Equipex they had applied for. They represent all academic fields, from humanities to life sciences, most of the time, scientists belonging to non-PSL* institutions have been associated to these projects. Conversely, PSL* scientists may use Equipex facilities supported by other institutions, for PSL*, the selected projects are, D-FIH. Excellence Equipments, Launched in 2010, the Equipex call for projects was devised to finance pioneering research equipment with an budget of around €1 billion. The results were published in late February 2010, among the 52 Equipex selected, PSL has obtained 8 of the 10 projects it had presented. The results of the Excellence laboratories tender were published on March 25,2011 by the French ministry for Higher Education, sometimes coupled with Excellence facilities, the Labex are to help promising research teams in all academic fields. PSL* institutions have obtained 11 Labex projects, of this number,6 projects directly supported by PSL* have been awarded a grant
7.
ParisTech
–
ParisTech is a collegiate university located in Paris, France specialised in science and business. In 1999 its name was changed to ParisTech, in 2007, its status changed to a public establishment for scientific cooperation. It is headed by a President, assisted by a bureau and a secretary general, and administrated by a board of directors, assisted by a strategic orientation council. The board of directors gathers one representative of college or institute as well as researchers, faculty members. The member institutes of ParisTech are well-established publicly owned educational and research institutions, ParisTech is also a member of IDEA League, an alliance between universities in science and technology in Europe, as well as of the ATHENS Programme. A majority of them are there, close to one another, in a district bustling with student activity, however, some institutes also created additional sites on the outskirts of Paris, or in other parts of the country. In the course of time, some institutes had settled more towards the periphery, some years ago, the École nationale des ponts et chaussées eventually moved its educational and research facilities to more spacious campuses in greater Paris, in Marne-la-Vallée. SupOptique and part of ENSTA have relocated on the Palaiseau campus recently as will the ENSAE and it is the same for Arts et Métiers ParisTech, among its 8 campuses, only the main one is located in Paris. The other teaching and research centers are spread in the country to get closer to the fabric of each region. Moreover, different specializations are available in the campuses, such as Aerospace in Bordeaux, ParisTech offers a variety of courses, independently or in partnership with other institutions, in the core disciplines of science and technology at postgraduate level. Its main programmes are, the Ingénieur degree delivering a broad understanding of fundamental Engineering Science, the admission to the Ingénieur degree is widely known as being highly selective. Students are admitted through nationwide competitive examinations for students having completed two years of Classes Préparatoires in France or abroad, or by virtue of outstanding academic records, master of Science programmes, courses designed to provide an in-depth understanding in various fields of science ranging from Mathematics to Economics. Admission to ParisTech MSc programmes is open to students holding a Bachelor of Science or a Bachelor of Engineering from a French or international university, each college or institute has its own specific admissions requirements. Mastères spécialisés enable students which have completed a masters degree to develop their knowledge in a speciality to a high standard. An MBA ranked No.1 in the world for the mobility of its graduate students. Doctoral programmes, ParisTech laboratories play host to 2000 doctoral students, thesis enrolment is handled by the ParisTech institute or college to which the host laboratory is attached. Pastel, the catalog of more than 1500 PhD thesis signed by ParisTech students from 10 of the 11 ParisTech ecoles, poly-Media Documentation center, similar catalog of PhD theses from École Polytechnique, with free access online. ParisTech Review, the magazine of ParisTech that assesses how technological innovations will bring sweeping changes to business
8.
Louis XVI of France
–
Louis XVI, born Louis-Auguste, was the last King of France and Navarre before the French Revolution, during which he was also known as Louis Capet. In 1765, at the death of his father, Louis, Dauphin of France, son and heir apparent of Louis XV of France, Louis XVI was guillotined on 21 January 1793. The first part of his reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideas and these included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the reforms with hostility. Louis implemented deregulation of the market, advocated by his liberal minister Turgot. In periods of bad harvests, it would lead to food scarcity which would prompt the masses to revolt, from 1776, Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the Ancien Régime and this led to the convening of the Estates-General of 1789. In 1789, the storming of the Bastille during riots in Paris marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Louiss indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to view him as a symbol of the tyranny of the Ancien Régime. The credibility of the king was deeply undermined, and the abolition of the monarchy, Louis XVI was the only King of France ever to be executed, and his death brought an end to more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy. Louis-Auguste de France, who was given the title Duc de Berry at birth, was born in the Palace of Versailles. Out of seven children, he was the son of Louis, the Dauphin of France. His mother was Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, the daughter of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. A strong and healthy boy, but very shy, Louis-Auguste excelled in his studies and had a taste for Latin, history, geography, and astronomy. He enjoyed physical activities such as hunting with his grandfather, and rough-playing with his brothers, Louis-Stanislas, comte de Provence. From an early age, Louis-Auguste had been encouraged in another of his hobbies, locksmithing, upon the death of his father, who died of tuberculosis on 20 December 1765, the eleven-year-old Louis-Auguste became the new Dauphin. His mother never recovered from the loss of her husband, and died on 13 March 1767, throughout his education, Louis-Auguste received a mixture of studies particular to religion, morality, and humanities. His instructors may have also had a hand in shaping Louis-Auguste into the indecisive king that he became
9.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
–
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
10.
California Institute of Technology
–
The California Institute of Technology is a private doctorate-granting university located in Pasadena, California, United States. The vocational and preparatory schools were disbanded and spun off in 1910, the university is one among a small group of Institutes of Technology in the United States which is primarily devoted to the instruction of technical arts and applied sciences. Caltech has six divisions with strong emphasis on science and engineering, managing $332 million in 2011 in sponsored research. Its 124-acre primary campus is located approximately 11 mi northeast of downtown Los Angeles, first-year students are required to live on campus, and 95% of undergraduates remain in the on-campus House System at Caltech. Although Caltech has a tradition of practical jokes and pranks. The Caltech Beavers compete in 13 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division IIIs Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, Caltech is frequently cited as one of the worlds best universities. There are 112 faculty members who have elected to the United States National Academies. In addition, numerous faculty members are associated with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute as well as NASA, according to a 2015 Pomona College study, Caltech ranked number one in the U. S. for the percentage of its graduates who go on to earn a PhD. Caltech started as a school founded in Pasadena in 1891 by local businessman and politician Amos G. Throop. The school was known successively as Throop University, Throop Polytechnic Institute, the vocational school was disbanded and the preparatory program was split off to form an independent Polytechnic School in 1907. At a time when research in the United States was still in its infancy, George Ellery Hale. He joined Throops board of trustees in 1907, and soon began developing it and he engineered the appointment of James A. B. Scherer, a literary scholar untutored in science but a capable administrator and fund raiser, scherer persuaded retired businessman and trustee Charles W. Gates to donate $25,000 in seed money to build Gates Laboratory, the first science building on campus. In 1910, Throop moved to its current site, arther Fleming donated the land for the permanent campus site. The promise of Throop attracted physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes from MIT to develop the institution and assist in establishing it as a center for science, with the onset of World War I, Hale organized the National Research Council to coordinate and support scientific work on military problems. This institution, with its able investigators and excellent research laboratories, through the National Research Council, Hale simultaneously lobbied for science to play a larger role in national affairs, and for Throop to play a national role in science. During the course of the war, Hale, Noyes and Millikan worked together in Washington on the NRC, subsequently, they continued their partnership in developing Caltech. Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes and Millikan, Caltech grew to prominence in the 1920s
11.
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
–
Shanghai Jiao Tong University is a public research university in Shanghai, China. It is one of the nine members in the C9 League of universities, the word Jiao Tong, formerly romanized as Chiao Tung, means transportation or communication. It reflects the universitys root — it was founded by the Ministry of Posts, in 1896, the Nanyang Public School was founded in Shanghai by an imperial edict issued by the Guangxu Emperor, under the Business and Telegraphs Office of the imperial government. Four schools were established, a school, a school of foreign studies, a middle school. In 1904, the Ministry of Commerce took over the school, in 1906, the college was placed under the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs, and its name was changed to Shanghai Industrial College of the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. In 1918, the government founded the School of Management. In 1920, the Government Institute of Technology of the Communications Ministry merged with two colleges and changed its name to Nan Yang College of Chiao Tung. In the 1930s, it was achieved renown for nurturing top engineers, in 1938, the Ministry of Education took over the university and renamed it to National Chiao Tung University. In 1943, the school was founded. When the Japanese surrendered in 1945, neither the Communist Party of China nor the Kuomintang KMT trusted each other or were actively cooperating, after American-sponsored attempts to negotiate a coalition government failed in 1946, the Chinese Civil War resumed. The CPC defeated the Nationalists in 1949, forcing Chiangs government to retreat to Taiwan, during the evacuation, a part of faculty and alumni was taken to Taiwan by Chiang Kai-shek, founding National Chiao Tung University in Taiwan in 1958. After the Chinese Civil War, the Peoples Republic of China was founded in 1949, Chiao Tung lost its National appellation and became Chiao Tung University to reflect the fact that all universities under the new socialist state would be public. In the 1950s, the romanization system was developed in Mainland China. From 1952, the Communist government adopted a policy of creating Soviet-style specialized schools, a massive rearrangement came in 1956 for the school when the central government ordered the university move to Xian, in the western Chinese province of Shaanxi. Afterwards, about 1959, the portion was officially renamed Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Shanghai Second Medical University was merged into Shanghai Jiao Tong University on July 18,2005, since the reform and opening up policy in China, SJTU has grown substantially. It is composed of five campuses, including Xuhui, Minhang, Luwan, Qibao, in 2013, François Hollande inaugurated the SJTU-ParisTech Elite Institute of Technology, an institution based on the French engineering education system. Its total enrollment of students amounts to 42,881, of which 1,598 are international students, there are 17,766 undergraduates, and 24,017 masters and Ph. D. candidates
12.
University of Hong Kong
–
The University of Hong Kong is a public research university located in Pokfulam, Hong Kong. Founded in 1911, it is the oldest tertiary institution in Hong Kong, today, the University of Hong Kong is organised into 10 academic faculties with English as the language of instruction. It exhibits strength in scholarly research and education of accounting & finance, biomedicine, dentistry, education, humanities, law, linguistics, political sciences, and social sciences. The University of Hong Kong was also the first team in the world which successfully isolated the corona virus, the University of Hong Kong was founded in 1911 and had an acceptance rate of 96%. Indian businessman Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody learned of Lugards plan and pledged to donate HK$150,000 towards the construction, the Hong Kong Government and the business sector in southern China, which were both equally eager to learn secrets of the Wests success, also gave their support. The government contributed a site at West Point, Swire Group also contributed £40,000 to endow a chair in Engineering, and thousands of dollars in equipment. The aim was partly to bolster its image following the death of a passenger on board one of its ships, Fatshan. Along with other donors including the British government and companies such as HSBC, charles Eliot was appointed its first Vice-Chancellor. The university was incorporated in Hong Kong as a body of scholars on 30 March 1911 and had its official opening ceremony on 11 March 1912. The university was founded as an all-male institution, women students were admitted for the first time only ten years later. It opened with three founding faculties, Arts, Engineering and Medicine, the Faculty of Medicine was founded as the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese by the London Missionary Society in 1887. Of the Colleges early alumni, the most renowned was Sun Yat-sen, in December 1916, the university held its first congregation, with 23 graduates and five honorary graduates. After the Canton-Hong Kong strikes of 1925 and 1926, the government moved towards greater integration of Eastern culture, in 1927, a degree in Chinese was created. Donations from wealthy businessmen Tang Chi Ngong and Fung Ping Shan – after whom two campus buildings are named – triggered an emphasis on Chinese cultural education, in 1937, the Queen Mary Hospital opened. It has served as the teaching hospital ever since. In 1941, the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong caused damage to university buildings, after the end of the Second World War, the university reopened and investment in law and the social sciences increased as post-war reconstruction efforts began in earnest. The Faculty of Social Sciences was established in 1967 and the Department of Law in 1969, the student population in 1961 was 2,000, quadrupled from 1941. In 1982, the Faculty of Dentistry, based at the Prince Philip Dental Hospital, was established, to this day, it remains Hong Kongs only faculty training dental professionals
13.
National University of Singapore
–
The National University of Singapore is an autonomous university in Singapore. Founded in 1905, it is the oldest institute of learning in Singapore, as well as the largest university in the country in terms of student enrolment. NUS is a research-intensive, comprehensive university with an entrepreneurial dimension, NUS is ranked as Asias top university in both the QS World University Rankings and the Times Higher Education World University Rankings in 2016. According to the latest 2016 QS World University Rankings, NUS is placed 12th in the world, NUS also fared well in the 2016–17 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, coming in 24th in the world and 1st in Asia. NUSs main campus is located in South-West Singapore adjacent to Kent Ridge, the Bukit Timah campus houses the Faculty of Law, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy and research institutes, while the Duke-NUS Medical School Singapore is located at the Outram campus. Tan, who was the first president of the Straits Chinese British Association, managed to raise 87,077 Straits dollars, on 3 July 1905, the medical school was founded, and was known as the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States Government Medical School. In 1912, the school received an endowment of $120,000 from the King Edward VII Memorial Fund. Subsequently, on 18 November 1913, the name of the school was changed to the King Edward VII Medical School, in 1921, it was again changed to the King Edward VII College of Medicine to reflect its academic status. In 1928, Raffles College was established to promote arts and social sciences at tertiary level for Malayan students, two decades later, Raffles College was merged with the King Edward VII College of Medicine to form the University of Malaya on 8 October 1949. The two institutions were merged to provide for the education needs of the Federation of Malaya. In 1960, the governments of then Federation of Malaya and Singapore indicated their desire to change the status of the divisions into that of a national university. Legislation was passed in 1961 establishing the former Kuala Lumpur division as the University of Malaya while the Singapore division was renamed the University of Singapore on 1 January 1962, the National University of Singapore was formed with the merger of the University of Singapore and Nanyang University in 1980. This was done in part due to the desire to pool the two institutions resources into a single, stronger entity, and promote English as Singapores main language of education. The original crest of Nanyang University with three intertwined rings was incorporated into the new coat-of-arms of NUS, NUS began its entrepreneurial education endeavours in the 1980s, with the setting up of the Centre for Management of Innovation and Technopreneurship in 1988. In 2001, this was renamed the NUS Entrepreneurship Centre, NUS has a semester-based modular system for conducting courses. It adopts features of the British system, such as small group teaching, students may transfer between courses within their first two semesters, enrol in cross-faculty modules or take up electives from different faculties. NUS has 16 faculties and schools, including a Music Conservatory, NUS has been ranked among the best in the Asia by two international ranking systems, the QS World University Rankings and the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. The QS World University Rankings 2016–17 ranked NUS 12th in the world and 1st in Asia, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016–17 placed NUS at 24th in the world and 1st in Asia, while its 2015–16 reputation rankings placed it at 24th globally
14.
Novosibirsk State University
–
Novosibirsk State University is among the most famous universities in Russia, although is somewhat young. NSU is one of top three Russian schools present in top ratings, as of 2016, the university is located right in the middle of the country, in the suburb area of Novosibirsk, a cultural and industrial center of Siberia. The total number of students is 7131 as of 2016, Novosibirsk State University alumni mainly known in engineering, research and IT. Siberia possessed copious natural resources but lacked large research institutions which would promote economic development, in 1958, the idea was implemented with the establishment of the Siberian Division of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union near the large industrial city of Novosibirsk. A new academic town, Akademgorodok, started to grow rapidly, thus, in May 1959 the USSR Higher Education Ministry issued a decree to begin studies in Novosibirsk State University on September 1,1959 with Ilia N. Vekua as rector. 139 first-year students were admitted as students and 119 as part-time students. In addition, the best students from other Soviet universities were selected as second-year students, the applicants for chemistry and physics accounted for eight and five persons per vacancy respectively, with three persons for mathematics, mechanics and geology. The official opening of the University took place on September 26,1959 at the Concert Hall of the Opera, at first, the only department of the University, the Department of Natural Sciences, combined Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Biology, Chemistry and Geology. Between 1960 and 1967 new departments began to separate into their own disciplines, in December 1963 the first graduates of the Novosibirsk State University, including 26 physicists,24 mathematicians and ten researchers in mechanics, received diplomas. The Department of Mathematics and Mechanics, the Department of Physics, therefore, historically, its curriculum inherited a significant load of Physics and Mathematics courses, which is quite unusual for typical Russian Chemistry and Biology majors. Another reason for this emphasis in exact sciences was that the first deans of the department were prominent soviet physical chemists Vladislav Voevodskii and Dmitrii Knorre, the Department of Natural Sciences offers majors in Chemistry and Biology. In five years of training the graduates receive a Specialists degree, the training program includes two years of research practice in a specific area of Chemistry and Biology with writing a thesis. From 1992 to 2000 a major in Environmental Chemistry was offered based on a 2-level training system, the program was based on the Chemistry major curriculum with addition of extra mathematics, informatics and biology courses. Since 1995 a major in Medical Biology has been offered, the aim of this enterprise was to begin training Research Doctors of Medicine in the department. A state license allowing the training of general practitioners was obtained in 2002, finally, in 2004 another new department, the Department of Medicine sprung from the Department of Natural Sciences. The Department of Mechanics and Mathematics was founded in 1961, since 1976, the Department of Mechanics and Mathematics has conducted training in applied mathematics as well. The founders of the Department of Mechanics and Mathematics were such distinguished scientists as Academicians M. A. Lavrentev, I. N. Vekua, A. I. Maltsev, and S. L. Sobolev. In the spring of 1991, the Academic Council of the Department came to the decision to accept a 2-level system of training, about half of the graduates have the opportunity to continue their education at 2-year postgraduate courses leading to a masters degree
15.
Pontifical Catholic University of Chile
–
It is also one of Chiles oldest universities and one of the most recognized educational institutions in Latin America. According to the QS Ranking, its Faculty of Law ranks 38th in the world, UC has four campuses in Santiago and one campus in Villarrica. The campuses in Santiago are, Casa Central San Joaquín Oriente Lo Contador These four campuses have a total of 223,326.06 m2 constructed in a 614,569.92 m2 area. The Villarrica campus has 1,664 m2 constructed in a 2,362.5 m2 area and its first chancellor was Monsignor Joaquín Larraín Gandarillas, and at the very beginning, the university only taught two subjects, law and mathematics. Since it is a Pontifical University, it has always had a strong, on February 11,1930, Pope Pius XI declared it a pontifical university, and in 1931 it was granted full academic autonomy by the Chilean government. UC is a private, urban, multi-campus university and it is one of the eleven Chilean Catholic universities, and one of the twenty-five institutions within the Rectors Council, the Chilean state-sponsored university system. UCs 18 faculties are distributed through four campuses in Santiago and one campus located in southern Chile. The technical training centers affiliated with the University are, DUOC, the Rural Life Foundations, the Baviera Foundation, the Catechetical Home and these centers carry out technical-academic extension activities in rural and agricultural areas. Other UC activities are a Sports Club, a television network. UC s Graduates of the School of Architecture have also made important contributions to the country with such work as the Central Building of UC, two of its most important alumni are the Jesuit Saint Alberto Hurtado and Eduardo Frei Montalva, a Chilean president. Both of them studied in the School of Laws, sebastián Piñera, previous Chilean president, graduated from the universitys School of Economics. The Department of Industry and System Engineering is engaging Stanford Technology Venture Program of Stanford University on a collaboration on innovation, in April 2013, PUC and the University of Notre Dame also signed a memorandum of understanding to strengthen scholarly engagement and expand their long-standing relationships. In the same ranking, its Faculty of Law ranks 38th in the world, and its Faculty of Education ranks 33th worldwide
16.
Tokyo Institute of Technology
–
Tokyo Institute of Technology is a national research university located in Greater Tokyo Area, Japan. Tokyo Tech is the largest institution for education in Japan dedicated to science and technology. Tokyo Techs main campus is located at Ōokayama on the boundary of Meguro and Ota, other campuses are located in Suzukakedai and Tamachi. Tokyo Tech is organised into 6 schools, within there are over 40 departments. Tokyo Tech enrolled 4,734 undergraduates and 1,464 graduate students for 2015-2016 and it employs around 1,100 faculty members. Tokyo Institute of Technology was founded by the government of Japan as the Tokyo Vocational School on May 26,1881,14 years after the Meiji Restoration, to accomplish the quick catch-up to the West, the government expected this school to cultivate new modernized craftsmen and engineers. In 1890, it was renamed Tokyo Technical School, in 1901, it changed name to Tokyo Higher Technical School. In early days, the school was located in Kuramae, the area of the Greater Tokyo Area. The buildings in Kuramae campus were destroyed by the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923, in the following year, the Tokyo Higher Technical School moved from Kuramae to the present site in Ookayama, a south suburb of the Greater Tokyo Area. In 1929 the school became Tokyo Institute of Technology, gaining a status of national university, after World War II, the new education system was promulgated in 1949 with the National School Establishment Law, and Tokyo Institute of Technology was reorganized. Many three-year courses were turned into four-year courses with the start of the School of Engineering this year, the university started graduate programmes in engineering in 1953. Since April 2004, it has been semi-privatized into the National University Incorporation of Tokyo Institute of Technology under a new law applied to all national universities. In 2011, it celebrated the 130th anniversary of its founding, in 2014, it joined the edX consortium and formed the Online Education Development Office to create MOOCS, which are hosted on the edX website. In its 130 years, Tokyo Tech has provided scientific researchers and engineers and many social leaders, Tokyo Tech has three campuses, the Ōokayama campus in Ōokayama Meguro as the main campus, Tamachi campus in Shibaura and the Suzukakedai campus, located in Nagatsuta, Midori-ku in Yokohama. Ōokayama Station campus Tamachi campus Suzukakedai campus The university is undergoing an educational reform and schools. It is the home of Japans largest science and technology library, the library was founded in 1882, and it lost nearly 28,000 books during the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923. Moved to Ookayama in 1936, it has been the national science,1,200 students and staff visit the library each day. It has 674,000 books and 2,500 journals, including 1,600 foreign academic journals and it provides around 7,000 registered electronic journals each year
17.
Monnaie de Paris
–
The Monnaie de Paris, created in 864, is the oldest continuously operating minting institution. Many ancient coins are housed in the collections maintained there, a Neoclassical edifice, the Hôtel de la Monnaie was designed by Jacques-Denis Antoine and built from 1767–1775 on the Left Bank of the Seine. The Monnaie was the first major civic monument undertaken by Antoine, today it is considered a key example of French Neoclassicism in pre-Revolutionary Paris. The building is typified by its heavy external rustication and severe decorative treatment and it boasts one of the longest façades on the Seine, its appearance has been likened to the Italian palazzo tradition. The building, which housed mint workshops, administrative rooms, and residential quarters and it remains open to the public and includes a numismatics museum, located within what was once the main foundry. List of museums in Paris Philippe Danfrie – Superintendent of the Mint in the late 16th century, pierre Marie François Ogé Bust of Jacques Denis Antoine Building the financial façade, Jacques-Denis Antoines Hôtel de la Monnaie, the Parisian mint, 1765–1775 Monnaie de Paris
18.
French Revolution
–
Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
19.
Committee of Public Safety
–
The Committee of Public Safety succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, the Committee—composed at first of nine, and later of twelve, members—was given broad powers over military, judicial. It was formed as a body to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention. As the Committee tried to meet the dangers of a coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within the country, in July 1793, following the defeat at the Convention of the Girondins, the prominent leaders of the radical Jacobins—Maximilien Robespierre and Saint-Just —were added to the Committee. The power of the Committee peaked between August 1793 and July 1794, in December 1793, the Convention formally conferred executive power upon the Committee. The execution of Robespierre in July 1794 represented a period against the Committee of Public Safety. This is known as the Thermidorian Reaction, as Robespierres fall from power occurred during the Revolutionary month of Thermidor, the Committees influence diminished, and it was disestablished in 1795. News of his defection caused alarm in Paris, where imminent defeat by the Austrians, the betrayal of the revolutionary government by Dumouriez lent greater credence to this belief. In light of this threat, the Girondin leader Maximin Isnard proposed the creation of a nine-member Committee of Public Safety. Isnard was supported in this effort by Georges Danton, who declared, This Committee is precisely what we want, the Committee was formally created on 6 April 1793. Closely associated with the leadership of Danton, it was known as the Danton Committee. Danton steered the Committee through the 31 May and 2 June 1793 journées that resulted in the fall of the Girondins, however, when the Committee was recomposed on 10 July, Danton was not included. Nevertheless, he continued to support the centralization of power by the Committee, on 27 July 1793, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee. At this time, the Committee was entering a powerful and active phase, which would see it become a de facto dictatorship alongside its powerful partner. The broad and centralized powers of the Committee were codified by the Law of 14 Frimaire on 4 December 1793, Hérault de Séchelles—a friend and ally of Danton—was expelled from the Committee of Public Safety, arrested, and tried alongside them. On 5 April 1794, the Dantonists went to the guillotine, certainly the strength of the committees had been made evident, as had their ability to control and silence opposition. The Law of 14 Frimaire was enacted in December 1793 to centralize, the law enumerated various forms of public enemies, made mandatory their denunciation, and severely limited the legal recourse available to those accused. The punishment for all crimes under the Law of 22 Prairal was death, from the initiation of this law to the fall of Robespierre on 27 July, more people were condemned to death than in the entire previous history of the Revolutionary Tribunal
20.
Messidor
–
Messidor was the tenth month in the French Republican Calendar. The month was named after the Latin word messis, which means harvest, Messidor was the first month of the summer quarter. It started on 19 or 20 June and it ended on 18 or 19 July. It follows the Prairial and precedes the Thermidor, like all FRC months Messidor lasted 30 days and was divided into three 10-day weeks called décades. Every day had the name of a plant, except the 5th and 10th day of every decade
21.
Savoie
–
Savoie is a French department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of the French Alps. For history before 1860, details of the annexation, and modern regionalism and it is widely accepted that Savoie takes its name from the Latin Sapaudia or Sabaudia, meaning land covered in fir trees. Savoie was long part of the states of Savoy, though beginning in the 16th century and it was integrated into the Mont-Blanc department from 1792 to 1815. The province was annexed by France in 1860, the former Duchy of Savoy became the two departments of Savoie and Haute-Savoie. Moûtiers, capital of the province of Tarentaise Valley ceased to be the prefecture after a law passed on September 10,1926. Savoie, along with Albertville, hosted the 1992 Winter Olympics, with ski events at Tarentaise and Beaufortain. The other main alpine valley is the Maurienne, connected to the Tarentaise valley by two passes, the col de la Madeleine and the highest pass in Europe, the col de lIseran. The Maurienne valley was through the col du Mont Cenis, the commercial route between France and Italy. It is one of the longest intra-alpine valleys in the Alps, Savoie is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes région. It borders the departments of Haute-Savoie, Ain, Isère and Hautes-Alpes in addition to Italy and its two main lakes are Lac du Bourget and Lac dAiguebelette, one of the least polluted in France due to a 1976 law forbidding any use of motorboats on the lake. According to the Chambéry chamber of commerce, close to 50% of the departments wealth comes from tourism, each year, Savoie hosts over 30 million visitor-nights of tourists. Savoie also profits from its resources with particular strengths in ore processing. Savoie had an exceptionally high export/import ratio of 214% in 2005 and its exports rose to €1.768 billion and €825 million in imports. Its leading exports were steel, aluminum, and electric and electronic components, Savoie is famous for its cows, which produce numerous cheeses, some of them are, Beaufort Savoie Gruyère Reblochon Tamié Tome des Bauges Tomme de Savoie Numerous wine grapes are also grown in Savoie. The most famous wines are made of Gamay, Pinot noir, fruit production is the third largest component of agriculture in Savoie. Apples and pears are also produced in the region and are known for their qualities. Residents of Savoie are known as Savoyards, though they can also be called Savoisiens or Savoyens,8,507 The average population density is not a good indicator, the valleys tend to be much more densely populated, whereas the mountains tend to be near-completely uninhabited. The Catholic Church in Savoie is divided into three dioceses, Chambéry, Maurienne, and Tarentaise, together, they form an archdiocese, in which the bishop of Chambéry is the archbishop
22.
French Consulate
–
The Consulate was the government of France from the fall of the Directory in the coup of Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804. By extension, the term The Consulate also refers to period of French history. Due to the institutions established during these years, Robert B. Holtman has called the Consulate one of the most important periods of all French history, Napoleon brought authoritarian personal rule which has been viewed as military dictatorship. French military disasters in 1798 and 1799 had shaken the Directory, an irregularity emerged in the election of Jean Baptiste Treilhard, who retired in favor of Louis Jérôme Gohier. Within days, Philippe-Antoine Merlin and Louis-Marie de La Revellière were driven to resign, Baron Jean-François-Auguste Moulin, the three new directors were generally seen as non-entities. A few more military disasters, royalist insurrections in the south, Chouan disturbances in a dozen departments of the part of France, Orléanist intrigues. In order to soothe the populace and protect the frontier, more than the French Revolutions usual terrorist measures was necessary, the new Directory government, led by Sieyès, decided that the necessary revision of the constitution would require a head and a sword. Jean Victor Moreau being unattainable as his sword, Sieyès favoured Barthélemy Catherine Joubert, but, success was reserved for Bonaparte, suddenly landing at Fréjus with the prestige of his victories in the East, and now, after Hoches death, appearing as sole master of the armies. In the coup of 18 Brumaire Year VIII, Napoleon seized French parliamentary and military power in a two-fold coup détat, the initial 18 Brumaire coup seemed to be a victory for Sieyès, rather than for Bonaparte. Sieyès was a proponent of a new system of government for the Republic, Bonapartes cleverness lay in counterposing Pierre Claude François Daunous plan to that of Sieyès, and in retaining only those portions of both which could serve his ambition. Ultimate executive authority was vested in three consuls, who were elected for ten years, popular suffrage was retained, though mutilated by the lists of notables. Napoleon vetoed Sieyès original idea of having a single Grand Elector as supreme executive, Sieyès had intended to reserve this important position for himself, and by denying him the job Napoleon helped reinforce the authority of the consuls, an office which he would assume. Nor was Napoleon content simply to be part of an equal triumvirate, by consolidating power, Bonaparte was able to transform the aristocratic constitution of Sieyès into an unavowed dictatorship. On 7 February 1800, a referendum confirmed the new constitution. It vested all of the power in the hands of the First Consul. A full 99. 9% of voters approved the motion, according to the released results and he gave everyone a feeling that France was governed once more by a real statesman, and that a competent government was finally in charge. Bonaparte had now to rid himself of Sieyès and of those republicans who had no desire to hand over the republic to one man, particularly of Moreau and Masséna, his military rivals
23.
Bourbon Restoration
–
The Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the fall of Napoleon in 1814 until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of executed Louis XVI of France reigned in highly conservative fashion, and they were nonetheless unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution and Napoleon. At the Congress of Vienna they were treated respectfully, but had to give up all the gains made since 1789. King Louis XVI of the House of Bourbon had been overthrown and executed during the French Revolution, a coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The Bourbon Restoration lasted from 6 April 1814 until the uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. There was an interlude in spring 1815—the Hundred Days—when the return of Napoleon forced the Bourbons to flee France, when Napoleon was again defeated by the Seventh Coalition they returned to power in July. During the Restoration, the new Bourbon regime was a monarchy, unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime. The period was characterized by a conservative reaction, and consequent minor but consistent occurrences of civil unrest. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of changes to France which the Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. First of all, France became highly centralized, with all decisions made in Paris, the political geography was completely reorganized and made uniform. France was divided more than 80 departments, which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by a prefect appointed by Paris. The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the Revolution, the bishop still ruled his diocese, and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other people were paid salaries by the state. All the old rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful, education was centralized, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the entire educational system from Paris
24.
6th arrondissement of Paris
–
The 6th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of Paris, France. Sulpice Church and square, the Pont des Arts and the Jardin du Luxembourg and it is a major locale for art galleries and one of the most fashionable districts of Paris as well as Paris most expensive area. The new Palace turned the neighborhood into a district for French nobility. The land area of the arrondissement is 2.154 km², in 1999, the population was 44,919 inhabitants while the arrondissement provided 43,691 jobs. Toei Animation Europe has its office in the arrondissement. The company, which opened in 2004, serves France, Germany, Italy, Spain, 6th arrondissement travel guide from Wikivoyage
25.
Jardin du Luxembourg
–
The garden today is owned by the French Senate, which meets in the Palace. It covers 23 hectares and is known for its lawns, tree-lined promenades, flowerbeds, model sailboats on its circular basin, and picturesque Medici Fountain, built in 1620. In 1611, Marie de Medici, the widow of Henry IV and she purchased the hotel du Luxembourg and began construction of the new palace. She commissioned Salomon de Brosse to build the palace and a fountain, in 1612 she planted 2,000 elm trees, and directed a series of gardeners, most notably Tommaso Francini, to build a park in the style she had known as a child in Florence. Francini planned two terraces with balustrades and parterres laid out along the axis of the chateau, aligned around a circular basin and he also built the Medici Fountain to the east of the palace as a nympheum, an artificial grotto and fountain, without its present pond and statuary. The original garden was just eight hectares in size, in the center he placed an octagonal basin with a fountain, with a perspective toward what is now the Paris observatory. Later monarchs largely neglected the garden, in 1780, the Comte de Provence, the future Louis XVIII, sold the eastern part of the garden for real estate development. The architect Jean Chalgrin, the architect of the Arc de Triomphe and he remade the Medici Fountain and laid out a long perspective from the palace to the observatory. He preserved the famous pepiniere, or nursery garden of the Carthusian order, and the old vineyards, the building of new streets next to the park also required moving and rebuilding the Medici Fountain to its present location. The long basin of the fountain was added at this time, during this reconstruction, the director of parks and promenades of Paris, Gabriel Davioud, built new ornamental gates and fences around the park, and polychrome brick garden houses. He also transformed what remained of the old Chartreux nursery garden, at the end of the park, into an English garden with winding paths. He kept the regular pattern of the paths and alleys. The garden is famed for its calm atmosphere, surrounding the bassin on the raised balustraded terraces are a series of statues of former French queens, saints and copies after the Antique. In the southwest corner, there is an orchard of apple and pear trees, the gardens include a large fenced-in playground for young children and their parents and a vintage carousel. The orangerie displays art, photography and sculptures, the École nationale supérieure des Mines de Paris and the Odéon theatre stand next to the Luxembourg Garden. It was installed as part of the development of the avenue de lObservatoire by Gabriel Davioud in 1867, most importantly Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux sculpted the four nude women supporting the globe, representing the Four Continents of classical iconography. Open hours for the Luxembourg Garden depend on the month, opening between 7,30 and 8,15 am, closing at dusk between 4,45 and 9,45 pm. The garden contains just over a hundred statues, monuments, and fountains, surrounding the central green space are twenty figures of French queens and illustrious women standing on pedestals
26.
Nice
–
Nice is the fifth most populous city in France and the capital of the Alpes-Maritimes département. The urban area of Nice extends beyond the city limits. Nice is about 13 kilometres from the principality of Monaco, the city is nicknamed Nice la Belle, which means Nice the Beautiful, which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of todays Nice contains Terra Amata, a site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Nikaia, after Nike, through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength, for centuries it was a dominion of Savoy, and was then part of France between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to Piedmont-Sardinia until its re-annexation by France in 1860. The citys main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais owes its name to visitors to the resort, for decades now, the picturesque Nicean surroundings have attracted not only those in search of relaxation, but also those seeking inspiration. The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to some of Western cultures most outstanding painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse. Nice has the second largest hotel capacity in the country and it is one of its most visited cities and it also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the capital city of the County of Nice. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by the Greeks of Massalia, the ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice. In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens, but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, during the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, during the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa. The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town, the landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill, another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the area was also defended by walls
27.
Seoul National University
–
Seoul National University is a national research university located in Seoul, the capital of South Korea. Since its founding in 1946, Seoul National University has been considered to be one of the most prestigious universities in the country. It is located on three campuses, the campus is in Gwanak and two additional campuses in Daehangno and Pyeongchang. The university comprises sixteen colleges, one school, and nine professional schools. The student body consists of nearly 17,000 undergraduate and 11,000 graduate students, according to data compiled by KEDI, the university spends more on its students per capita than any other university in the country that enrolls at least 10,000 students. Following a government mandate to globalize Korean universities, the international faculty head count peaked at 242 or 4% of the total in 2010. Seoul National University originates from various institutions which were established by King Gojong of the Joseon Dynasty. Several of them were integrated into various colleges when later Seoul National University was founded, to modernize the country, Gojong initiated the establishment of modern higher education institutions. By means of the issue of an order, the law academy Beopkwan Yangseongso has been founded in 1895. It produced 209 graduates including the later envoy Yi Jun, hanseong Sabeomhakgyo, a training school for teachers and Euihakkyo, a medical school, are also considered the origins of respected colleges. After the proclamation of the Empire of Korea in 1897, Gojong, in 1899, a medical school was established. This school changed its name several times to Daehan Euiwon Gyoyukbu and Gyeongseong Euihak Jeonmunhakgyo, in 1901, a department for nursing was established, which was the forerunner of the later College of Nursing. During the Japanese rule, Keijō Imperial University was established as one of Japans nine imperial universities, after World War II and the independence of Korea, the name of the university was changed from Keijō Teikoku Daigaku to Gyeongseong Daehak. The Hanja letters, that were used in the name, were pronounced in the Korean reading, the renaming of National was based on the academic internationalism the USA claimed. Seoul National University was founded on August 27,1946 by merging ten institutions of education around the Seoul area. For over a year and a half, there was a protest movement by students, finally,320 professors were fired and more than 4950 students left the school. The universitys second president was Lee Choon-ho, who served beginning in October 1947, the College of Law was founded by merging the law department of Kyŏngsŏng University with Kyŏngsŏng Law College. The university absorbed Seoul College of Pharmacy in September 1950, as the College of Pharmacy and this had previously been a private institution
28.
Corps des mines
–
The Corps des mines is the foremost of the technical Grand Corps of the French State. It is formed of the State Engineers of the Mines, the Corps is attached to the French ministry in charge of economy, industry and employment. Its purpose is to entice the brightest French students in mathematics and physics to serve the government, people entering the Corps are educated at the École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris, also known as Mines ParisTech, with a special curriculum distinct from that of ordinary students. Upon graduation of the program, most X-Mines undertake executives positions in government or in the private sector. Many executive positions in Frances industries are held by Corps des Mines engineers, X-Mines typically become CEO of major French companies. Being admitted to the Corps des Mines program is considered a significant fast-track for executive careers in France, the following are alumni of the school, Charles de Freycinet, prime minister of France at the end of the 19th century Henri Poincaré, Nineteenth century mathematician and scientist
29.
Mathematics
–
Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
30.
Physics
–
Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
31.
Engineering
–
The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
32.
Doctor of Philosophy
–
A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
33.
Maurice Allais
–
Born in Paris, France, Allais attended the Lycée Lakanal, graduated from the École Polytechnique in Paris and studied at the École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris. His academic and other posts have included being Professor of Economics at the École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris, in 1949, he received the title of doctor-engineer from the University of Paris, Faculty of Science. He also held teaching positions at institutions, including at the University of Paris X-Nanterre. As an economist he made contributions to theory, monetary policy. He was also responsible for work in Behavioral economics, which in the US is generally attributed to Daniel Kahneman. It was praised by Milton Friedman in 1968 with the words, This work introduces a very basic. It is one of the most important and original paper that has written for a long time … for its consideration of the problem of the formation of expectations. Allaiss contribution has nevertheless been lost, it has been absent from the debate about expectations and his name is particularly associated with what is commonly known as the Allais paradox, a decision problem that he first presented in 1953, it contradicts the expected utility hypothesis. In 1992, Maurice Allais criticised the Maastricht Treaty for its emphasis on free trade. He also expressed reservations on the single European currency, in 2005, he expressed similar reservations concerning the European constitution. In the 1940s, Allais became interested in the theory of choice under uncertainty and he reported three effects, An unexpected anomalous effect in the angular velocity of the plane of oscillation of a paraconical pendulum, detected during two partial solar eclipses in 1954 and 1959. The claimed effect is now called the Allais effect, anomalous irregularities in the oscillation of the paraconical pendulum with respect to a sidereal diurnal periodicity of 23 hours 56 minutes and tidal periodicity of 24 hours 50 minutes. Anomalous irregularities in optical measurements, with the same lunisolar periodicities. Over the years, a number of experiments were performed by scientists around the world to test his findings. Allais died at his home in Saint-Cloud, near Paris, at the age of 99, La Théorie générale des surplus et léconomie de marchés, Contributions à la théorie générale de lefficacité maximale et des surplus, Pour la réforme de la fiscalité, LEurope face à son avenir. Erreurs et impasses de la construction européenne, Combats pour lEurope, 1992–1994, La Crise mondiale aujourdhui, Nouveaux combats pour lEurope. La Mondialisation, la destruction des emplois et de la croissance, lévidence empirique, R. S. Shankland, S. W. McCuskey, F. C. Leone, and G. Kuerti, New analysis of the observations of Dayton C
34.
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
–
The prize was established in 1968 by a donation from Swedens central bank, the Swedish National Bank, on the banks 300th anniversary. Although it is not one of the prizes that Alfred Nobel established in his will in 1895, laureates are announced with the other Nobel Prize laureates, and receive the award at the same ceremony. Laureates in the Memorial Prize in Economics are selected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and it was first awarded in 1969 to the Dutch and Norwegian economists Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch, for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes. An endowment in perpetuity from Sveriges Riksbank pays the Nobel Foundations administrative expenses associated with the prize, since 2012, the monetary portion of the Prize in Economics has totalled 8 million Swedish kronor. This is equivalent to the amount given for the original Nobel Prizes, the Prize in Economics is not one of the original Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobels will. However, the process, selection criteria, and awards presentation of the Prize in Economic Sciences are performed in a manner similar to that of the Nobel Prizes. Laureates are announced with the Nobel Prize laureates, and receive the award at the same ceremony, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. According to its website, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences administers a researcher exchange with academies in other countries and publishes six scientific journals. Members of the Academy and former laureates are also authorised to nominate candidates, all proposals and their supporting evidence must be received before February 1. The proposals are reviewed by the Prize Committee and specially appointed experts, before the end of September, the committee chooses potential laureates. If there is a tie, the chairman of the committee casts the deciding vote, next, the potential laureates must be approved by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Members of the Ninth Class of the Academy vote in mid-October to determine the next laureate or laureates of the Prize in Economics. The first prize in economics was awarded in 1969 to Ragnar Frisch, in 2009, Elinor Ostrom became the first woman awarded the prize. This makes it available to researchers in such topics as political science, psychology, moreover, the composition of the Economics Prize Committee changed to include two non-economists. This has not been confirmed by the Economics Prize Committee, the members of the 2007 Economics Prize Committee are still dominated by economists, as the secretary and four of the five members are professors of economics. Some critics argue that the prestige of the Prize in Economics derives in part from its association with the Nobel Prizes, among them is the Swedish human rights lawyer Peter Nobel, a great-grandson of Ludvig Nobel. Nobel criticizes the institution of misusing his familys name. He explaiend that Nobel despised people who cared more about profits than societys well-being and this does not matter in the natural sciences
