1.
Caprella mutica
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Caprella mutica, commonly known as the Japanese skeleton shrimp, is a species of skeleton shrimp. They are relatively large caprellids, reaching a length of 50 mm. They are sexually dimorphic, with the males usually being larger than the females. They are characterized by their hairy first and second thoracic segments, body color ranges from green to red to blue, depending on the environment. They are omnivorous highly adaptable opportunistic feeders, in turn, they provide a valuable food source for fish, crabs, and other larger predators. They are usually found in colonies attached to submerged man-made structures, floating seaweed. C. mutica are native to shallow protected bodies of water in the Sea of Japan, in as little as 40 years, they have become an invasive species in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and along the coasts of New Zealand. They are believed to have been introduced to these areas through the global maritime traffic. Outside of their range, C. mutica are often exclusively synanthropic, being found in large numbers in. Their ecological and economic impact as a species is unknown. Like all caprellid amphipods, Caprella mutica are characterized by slender bodies, C. mutica vary in coloration from translucent pale green, brown, cream, orange, deep red, purple, and even turquoise, depending on the substrate they are found in. The brood pouches of the females are speckled with red spots, a relatively large amphipod, C. mutica are sexually dimorphic with males considerably larger than females. Males average at a length of 25 to 30 mm, though specimens have been recorded to reach 50 mm in length, females, on the other hand, average at only 15 to 20 mm long. The body can be divided into three parts – the cephalon, the pereon, and the abdomen, the pereon comprises most of the length of the body. It is divided into seven segments known as pereonites, the rounded and smooth cephalon is fused to the first pereonite, while the highly reduced and almost invisible abdomen is attached to the posterior of the seventh pereonite. In males the first two pereonites are elongated, with the second pereonite being the longest of all the pereonites and they are densely covered with long setae, giving them a hairy appearance. The second pereonite also has two to three pairs of spines on the back, with a two pairs at the sides near the base of the limbs. The remaining pereonites lack the dense setae of the first two pereonites, the third pereonite has seven pairs of spines at the back while the fourth pereonite has eight pairs
2.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
3.
Shape
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A shape is the form of an object or its external boundary, outline, or external surface, as opposed to other properties such as color, texture, or material composition. Psychologists have theorized that humans mentally break down images into simple geometric shapes called geons, examples of geons include cones and spheres. Some simple shapes can be put into broad categories, for instance, polygons are classified according to their number of edges as triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc. Each of these is divided into categories, triangles can be equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, scalene, etc. while quadrilaterals can be rectangles, rhombi, trapezoids, squares. Other common shapes are points, lines, planes, and conic sections such as ellipses, circles, among the most common 3-dimensional shapes are polyhedra, which are shapes with flat faces, ellipsoids, which are egg-shaped or sphere-shaped objects, cylinders, and cones. If an object falls into one of these categories exactly or even approximately, thus, we say that the shape of a manhole cover is a disk, because it is approximately the same geometric object as an actual geometric disk. Similarity, Two objects are similar if one can be transformed into the other by a scaling, together with a sequence of rotations, translations. Isotopy, Two objects are isotopic if one can be transformed into the other by a sequence of deformations that do not tear the object or put holes in it. Sometimes, two similar or congruent objects may be regarded as having a different shape if a reflection is required to transform one into the other. For instance, the b and d are a reflection of each other, and hence they are congruent and similar. Sometimes, only the outline or external boundary of the object is considered to determine its shape, for instance, an hollow sphere may be considered to have the same shape as a solid sphere. Procrustes analysis is used in many sciences to determine whether or not two objects have the shape, or to measure the difference between two shapes. In advanced mathematics, quasi-isometry can be used as a criterion to state that two shapes are approximately the same. Simple shapes can often be classified into basic objects such as a point, a line, a curve, a plane. However, most shapes occurring in the world are complex. Some, such as plant structures and coastlines, may be so complicated as to defy traditional mathematical description – in which case they may be analyzed by differential geometry, or as fractals. In geometry, two subsets of a Euclidean space have the shape if one can be transformed to the other by a combination of translations, rotations. In other words, the shape of a set of points is all the information that is invariant to translations, rotations
4.
Structure
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Structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy, a network featuring many-to-many links, buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams and salt domes are all examples of load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building structures, the effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional, the latter was the main option available to early structures such as Chichen Itza. Two-dimensional elements with a third dimension have little of either. The structure elements are combined in structural systems, the majority of everyday load-bearing structures are section-active structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one-dimensional structures. In biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging hierarchically from the atomic and molecular to the cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population, usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure. Structural biology is concerned with the structure of macromolecules, particularly proteins. The function of molecules is determined by their shape as well as their composition. Protein structure has a four-level hierarchy, the primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make it up. It has a backbone made up of a repeated sequence of a nitrogen. The secondary structure consists of repeated patterns determined by hydrogen bonding, the two basic types are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. The tertiary structure is a back and forth bending of the chain. Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure, the structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom, bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds, atoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition of a basic unit called a unit cell. The atoms can be modeled as points on a lattice, and one can explore the effect of symmetry operations that include rotations about a point, reflections about a symmetry planes, and translations
5.
Color
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Color or colour is the characteristic of human visual perception described through color categories, with names such as red, yellow, purple, or blue. This perception of color derives from the stimulation of cells in the human eye by electromagnetic radiation in the spectrum of light. Color categories and physical specifications of color are associated with objects through the wavelength of the light that is reflected from them and this reflection is governed by the objects physical properties such as light absorption, emission spectra, etc. By defining a color space, colors can be identified numerically by coordinates, there may also be more than three color dimensions in other color spaces, such as in the CMYK color model, wherein one of the dimensions relates to a colours colorfulness). The photo-receptivity of the eyes of species also varies considerably from our own. Honeybees and bumblebees for instance have trichromatic color vision sensitive to ultraviolet but is insensitive to red, papilio butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision. The most complex color vision system in the kingdom has been found in stomatopods with up to 12 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units. The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply color science and it includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials, color theory in art, and the physics of electromagnetic radiation in the visible range. Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength and its intensity, when the wavelength is within the visible spectrum, it is known as visible light. Most light sources emit light at different wavelengths, a sources spectrum is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, in each such class the members are called metamers of the color in question. The table at right shows approximate frequencies and wavelengths for various pure spectral colors, the wavelengths listed are as measured in air or vacuum. A common list identifies six main bands, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, Newtons conception included a seventh color, indigo, between blue and violet. It is possible that what Newton referred to as blue is nearer to what today is known as cyan, the color of an object depends on both the physics of the object in its environment and the characteristics of the perceiving eye and brain. Some objects not only light, but also transmit light or emit light themselves. This effect is known as color constancy, opaque objects that do not reflect specularly have their color determined by which wavelengths of light they scatter strongly. If objects scatter all wavelengths with roughly equal strength, they appear white, if they absorb all wavelengths, they appear black. Opaque objects that reflect light of different wavelengths with different efficiencies look like mirrors tinted with colors determined by those differences
6.
Pattern
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A pattern, apart from the terms use to mean Template, is a discernible regularity in the world or in a manmade design. As such, the elements of a repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes, any of the senses may directly observe patterns. Conversely, abstract patterns in science, mathematics, or language may be only by analysis. Direct observation in practice means seeing visual patterns, which are widespread in nature, visual patterns in nature are often chaotic, never exactly repeating, and often involve fractals. Natural patterns include spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks, Patterns have an underlying mathematical structure, indeed, mathematics can be seen as the search for regularities, and the output of any function is a mathematical pattern. Similarly in the sciences, theories explain and predict regularities in the world, in art and architecture, decorations or visual motifs may be combined and repeated to form patterns designed to have a chosen effect on the viewer. In computer science, a design pattern is a known solution to a class of problems in programming. In fashion, the pattern is a used to create any number of similar garments. Nature provides examples of many kinds of pattern, including symmetries, trees and other structures with a dimension, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks. Symmetry is widespread in living things, animals that move usually have bilateral or mirror symmetry as this favours movement. Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as do many flowers, as well as animals which are largely static as adults, fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, including starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies. Among non-living things, snowflakes have striking sixfold symmetry, each flake is unique, crystals have a highly specific set of possible crystal symmetries, they can be cubic or octahedral, but cannot have fivefold symmetry. Many natural patterns are shaped by this apparent randomness, including vortex streets, waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by, wind waves are surface waves that create the chaotic patterns of the sea. As they pass over sand, such waves create patterns of ripples, similarly, as the passes over sand. Foams obey Plateaus laws, which films to be smooth and continuous. Foam and bubble patterns occur widely in nature, for example in radiolarians, sponge spicules, cracks form in materials to relieve stress, with 120 degree joints in elastic materials, but at 90 degrees in inelastic materials
7.
Size
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Size is the magnitude or dimensions of a thing, or how big something is. Size can be measured as length, width, height, diameter, perimeter, area, volume, in mathematical terms, size is a concept abstracted from the process of measuring by comparing a longer to a shorter. Size is determined by the process of comparing or measuring objects, such a magnitude is usually expressed as a numerical value of units on a previously established spatial scale, such as meters or inches. The sizes with which humans tend to be most familiar are body dimensions, which include such as human height. Humans most frequently perceive the size of objects through visual cues, one common means of perceiving size is to compare the size of a newly observed object with the size of a familiar object whose size is already known. The perception of size can be distorted by manipulating these cues, some measures of size may also be determined by sound. Visually impaired humans use echolocation to determine features of their surroundings, such as the size of spaces, however, even humans who lack this ability can tell if a space that they are unable to see is large or small from hearing sounds echo in the space. Size can also be determined by touch, which is a process of haptic perception, the sizes of objects that can not readily be measured merely by sensory input may be evaluated with other kinds of measuring instruments. However, even very advanced measuring devices may still present a field of view. Objects are also described as tall or short specifically relative to their vertical height. Although the size of an object may be reflected in its mass or its weight, in scientific contexts, mass refers loosely to the amount of matter in an object, whereas weight refers to the force experienced by an object due to gravity. An object with a mass of 1.0 kilogram will weigh approximately 9.81 newtons on the surface of the Earth. Its weight will be less on Mars, more on Saturn, and negligible in space far from any significant source of gravity. Two objects of equal size, however, may have very different mass and weight, depending on the composition, the concept of size is often applied to ideas that have no physical reality. In mathematics, magnitude is the size of a mathematical object, magnitude is a property by which the object can be compared as larger or smaller than other objects of the same kind. More formally, a magnitude is an ordering of the class of objects to which it belongs. In astronomy, the magnitude of brightness or intensity of a star is measured on a logarithmic scale, such a scale is also used to measure the intensity of an earthquake, and this intensity is often referred to as the size of the event. In computing, file size is a measure of the size of a computer file, the actual amount of disk space consumed by the file depends on the file system
8.
Organ (anatomy)
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In biology, an organ or viscus is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In anatomy, a viscus is an organ, and viscera is the plural form. Organs are composed of main tissue, parenchyma, and sporadic tissues, the main tissue is that which is unique for the specific organ, such as the myocardium, the main tissue of the heart, while sporadic tissues include the nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissues. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems. Organs exist in all biological organisms, in particular they are not restricted to animals. In single-cell organisms like bacteria, the analogue of an organ is called organelle. A hollow organ is an organ that forms a hollow tube or pouch, such as the stomach or intestine, or that includes a cavity. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, the functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via an organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system, the same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems. Mammals such as humans have a variety of organ systems and these specific systems are also widely studied in human anatomy. Cardiovascular system, pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, digestive system, digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, colon, rectum and anus. Excretory system, kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in balance, electrolyte balance. Integumentary system, skin, hair and nails, nervous system, collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and nerves. Reproductive system, the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, respiratory system, the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm. Skeletal system, structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, the organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more advanced phyla. The less-advanced taxa do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs, the study of plant organs is referred to as plant morphology, rather than anatomy, as in animal systems. Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive, vegetative plant organs are roots, stems, and leaves
9.
Anatomy
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Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is inherently tied to embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy, macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animals body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy, microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by an understanding of the functions of the organs. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a pair of related disciplines. Derived from the Greek ἀνατομή anatomē dissection, anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs. It includes the appearance and position of the parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts, the discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a scale, including histology. Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs, angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term anatomy is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy, however, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature, the kingdom Animalia or metazoa, contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile. Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are known as eumetazoans. They have a digestive chamber, with one or two openings, the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells, unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts
10.
Physiology
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Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
11.
Organism
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In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, protist, archaeon, or bacterium. All known types of organisms are capable of some degree of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development and homeostasis. An organism consists of one or more cells, when it has one cell it is known as an organism. Most unicellular organisms are of microscopic scale and are thus described as microorganisms. Humans are multicellular organisms composed of trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues. An organism may be either a prokaryote or a eukaryote, prokaryotes are represented by two separate domains—bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic organisms are characterized by the presence of a cell nucleus. Fungi, animals and plants are examples of kingdoms of organisms within the eukaryotes, estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been documented. More than 99% of all species, amounting to five billion species. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all living organisms living was identified. The term organism first appeared in the English language in 1703 and it is directly related to the term organization. There is a tradition of defining organisms as self-organizing beings. An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using such as any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth. Many definitions exclude viruses and possible man-made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of individuals working together as a single functional or social unit. There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism, several contributions are responses to the suggestion that the category of organism may well not be adequate in biology. Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction and this controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of independent survival and live as obligatory intracellular parasites
12.
Taxon
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In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is known by a particular name and given a particular ranking, especially if. It is not uncommon, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon, if a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping. Many modern systematists, such as advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature, use cladistic methods that require taxa to be monophyletic and their basic unit, therefore, is the clade rather than the taxon. Similarly, among those contemporary taxonomists working with the traditional Linnean nomenclature, an example of a well-established taxon that is not also a clade is the class Reptilia, the reptiles, birds are descendants of reptiles but are not included in the Reptilia. The term taxon was first used in 1926 by Adolf Meyer-Abich for animal groups, for plants, it was proposed by Herman Johannes Lam in 1948, and it was adopted at the VII International Botanical Congress, held in 1950. The Glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines a taxon, a taxon encompasses all included taxa of lower rank and individual organisms. A taxon can be assigned a rank, usually when it is given a formal name. Phylum applies formally to any domain, but traditionally it was always used for animals, whereas Division was traditionally often used for plants, fungi. A prefix is used to indicate a ranking of lesser importance, the prefix super- indicates a rank above, the prefix sub- indicates a rank below. In zoology the prefix infra- indicates a rank below sub-, for instance, among the additional ranks of class are superclass, subclass and infraclass. Rank is relative, and restricted to a particular systematic schema, for example, liverworts have been grouped, in various systems of classification, as a family, order, class, or division. Many cladists do not see any need to depart from traditional nomenclature as governed by the ICZN, ICN, etc
13.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
14.
Function (biology)
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A biological function is the reason some object or process occurred in a system that evolved through a process of natural selection. In physiology, a function is an activity or process carried out by a system in an organism and this concept of function as opposed to form was central in biological explanations in classical antiquity, and in more modern times formed part of the Cuvier–Geoffroy debate. A functional characteristic is known in biology as an adaptation. From the point of view of natural selection, biological functions exist to contribute to fitness, for example, the function of chlorophyll in a plant is to capture the energy of sunlight for photosynthesis, which contributes to evolutionary success. Function is not the same as purpose in the teleological sense, in the philosophy of biology, evolution is a blind process which has no goal for the future. For example, a tree does not grow flowers for any purpose, to say a tree grows flowers to attract pollinators would be incorrect if the to implies purpose. A function describes what something does, not what its purpose is, however, teleological language is often used by biologists as a shorthand way of describing function, even though its applicability is disputed. The ethologist Niko Tinbergen named four questions, based on Aristotles Four Causes, 1) Mechanism, What mechanisms cause the animal to behave as it does. 2) Ontogeny, What developmental mechanisms in the animals embryology created the structures that cause the behaviour, 3) Function/adaptation, What is the evolutionary function of the behaviour. 4) Evolution, What is the phylogeny of the behaviour, or in other words, the questions are interdependent, so that, for example, adaptive function is constrained by embryonic development
15.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
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Karl Friedrich Burdach
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Karl Friedrich Burdach was a German physiologist. He was born in Leipzig and died in Königsberg and he was graduated in medicine at Leipzig in 1800, became professor of physiology in the University of Dorpat in 1811, and four years later took a similar position at the University of Königsberg. He provided in 1822 the name, due to the shape of its longest fibres. The column of Burdach or fasciculus cuneatus, the portion of the dorsal funiculus of the spinal cord is named for him. He differentiated the caudate nucleus from the putamen and identified the globus pallidus, diatetik für Gesunde Enzyklopädie der Heilwissenschaft Vom Bau und Leben des Gehirns und Rückenmarks Neues Recepttaschenbuch für angehende Ärzte. Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Die Physiologie als Erfahrungswissenschaft This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
17.
Lorenz Oken
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Lorenz Oken was a German naturalist, botanist, biologist, and ornithologist. Oken was born Lorenz Okenfuss in Bohlsbach, Ortenau, Baden and he went on to the University of Göttingen, where he became a Privatdozent, and shortened his name to Oken. As Lorenz Oken, he published a work entitled Grundriss der Naturphilosophie, der Theorie der Sinne. This was the first of a series of works which established him as a leader of the movement of Naturphilosophie in Germany, in it he extended to physical science the philosophical principles which Immanuel Kant had applied to epistemology and morality. Fichte undertook this task in his Doctrine of Science, whose aim was to all knowledge by a priori means. This attempt, which was sketched out by Fichte, was further elaborated by the philosopher Friedrich Schelling. Oken built on Schellings work, producing a synthesis of what he held Schelling to have achieved, Oken produced the seven-volume series Allgemeine Naturgeschichte für alle Stände, with engravings by Johann Susemihl, and published in Stuttgart by Hoffman between 1839 and 184l. In the Grundriss der Naturphilosophie of 1802 Oken sketched the outlines of the scheme he afterwards devoted himself to perfecting and these vesicles, when singly detached and regarded in their original process of production, are the infusorial mass or protoplasma whence all larger organisms fashion themselves or are evolved. Caspar Wolff had previously claimed to demonstrate this fact in the chick, Oken showed the importance of the discovery as an illustration of his system. In the same work Oken described and recalled attention to the corpora Wolffiana and he selected for the subject of his inaugural discourse his ideas on the Signification of the Bones of the Skull, based on a discovery of the previous year. This lecture was delivered in the presence of Goethe, as councillor and rector of the university. The professor stated that Oken told him of his discovery when journeying in 1806 to the island of Wangerooge, on their return to Göttingen, Oken explained his ideas by reference to the skull of a turtle in Kiesers collection, which he disarticulated for that purpose. Kieser displayed the skull, its bones marked in Okens handwriting, Okens lectures at Jena were wide-ranging, and were highly regarded at the time. The subjects included philosophy, general natural history, zoology, comparative anatomy. The spirit with which he grappled with the vast scope of science is characteristically illustrated in his essay Ueber das Universum als Fortsetzung des Sinnensystems, in this work he lays it down that organism is none other than a combination of all the universes activities within a single individual body. This doctrine led him to the conviction that world and organism are one in kind, in the same year he published his Erste Ideen zur Theorie des Lichts, &c. In 1809 Oken extended his system to the world, arranging the ores, not according to the metals. In 1810 he summed up his views on organic and inorganic nature into one compendious system, the Lehrbuch procured for Oken the title of Hofrath, or court-councillor, and in 1812 he was appointed ordinary professor of the natural sciences
18.
Georges Cuvier
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Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier, known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the father of paleontology. Cuvier is also known for establishing extinction as a fact—at the time, in his Essay on the Theory of the Earth Cuvier was interpreted to have proposed that new species were created after periodic catastrophic floods. In this way, Cuvier became the most influential proponent of catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century and his study of the strata of the Paris basin with Alexandre Brongniart established the basic principles of biostratigraphy. Cuvier is also remembered for strongly opposing theories of evolution, which at the time were mainly proposed by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, Cuvier believed there was no evidence for evolution, but rather evidence for cyclical creations and destructions of life forms by global extinction events such as deluges. Cuvier supported function and rejected Lamarcks thinking and his most famous work is Le Règne Animal. In 1819, he was created a peer for life in honor of his scientific contributions, thereafter, he was known as Baron Cuvier. He died in Paris during an epidemic of cholera, some of Cuviers most influential followers were Louis Agassiz on the continent and in the United States, and Richard Owen in Britain. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower, Cuvier was born in Montbéliard, France, where his Protestant ancestors had lived since the time of the Reformation. His father, Jean George Cuvier, was a lieutenant in the Swiss Guards, at the time, the town, which was annexed to France on 10 October 1793, belonged to the Duchy of Württemberg. His mother, who was younger than his father, tutored him diligently throughout his early years. During his gymnasium years, he had trouble acquiring Latin and Greek, and was always at the head of his class in mathematics, history. At the age of 10, soon entering the gymnasium, he encountered a copy of Conrad Gessners Historiae Animalium. He then began frequent visits to the home of a relation, all of these he read and reread, retaining so much of the information, that by the age of 12, he was as familiar with quadrupeds and birds as a first-rate naturalist. He remained at the gymnasium for four years, Cuvier spent an additional four years at the Caroline Academy in Stuttgart, where he excelled in all of his coursework. Although he knew no German on his arrival, after nine months of study. Upon graduation, he had no money on which to live as he awaited appointment to an academic office, so in July 1788, he took a job at Fiquainville chateau in Normandy as tutor to the only son of the Comte dHéricy, a Protestant noble. There, during the early 1790s, he began his comparisons of fossils with extant forms, Cuvier regularly attended meetings held at the nearby town of Valmont for the discussion of agricultural topics. There, he acquainted with Henri Alexandre Tessier, who had assumed a false identity
19.
Richard Owen
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Sir Richard Owen KCB FRMS FRS was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and paleontologist. Despite being a figure, Owen is generally considered to have been an outstanding naturalist with a remarkable gift for interpreting fossils. Owen produced a vast array of work, but is probably best remembered today for coining the word Dinosauria. Owens approach to evolution can be seen as having anticipated the issues that have gained attention with the recent emergence of evolutionary developmental biology. Owen also campaigned for the specimens in the British Museum to be given a new home. This resulted in the establishment, in 1881, of the now world-famous Natural History Museum in South Kensington, London, bill Bryson argues that, by making the Natural History Museum an institution for everyone, Owen transformed our expectations of what museums are for. Owen was feared and even hated by some such as Thomas Henry Huxley. His later career was tainted by a number of controversies, many of which involved accusations that he took credit for other peoples work, Owen was born in Lancaster in 1804, one of six children of a West Indian Merchant named Richard Owen. His mother, Catherine Parrin, was descended from Huguenots and he was educated at Lancaster Royal Grammar School, in 1820, he was apprenticed to a local surgeon and apothecary and, in 1824, he proceeded as a medical student to the University of Edinburgh. He left the university in the year and completed his medical course in St Bartholomews Hospital, London. In July 1835 Owen married Caroline Amelia Clift in St Pancras by whom he had one son, Richard sadly outlived both his wife and only son. After his death, in 1892, he was survived by his three grandchildren and daughter-in-law Emily Owen, to whom he left much of his £33,000 fortune. Upon completing his education, he contemplated the usual professional career and he was induced by Abernethy to accept the position of assistant to William Clift, conservator of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. This congenial occupation soon led him to abandon his intention of medical practice, in 1836, Owen was appointed Hunterian professor, in the Royal College of Surgeons and, in 1849, he succeeded Clift as conservator. He held the office until 1856, when he became superintendent of the natural history department of the British Museum. He retained office until the completion of work, in December,1883. He lived quietly in retirement at Sheen Lodge, Richmond Park and his career was tainted by accusations that he failed to give credit to the work of others and even tried to appropriate it in his own name. This came to a head in 1846, when he was awarded the Royal Medal for a paper he had written on belemnites, Owen had failed to acknowledge that the belemnite had been discovered by Chaning Pearce, an amateur biologist, four years earlier
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Karl Gegenbaur
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Karl Gegenbaur was a German anatomist and professor who demonstrated that the field of comparative anatomy offers important evidence supporting of the theory of evolution. Karl Gegenbaur noted that the most reliable clue to evolutionary history is homology, Gegenbaur had been a student of Albert von Kölliker, Rudolf Virchow, Heinrich Müller and Franz Leydig. Karl Gegenbaur was born in Würzburg, Bavaria in 1826, after taking his degree in 1851, he spent some time in travelling in Italy and Sicily, before returning to Wurzburg as Privatdozent in 1854. In 1873, Gegenbaur was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor of anatomy and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1896. He died on 14 June 1903, at Heidelberg, the work by which Gegenbaur is best known is his Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie, translated into English by Francis Jeffrey Bell, with additions by E. Ray Lankester. In 1858, the physician Ernst Haeckel studied under Gegenbaur at Jena, receiving a doctorate in zoology, and became a professor at the same institution, Ernst Haeckel expanded on the ideas of Gegenbaur while advocating the concepts of Charles Darwin. In 1861, he published Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung der Wirbelthier-Eier mit partielleer Dotterbildung, Gegenbaur learned techniques as a student of Albert von Kölliker, Rudolf Virchow, Heinrich Müller and Franz Leydig. Karl Gegenbaur had a influence on his environment, with his colleagues Matthias Jakob Schleiden, Emil Huschke, Ernst Haeckel. Gegenbaurs research program of comparative morphology incorporating ontogeny and phylogeny is still evident in the field of evolutionary developmental biology. Other publications by Karl Gegenbaur include a Text-book of Human Anatomy, in 1875, he founded the Morphologisches Jahrbuch, which he edited for many years. In 1901 he published an autobiography under the title Erlebtes und Erstrebtes. Attribution Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Gegenbaur, Carl, Carl Gegenbaur, integrating comparative anatomy and embryology. Learning from history, morphologys challenges in Germany ca, scharf, J H. Goethes morphology definition and the problem of relationship of the Cro-magnons to the primitive Germans. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
21.
Ernst Haeckel
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The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures. As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträtsel, the genesis for the term world riddle, Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam. In 1852, Haeckel completed studies at the Domgymnasium, the high school of Merseburg. He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, particularly with Albert von Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow, together with Hermann Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg. In 1857, Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine, and afterwards he received a license to practice medicine, the occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel, after contact with suffering patients. Between 1859 and 1866, Haeckel worked on many phyla such radiolarians, poriferans, during a trip to the Mediterranean, Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians. In 1867, he married Agnes Huschke and their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869, he traveled as a researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Croatia, and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical church. Haeckels wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and Haeckel became substantially frailer, with a broken leg and he sold his Villa Medusa in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation, and it presently contains a historic library. Haeckel died on 9 August 1919, Haeckels political beliefs were influenced by his affinity for the German Romantic movement coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism. Rather than being a strict Darwinian, Haeckel believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the environment and he believed the social sciences to be instances of applied biology, and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda. In 1905, Haeckel founded a group called the Monist League to promote his religious and this group lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco, Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn. Haeckel was the first person known to use the term First World War. Shortly after the start of the war Haeckel wrote, There is no doubt that the course, Haeckel was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor of comparative anatomy. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found and he was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology. He also proposed the kingdom Protista in 1866 and his chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated Kunstformen der Natur. Haeckel did not support natural selection, rather believing in Lamarckism and it proposed a link between ontogeny and phylogeny, summed up by Haeckel in the phrase ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in the form he gave it, the strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of the ancestors, while weak recapitulation means that what is repeated is the ancestral embryonic development process
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Comparative anatomy
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Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. It is closely related to biology and phylogeny. Comparative anatomy has long served as evidence for evolution, now joined in that role by comparative genomics, also, it assists scientists in classifying organisms based on similar characteristics of their anatomical structures. A common example of comparative anatomy is the bone structures in forelimbs of cats, whales, bats. All of these appendages consist of the basic parts, yet. The skeletal parts which form a structure used for swimming, such as a fin, would not be ideal to form a wing, one explanation for the forelimbs similar composition is descent with modification. Through random mutations and natural selection, each organisms anatomical structures gradually adapted to suit their respective habitats, the rules for development of special characteristics which differ significantly from general homology were listed by Karl Ernst von Baer. Three major concepts of comparative anatomy are, Homologous structures - structures which are similar in different species because the species have common descent and they may or may not perform the same function. An example is the forelimb structure shared by cats and whales, analogous structures - structures similar in different organisms because, in convergent evolution, they evolved in a similar environment, rather than were inherited from a recent common ancestor. They usually serve the same or similar purposes, an example is the streamlined torpedo body shape of porpoises and sharks. So even though they evolved from different ancestors, porpoises and sharks developed analogous structures as a result of their evolution in the aquatic environment. Homoplastic structures - structures that look similar, but are derived from convergent evolution, instead, they may have evolved in common environments and the traits arose due to natural selection. This can be seen most prominently in species that have camouflage capabilities, like an insect that can look like a leaf, the first specifically anatomical investigation separate from a surgical or medical procedure is associated by early commentators with Alcmaeon of Croton. Pierre Belon, a French naturalist born in 1517, conducted research and his research later led to what is referred to as modern comparative anatomy. Around the same time, Andreas Vesalius was also making some strides of his own, a young anatomist of Flemish descent made famous by a penchant for amazing charts, he was systematically investigating and correcting the anatomical knowledge of the Greek physician Galen. He noticed that many of Galens observations were not even based on actual humans, instead, they were based on animals such as oxen. Up until that point, Galen and his teachings had been the authority on human anatomy. The irony is that Galen himself had emphasized the fact that you should make your own instead of using those of another. But this advice was lost during the numerous translations of his work, as Vesalius began to uncover these mistakes, other physicians of the time began to trust their own observations more than Galen
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English-speaking world
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Approximately 330 to 360 million people speak English as their first language. More than half of live in the United States, followed by some 55 million in England. English is the third largest language by number of speakers, after Mandarin. Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly, from 470 million to more than 1 billion, david Crystal calculates that non-native speakers as of 2003 outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. When combining native and non-native speakers, English is the most widely spoken language worldwide, there are six large countries with a majority of native English speakers that are sometimes grouped under the term Anglosphere. They are, in descending order of English speakers, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Ireland, other substantial communities of native speakers are found in South Africa, and Nigeria. Also there are countries where in a part of the territory English became a language, e. g. Colombias San Andrés y Providencia. This was a result of the influence of British colonization in the area, English is one of the eleven official languages that are given equal status in South Africa. It is also the language in current dependent territories of Australia and of the United States. Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been official status by 32 of the 50 state governments. It is, by treaty, the official language for aeronautical. English is one of the languages of the United Nations and many other international organizations. In 2012, excluding native speakers,38 percent of Europeans consider that they can speak English, in publishing, English literature predominates considerably with 28 percent of all books published in the world and 30 percent of web content in 2011. This increasing use of the English language globally has had a impact on many other languages, leading to language shift and even language death. English itself has more open to language shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole. Variation in Nonnative Varieties of English, Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Census 2011, Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012, language in England and Wales,2011. Language Use in the United States,2011, Population by mother tongue and age groups,2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories
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Molecule
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A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge, however, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term molecule is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions. In the kinetic theory of gases, the molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact monoatomic molecules. A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one element, as with oxygen, or it may be heteronuclear. Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are not considered single molecules. Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances and they also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals and covalent crystals, the theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In glasses, atoms may also be together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule. The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, in practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a system composed of two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i. e, according to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word molecule derives from the Latin moles or small unit of mass. Molecule – extremely minute particle, from French molécule, from New Latin molecula, diminutive of Latin moles mass, a vague meaning at first, the vogue for the word can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes. The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased, earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties. Molecules are held together by covalent bonding or ionic bonding. Several types of non-metal elements exist only as molecules in the environment, for example, hydrogen only exists as hydrogen molecule. A molecule of a compound is made out of two or more elements, a covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
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Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
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RNA
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Ribonucleic acid is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with proteins and carbohydrates, like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA to convey information that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome, some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions, controlling gene expression, or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of these processes is protein synthesis, a universal function where RNA molecules direct the assembly of proteins on ribosomes. This process uses transfer RNA molecules to deliver amino acids to the ribosome, analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly structured. Unlike DNA, their structures do not consist of long double helices, in this fashion, RNAs can achieve chemical catalysis. For instance, determination of the structure of the enzyme that catalyzes peptide bond formation—revealed that its active site is composed entirely of RNA. Each nucleotide in RNA contains a sugar, with carbons numbered 1 through 5. A base is attached to the 1 position, in general, adenine, cytosine, guanine, adenine and guanine are purines, cytosine and uracil are pyrimidines. A phosphate group is attached to the 3 position of one ribose, the phosphate groups have a negative charge each, making RNA a charged molecule. The bases form hydrogen bonds between cytosine and guanine, between adenine and uracil and between guanine and uracil, however, other interactions are possible, such as a group of adenine bases binding to each other in a bulge, or the GNRA tetraloop that has a guanine–adenine base-pair. An important structural feature of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the presence of a group at the 2 position of the ribose sugar. The A-form geometry results in a deep and narrow major groove. RNA is transcribed with only four bases, but these bases, pseudouridine, in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C–N bond to a C–C bond, and ribothymidine are found in various places. Another notable modified base is hypoxanthine, a deaminated adenine base whose nucleoside is called inosine, inosine plays a key role in the wobble hypothesis of the genetic code. The specific roles of many of these modifications in RNA are not fully understood, the functional form of single-stranded RNA molecules, just like proteins, frequently requires a specific tertiary structure. The scaffold for this structure is provided by secondary structural elements that are hydrogen bonds within the molecule and this leads to several recognizable domains of secondary structure like hairpin loops, bulges, and internal loops
27.
Species complex
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In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related species that are very similar in appearance to the point that the boundaries between them are often unclear. As informal taxonomic ranks, species group, species aggregate, two or more taxa once considered conspecific may later be subdivided into infraspecific taxa, but this is not a species complex. A species complex is in most cases a monophyletic group with a common ancestor and it may represent an early stage after speciation, but may also have been separated for a long time period without evolving morphological differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species complex, species complexes exist in all groups of organisms. The existence of similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. Recognizing similar but distinct species is important for disease and pest control, a species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as separately evolving metapopulation lineage but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied, a more restricted use applies the term to close species between which hybridisation occurred or is occurring, leading to intermediate forms and blurred species boundaries. Some authors apply the term also to a species with intraspecific variability, examples are ring species or species with subspecies, where it is often unclear if these should be considered separate species. Several terms are used synonymously for a complex, but some of them may also have slightly different. In the nomenclature codes of zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenera and species, while the botanical code defines four ranks below genera, different informal taxonomic solutions have been used to indicate a species complex. This describes distinct species that are classified under one species name. More generally, the term is applied when species, even if known to be distinct. The usage physiologic race is not to be confused with physiological race and this term, introduced by Ernst Mayr in 1942, was initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species, but later authors emphasized the common phylogenetic origin. A recent article defines sibling species as sister species, meaning two species that are the closest relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another taxonomically. This refers to a group of closely related species all living in the same ecosystem. Conversely, the term has also been applied very broadly to a group of related species than can be variable. Superspecies Sometimes used as a rank for a species complex around one representative species
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Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
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Convergent evolution
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Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last common ancestor of those groups, the cladistic term for the same phenomenon is homoplasy. The recurrent evolution of flight is an example, as flying insects, birds. Functionally similar features that have arisen through convergent evolution are analogous, whereas homologous structures or traits have a common origin, bird, bat and pterosaur wings are analogous structures, but their forelimbs are homologous, sharing an ancestral state despite serving different functions. The opposite of convergence is divergent evolution, where related species evolve different traits, convergent evolution is similar to but different from parallel evolution. Many instances of convergent evolution are known in plants, including the development of C4 photosynthesis, seed dispersal by fleshy fruits adapted to be eaten by animals. In morphology, analogous traits arise when different species live in similar ways and/or a similar environment, when occupying similar ecological niches similar problems can lead to similar solutions. The British anatomist Richard Owen was the first to identify the difference between analogies and homologies. In biochemistry, physical and chemical constraints on mechanisms have caused some active site arrangements such as the triad to evolve independently in separate enzyme superfamilies. In his 1989 book Wonderful Life, Stephen Jay Gould argued that if one could rewind the tape of life the same conditions were encountered again, evolution could take a very different course. In cladistics, a homoplasy is a trait shared by two or more taxa for any other than that they share a common ancestry. Taxa which do share ancestry are part of the same clade, homoplastic traits caused by convergence are therefore, from the point of view of cladistics, confounding factors which could lead to an incorrect analysis. In some cases, it is difficult to tell whether a trait has been lost and then re-evolved convergently, or whether a gene has simply been switched off, such a re-emerged trait is called an atavism. From a mathematical standpoint, a gene has a steadily decreasing probability of retaining potential functionality over time. When two species are similar in a character, evolution is defined as parallel if the ancestors were also similar. When the ancestral forms are unspecified or unknown, or the range of traits considered is not clearly specified, the enzymology of proteases provides some of the clearest examples of convergent evolution. These examples reflect the intrinsic chemical constraints on enzymes, leading evolution to converge on equivalent solutions independently and repeatedly, serine and cysteine proteases use different amino acid functional groups as a nucleophile. In order to activate that nucleophile, they orient an acidic, the chemical and physical constraints on enzyme catalysis have caused identical triad arrangements to evolve independently more than 20 times in different enzyme superfamilies
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Mimicry
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Mimicry may evolve between different species, or between individuals of the same species. Often, mimicry evolves to protect a species from predators, making it an antipredator adaptation, the resemblances that evolve in mimicry can be in appearance, behaviour, sound or scent. Mimicry may be to the advantage of organisms that share a resemblance, in which case it is a mutualism, or mimicry can be to the detriment of one. Mimicry occurs when a group of organisms, the mimics, evolve to share perceived characteristics with another group, the evolutionary convergence between groups is driven by the selective action of a signal-receiver or dupe. Birds, for example, use sight to identify palatable insects, over time, palatable insects may evolve to resemble noxious ones, making them mimics and the noxious ones models. In the case of mutualism, sometimes both groups are referred to as co-mimics, in its broadest definition, mimicry can include non-living models. The specific terms masquerade and mimesis are sometimes used when the models are inanimate, for example, animals such as flower mantises, planthoppers and geometer moth caterpillars that resemble twigs, bark, leaves or flowers practice masquerade. Some authors would consider this mimicry, others would not, many animals bear eyespots, which are hypothesized to resemble the eyes of larger animals. They may not resemble any specific organisms eyes, and whether or not animals respond to them as eyes is also unclear, nonetheless, eyespots are the subject of a rich contemporary literature. It is often thought that models must be more abundant than mimics, though visual mimicry through animal coloration is most obvious to humans, other senses such as olfaction or hearing may be involved, and more than one type of signal may be employed. Mimicry may involve morphology, behaviour, and other properties, in any case, the mimetic signal always functions because it resembles that of another organism. In evolutionary terms, this phenomenon is a form of co-evolution and it can involve an evolutionary arms race if mimicry negatively affects the model, and the model can evolve a different appearance from the mimic. Mimics may have different models for different life stages, or they may be polymorphic. Models themselves may have more than one mimic, though frequency dependent selection favours mimicry where models outnumber mimics, models tend to be relatively closely related organisms, but mimicry of vastly different species is also known. Most known mimics are insects, though many other animal mimics are known, Plants and fungi may also be mimics, though less research has been carried out in this area. Use of the word dates to 1637. It derives from the Greek term mimetikos, imitative, in turn from mimetos, originally used to describe people, mimetic was used in zoology from 1851, mimicry from 1861. Many types of mimicry have been described, an overview of each follows, highlighting the similarities and differences between the various forms
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Apoica flavissima
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Apoica flavissima is a paper wasp found primarily in South America. The species is distinguishable by its coloring, unique single comb nests. A notable feature of this species is the size dimorphism between queens and workers, unlike most Vespidae wasps, Apocia flavissima queens are smaller than their worker counterparts which results in unique intraspecies relationships. Originally, Apoica flavissima was thought to be a variety of Apoica pallida because of similar color and it wasnt until 1972 that J. Van Der Vecht identified that three distinct species were mistakenly being categorized as one. Pallens, A. flavissima, and A. gelida are identified by differences in male genitalia, in addition, distinction can be made through slight color differences. While A. flavissima are entirely yellow, A. pallens are mostly yellow but have brown legs. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that Apoica flavissima are most closely related to Apoica pallens, a. flavissima typically have a mesoscutum that is dark yellow with outstanding bristles. The gaster is pale yellow along with the humeral plate, the posterior ocelli of the species are widely separated from the eyes. In addition, the length is typically 15. 5–19 millimetres. Colonies of A. flavissima can be identified morphologically by having smaller queens than workers, unlike most wasp species, A flavissima exhibit a morphological caste difference in which the queen is smaller than workers in overall size and in other notable measurements. Specifically, workers have larger length and number of hamuli. In addition to being smaller, the queens also exhibit color differences from the workers, queens typically have a darker brown frons, clypeus, and mandible, while workers exhibit a light yellow coloring. Workers typically have a dark coloring of the basal half of the first gastral tergite while queens are typically light yellow. The most striking difference between queens and workers relates to the lateral tip of the pronotum. Queens exhibit a tip that is rounded while workers have a more acutely curved tip. Nests are also a feature as they only have one comb. Young nests tend to appear hexagonal and grow by curving downward and becoming increasingly rounded, the texture of the nests are described as felt-like. Apoica flavissma are located in South America, the species can be primarily found in Panama, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina
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Allometric engineering
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Allometric engineering is the process of experimentally shifting the scaling relationships, for body size or shape, in a population of organisms. More specifically, the process of breaking the tight covariance evident among component traits of a complex phenotype by altering the variance of one trait relative to another. Typically, body size is one of the two traits, the measurements of the two traits are plotted against each other and the scaling relationship can be represented as, l o g = m l o g + l o g. Manipulations of this sort alter the scaling relationships either by shifting the intercept and these novel variants can then be tested for differences in performance or fitness. This technique allows for comparison within or among biological groups differing in size by adjusting morphology to one another. Allometric engineering has been used to test David Lacks hypothesis in the lizard Sceloporus occidentalis, in this study, two populations were engineered to fit the morphology of the other by manipulating egg yolk quantity, removing effect of size difference between groups. After manipulation, they found that speed was proportional to body size. Maternal investment was allometrically engineered by surgically removing an ovary in cockroaches and this effectively reduced number of progeny and increased resource allocation to each offspring. They coupled this manipulation with group effects, and found that maternal investment can overcome group effect, the male long-tailed widowbird has exceptionally long tail feathers roughly half a meter in length. Male tail feathers were cropped and glued and those with artificially enhanced tail lengths secured the most matings, the fly Zonosemata vittigera has a banding pattern on its wings that was found to mimic movements of a jumping spider. Greene et al. engineered novel phenotypes, breaking correlation between a behavior and morphology, by cutting and transplanting the wings of this fly with the common housefly. This manipulation demonstrated that it was coupled with the banding pattern that deterred jumping spiders from attacking. Current uses have involved truncation or cropping, yolk manipulation, hormonal treatments, maternal allocation, temperature manipulation, each method undoubtedly has its merits and pitfalls to consider before designing an experiment, but these techniques are opening new avenues of research in comparative and evolutionary biology
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Homology (biology)
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In biology, homology is the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in different taxa. Evolutionary biology explains homologous structures adapted to different purposes as the result of descent with modification from a common ancestor, examples include the legs of a centipede, the maxillary palp and labial palp of an insect, and the spinous processes of successive vertebrae in a vertebral column. Sequence homology between protein or DNA sequences is defined in terms of shared ancestry. Two segments of DNA can have shared ancestry because of either an event or a duplication event. Homology among proteins or DNA is inferred from their sequence similarity, significant similarity is strong evidence that two sequences are related by divergent evolution from a common ancestor. Alignments of multiple sequences are used to discover the homologous regions, the word homology, coined in about 1656, derives from the Greek ὁμόλογος homologos from ὁμός homos same and λόγος logos relation. Homology is the relationship between biological structures or sequences that are derived from a common ancestor, for example, many insects possess two pairs of flying wings. In beetles, the first pair of wings has evolved into a pair of hard wing covers, the same major forearm bones are found in fossils of lobe-finned fish such as Eusthenopteron. The opposite of homologous organs are analogous organs which do similar jobs in two taxa that were not present in their last common ancestor but rather evolved separately. For example, the wings of insects and birds evolved independently in widely separated groups, similarly, the wings of a sycamore maple seed and the wings of a bird are analogous but not homologous, as they develop from quite different structures. A structure can be homologous at one level, but only analogous at another, for example, in the pterosaurs, the wing involves both the forelimb and the hindlimb. Analogy is called homoplasy in cladistics, and convergent or parallel evolution in evolutionary biology, specialised terms are used in taxonomic research. Primary homology is that initially conjectured by a researcher based on similar structure or anatomical connections, secondary homology is implied by parsimony analysis, where a character that only occurs once on a tree is taken to be homologous. As implied in this definition, many cladists consider homology to be synonymous with synapomorphy, homologies provide the fundamental basis for all biological classification, although some may be highly counter-intuitive. The homologies between these have been discovered by comparing genes in evolutionary developmental biology, among insects, the stinger of the female honey bee is a modified ovipositor, homologous with ovipositors in other insects such as the Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and those Hymenoptera without stingers. The three small bones in the ear of mammals including humans, the malleus, incus. The malleus and incus develop in the embryo from structures that form jaw bones in lizards, both lines of evidence show that these bones are homologous, sharing a common ancestor. Among the many homologies in mammal reproductive systems, ovaries and testicles are homologous, in many plants, defensive or storage structures are made by modifications of the development of primary leaves, stems, and roots
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Parallel evolution
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Parallel evolution is the development of a similar trait in related, but distinct, species descending from the same ancestor, but from different clades. However the criteria for defining convergent as opposed to parallel evolution often are unclear in practice, however, this distinction is not clear-cut. For one thing, the conditions are partly a matter of degree. Some scientists accordingly have argued that evolution and convergent evolution are more or less indistinguishable. Others insist that in practice we should not shy away from the area because many important distinctions between parallel and convergent evolution remain. When the ancestral forms are unspecified or unknown, or the range of traits considered is not clearly specified and that period of separation would have permitted the accumulation of many relevant differences. Stephen Jay Gould differed, he described some of the examples as having started from the common ancestor of all marsupials and placentals. In contrast, where quite different structures clearly have been co-opted to a form and function. For example, consider Mixotricha paradoxa, a microbe which has assembled a system of rows of apparent cilia. However, on inspection it turns out that in Mixotricha paradoxa, what appear to be cilia actually are smaller symbiont microorganisms, the definition of a trait is crucial in deciding whether a change is seen as divergent, or as parallel or convergent. A similar situation occurs considering the homology of morphological structures, for example, many insects possess two pairs of flying wings. In beetles, the first pair of wings is hardened into elytra, wing covers with little role in flight, similar to convergent evolution, evolutionary relay describes how independent species acquire similar characteristics through their evolution in similar ecosystems, but not at the same time, such as. Colouration that serves as a warning to predators and for mating displays has evolved in different species. In the plant kingdom, the most familiar examples of evolution are the forms of leaves. Some extinct archosaurs evolved an upright posture and likely were warm-blooded and these two characteristics are also found in most mammals. Interestingly, modern crocodiles have a four chambered heart and a crurotarsal, the extinct pterosaurs and the birds both evolved wings as well as a distinct beak, but not from a recent common ancestor. Internal fertilization has evolved independently in sharks, some amphibians and amniotes, the patagium is a fleshy membrane that is found in gliding mammals such as flying lemurs, flying squirrels, sugar gliders and the extinct Volaticotherium. These mammals all acquired the patagium independently, pyrotherians evolved a body plan similar to proboscideans
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Complex system
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Complex systems present problems both in mathematical modelling and philosophical foundations. The subject is also called complex systems theory, complexity science, study of complex systems, complex networks, network science. Such a systems approach is used in computer science, biology, economics, physics, chemistry, architecture. A variety of abstract theoretical complex systems is studied as a field of mathematics, the key problems of complex systems are difficulties with their formal modelling and simulation. From such a perspective, in different research contexts complex systems are defined on the basis of their different attributes, since all complex systems have many interconnected components, the science of networks and network theory are important and useful tools for the study of complex systems. A theory for the resilience of system of systems represented by a network of interdependent networks was developed by Buldyrev et al, a consensus regarding a single universal definition of complex system does not yet exist. For systems that are less usefully represented with various other kinds of narratives. The study of complex system models is used for many scientific questions poorly suited to the traditional mechanistic conception provided by science. Linear systems represent the class of systems for which general techniques for stability control. However, many systems are inherently complex systems in terms of the definition above. This debate would notably lead economists, politicians and other parties to explore the question of computational complexity, gregory Bateson played a key role in establishing the connection between anthropology and systems theory, he recognized that the interactive parts of cultures function much like ecosystems. The first research institute focused on systems, the Santa Fe Institute, was founded in 1984. Today, there are over 50 institutes and research focusing on complex systems. The traditional approach to dealing with complexity is to reduce or constrain it, typically, this involves compartmentalisation, dividing a large system into separate parts. Organizations, for instance, divide their work into departments that deal with separate issues. Engineering systems are designed using modular components. However, modular designs become susceptible to failure when issues arise that bridge the divisions, as projects and acquisitions become increasingly complex, companies and governments are challenged to find effective ways to manage mega-acquisitions such as the Army Future Combat Systems. Acquisitions such as the FCS rely on a web of interrelated parts which interact unpredictably, over the last decades, within the emerging field of complexity economics new predictive tools have been developed to explain economic growth
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Insect morphology
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Insect morphology is the study and description of the physical form of insects. The terminology used to insects is similar to that used for other arthropods due to their shared evolutionary history. Three physical features separate insects from other arthropods, they have a divided into three regions, have three pairs of legs, and mouthparts located outside of the head capsule. It is this position of the mouthparts which divides them from their closest relatives, the non-insect hexapods, which includes Protura, Diplura, there is enormous variation in body structure amongst insect species. Individuals can range from 0.3 mm to 30 cm across, have no eyes or many, well-developed wings or none and these modifications allow insects to occupy almost every ecological niche on the planet, except the deep ocean and the Antarctic. This article describes the insect body and some of the major variations of the different body parts. Insects, like all arthropods, have no skeleton, instead, they have an exoskeleton. The insect body is divided into three parts, the head, thorax, and abdomen and this is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers, the outer is the exocuticle while the inner is the endocuticle. The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, criss-crossing each other in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid. The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft-bodied insects, especially the larval stages, chemically, chitin is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose. In its unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, resilient, in arthropods, however, it is often modified, becoming embedded in a hardened proteinaceous matrix, which forms much of the exoskeleton. In its pure form, it is leathery, but when encrusted in calcium carbonate, the difference between the unmodified and modified forms can be seen by comparing the body wall of a caterpillar to a beetle. From the embryonic stages itself, a layer of columnar or cuboidal epithelial cells gives rise to the external cuticle, the majority of insect material is held in the endocuticle. The cuticle provides muscular support and acts as a shield as the insect develops. However, since it cannot grow, the external sclerotised part of the cuticle is shed in a process called moulting. As the time for moulting approaches, most of the material is reabsorbed. In moulting, first the old cuticle separates from the epidermis, enzymatic moulting fluid is released between the old cuticle and epidermis, which separates the exocuticle by digesting the endocuticle and sequestering its material for the new cuticle. When the new cuticle has formed sufficiently, the epicuticle and reduced exocuticle are shed in ecdysis, the four principal regions of an insect body segment are, tergum or dorsal, sternum or ventral and the two pleura or laterals
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Morphometrics
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Morphometrics or morphometry refers to the quantitative analysis of form, a concept that encompasses size and shape. Morphometrics can be used to quantify a trait of evolutionary significance, a major objective of morphometrics is to statistically test hypotheses about the factors that affect shape. Morphometrics, in the sense, is also used to precisely locate certain areas of organs such as the brain. Three general approaches to form are usually distinguished, traditional morphometrics, landmark-based morphometrics, traditional morphometrics analyzes lengths, widths, masses, angles, ratios and areas. In general, traditional data are measurements of size. A drawback of using many measurements of size is that most will be correlated, as a result. For instance, tibia length will vary with femur length and also with humerus and ulna length, traditional morphometric data are nonetheless useful when either absolute or relative sizes are of particular interest, such as in studies of growth. These data are useful when size measurements are of theoretical importance such as body mass and limb cross-sectional area. However, these measurements have one important limitation, they contain information about the spatial distribution of shape changes across the organism. They are also useful when determining the extent to which certain pollutants have affected an individual and these indices include the hepatosomatic index, gonadosomatic index and also the condition factors. For example, where two specific sutures intersect is a landmark, as are intersections between veins on a wing or leaf, or foramina, small holes through which veins. Finding enough landmarks to provide a description of shape can be difficult when working with fossils or easily damaged specimens. That is because all landmarks must be present in all specimens, the data for each individual consists of a configuration of landmarks. There are three recognized categories of landmarks, type 2 landmarks are intermediate, this category includes points such as the tip structure, or local minima and maxima of curvature. They are defined in terms of features, but they are not surrounded on all sides. In addition to landmarks, there are semilandmarks, points whose position along a curve is arbitrary, shape analysis begins by removing the information that is not about shape. By definition, shape is not altered by translation, scaling or rotation, thus, to compare shapes, the non-shape information is removed from the coordinates of landmarks. There is more one way to do these three operations
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Neuromorphology
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Neuromorphology is the study of nervous system form, shape, and structure. The study involves looking at a part of the nervous system from a molecular and cellular level. The field also explores the communications and interactions within and between each specialized section of the nervous system, Morphology is the study of the shape and structure of biological organisms, while morphogenesis is the study of the biological development of the shape and structure of organisms. Therefore, neuromorphology focuses on the specifics of the structure of the nervous system, neuromorphology and morphogenesis, while two different entities, are nonetheless closely linked. Progress in defining the morphology of cells has been slow in its development. It took nearly a century after the acceptance of the cell as the unit of life before researchers could agree upon the shape of a neuron. It was originally thought to be an independent globular corpuscle suspended along nerve fibers that looped and coiled and it was not until the first successful microdissection of a whole nerve cell by Otto Deiters in 1865 that the separate dendrites and axon could be distinguished. At the end of the 19th century, new techniques, such as Golgis method, were developed that enabled researchers to view the whole neuron and this Golgi investigation then promoted new research in neuronal spacing by Ramon y Cajal in 1911. Further morphology research continued to develop, including dendritic morphology, since then, myriad techniques have been developed and applied to the field of neuromorphology. Research has supported a relationship between the morphological and functional properties of neurons, for instance, the accordance between the morphology and the functional classes of cat retinal ganglion cells has been studied to show the relationship between neuron shape and function. Orientation sensitivity and dendritic branching patterns are a few common characteristics of neurons that researchers have noted as having an effect on neuron function. They assert the structure of the neuron is able to determine its function by dictating synapse formation, the geometry of neurons often depends on the cell type and the history of received stimuli that is processed through the synapses. The shape of a neuron often directs the neurons function by establishing its synaptic partnerships, however, there is also a growing evidence for volume transmission, a process that involves electrochemical interactions from the whole cell membrane. The development of the features of neurons is governed by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The neuromorphology of nervous tissue is dependent upon genes and other factors, such as fields, ionic waves. Developing cells additionally impose geometrical and physical constraints upon each other and these interactions affect the neural shape and synaptogenesis. Morphological measures and imaging applications are important for understanding the developmental process. Neurons can be found in different shapes and sizes and can be classified based upon their morphology, the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into type I and type II cells
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Phenotype
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A phenotype is the composite of an organisms observable characteristics or traits, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior. A phenotype results from the expression of a genetic code, its genotype, as well as the influence of environmental factors. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the population of a species, the species is called polymorphic. A well-documented polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring, while the color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black. This genotype-phenotype distinction was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organisms heredity and what that heredity produces, the distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between germ plasm and somatic cells. The term phenotype has sometimes incorrectly used as a shorthand for phenotypic difference from wild type. Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties and it may seem that anything dependent on the genotype is a phenotype, including molecules such as RNA and proteins. It may seem that this goes beyond the intentions of the concept with its focus on the organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes traits or characteristics that can be visible by some technical procedure. A notable extension to this idea is the presence of molecules or metabolites that are generated by organisms from chemical reactions of enzymes. Another extension adds behavior to the phenotype, since behaviors are also observable characteristics, behavioral phenotypes include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders or syndromes, phenotypic variation is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection. It is the organism as a whole that contributes to the next generation. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection, the plant Hieracium umbellatum is found growing in two different habitats in Sweden. These habitats alternate along the coast of Sweden and the habitat that the seeds of Hieracium umbellatum land in, the concept of phenotype can be extended to variations below the level of the gene that affect an organisms fitness. For example, silent mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence of a gene may change the frequency of guanine-cytosine base pairs. The term extended phenotype refers to the idea that a phenotype is not restricted to biological processes, the concept generalized by Richard Dawkins explains that phenotype includes all the influence a gene has on the environment and other organisms. ”There are three types of extended phenotypes. The first describes an organism using architectural constructions to modify their environment for living, the most common example given by Dawkins is the beaver
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Phenotypic plasticity
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Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to changes in the environment. The concept was proposed by Mary Jane West-Eberhard, among others, the special case when differences in environment induce discrete phenotypes is termed polyphenism. Generally, phenotypic plasticity is important for immobile organisms than mobile organisms. Nevertheless, mobile organisms also have at least some degree of plasticity in at least some aspects of the phenotype, phenotypic plasticity in plants includes the allocation of more resources to the roots in soils that contain low concentrations of nutrients and the alteration of leaf size and thickness. Dandelion are well known for exhibiting considerable plasticity in form when growing in sunny versus shaded environments, the transport proteins present in roots are also changed depending on the concentration of the nutrient and the salinity of the soil. Some plants, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum for example, are able to alter their photosynthetic pathways to use water when they become water- or salt-stressed. The developmental effects of nutrition and temperature have been demonstrated, within the Gray wolf, the dog demonstrates wide phenotypic plasticity. Additionally, the Speckled Wood butterfly, the males of species have two morphs. One with three dots on its wing, and one with four dots on its hind wings. The development of the dot is dependent on environmental conditions, more specifically location. In amphibians, as of 2015, Pristimantis mutabilis is known to show a remarkable phenotypic plasticity, another example, is the Southern Rockhopper Penguin. Due to the species plasticity they are able to express different strategies and foraging behaviors depending on the climate, a main factor that has influenced the species behavior is where food is located. Plastic responses to temperature are essential among ectothermic organisms, as all aspects of their physiology are directly dependent on their thermal environment, as such, thermal acclimation entails phenotypic adjustments that are found commonly across taxa, such as changes in the lipid composition of cell membranes. Temperature change influences the fluidity of cell membranes by affecting the motion of the fatty acyl chains of glycerophospholipids, phenotypic plasticity of the digestive system allows some animals to respond to changes in dietary nutrient composition, diet quality, and energy requirements. Changes in the nutrient composition of the diet may occur during development or with seasonal changes in the abundance of different food types and these diet changes can elicit plasticity in the activity of particular digestive enzymes on the brush border of the small intestine. Acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of aminopeptidase-N, many species respond to poor quality diets by increasing their food intake, enlarging digestive organs, and increasing the capacity of the digestive tract. Poor quality diets also result in lower concentrations of nutrients in the lumen of the intestine, during lactation, degus increase the mass of their liver, small intestine, large intestine and cecum by 15-35%. Increases in food intake do not cause changes in the activity of enzymes because nutrient concentrations in the intestinal lumen are determined by food quality
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Plant morphology
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Plant morphology or phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants. This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the structure of plants. Plant morphology is useful in the identification of plants. Plant morphology represents a study of the development, form, and structure of plants, and, by implication, there are four major areas of investigation in plant morphology, and each overlaps with another field of the biological sciences. When structures in different species are believed to exist and develop as a result of common, inherited genetic pathways, for example, the leaves of pine, oak, and cabbage all look very different, but share certain basic structures and arrangement of parts. The homology of leaves is a conclusion to make. This aspect of plant morphology overlaps with the study of plant evolution, secondly, plant morphology observes both the vegetative structures of plants, as well as the reproductive structures. The vegetative structures of plants includes the study of the shoot system, composed of stems and leaves. The reproductive structures are varied, and are usually specific to a particular group of plants, such as flowers and seeds, fern sori. The detailed study of structures in plants led to the discovery of the alternation of generations found in all plants. This area of plant morphology overlaps with the study of biodiversity, thirdly, plant morphology studies plant structure at a range of scales. At the smallest scales are ultrastructure, the structural features of cells visible only with the aid of an electron microscope, and cytology. At this scale, plant morphology overlaps with plant anatomy as a field of study, at the largest scale is the study of plant growth habit, the overall architecture of a plant. The pattern of branching in a tree will vary from species to species, as will the appearance of a plant as a tree, herb, fourthly, plant morphology examines the pattern of development, the process by which structures originate and mature as a plant grows. While animals produce all the parts they will ever have from early in their life. A living plant always has embryonic tissues, a morphologist studies this process, the causes, and its result. This area of plant morphology overlaps with plant physiology and ecology, a plant morphologist makes comparisons between structures in many different plants of the same or different species. Making such comparisons between structures in different plants tackles the question of why the structures are similar
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
