1.
Summit
–
A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
2.
North American Vertical Datum of 1988
–
NAVD88 was established in 1991 by the minimum-constraint adjustment of geodetic leveling observations in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. It held fixed the height of the tidal bench mark, referenced to the International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 local mean sea level height value, at Rimouski, Quebec. The definition of NAVD88 uses the Helmert orthometric height, which calculates the location of the geoid from modeled local gravity, the NAVD88 model is based on then-available measurements, and remains fixed despite later improved geoid models. NAVD88 replaced the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929, previously known as the Sea Level Datum of 1929, the elevation difference between points in a local area will show negligible change from one datum to the other, even though the elevation of both does change. NGVD29 used a model of gravity based on latitude to calculate the geoid and did not take into account other variations. Thus, the difference for points across the country does change between datums. Altitude Geodesy Sea Level Datum of 1929 Topographic elevation Topography Reference ellipsoid Geoid United States Geological Survey home page, U. S. National Geodetic Survey home page
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
San Francisco
–
San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
5.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
6.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Topographic map
–
Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places of equal elevation, however, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly called topographic. The study or discipline of topography is a broader field of study. Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys, performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a variety of elevations and landforms. This is in contrast to older cadastral surveys, which primarily show property, the first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789. Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle, as such, elevation information was of vital importance. As they evolved, topographic map series became a resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure. Excluding borders, each sheet was 44 cm high and up to 66 cm wide, although the project eventually foundered, it left an indexing system that remains in use. TIGER was developed in the 1980s and used in the 1990, digital elevation models were also compiled, initially from topographic maps and stereographic interpretation of aerial photographs and then from satellite photography and radar data. Since all these were government projects funded with taxes and not classified for security reasons. Initial applications were mostly professionalized forms such as innovative surveying instruments, by the mid-1990s, increasingly user-friendly resources such as online mapping in two and three dimensions, integration of GPS with mobile phones and automotive navigation systems appeared. As of 2011, the future of standardized, centrally printed topographical maps is left somewhat in doubt, the various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads and these signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet. Topographic maps are commonly called contour maps or topo maps. In the United States, where the national series is organized by a strict 7. 5-minute grid. Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines, contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude. In other words, every point on the line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level
8.
United States Geological Survey
–
The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
9.
Elevation
–
GIS or geographic information system is a computer system that allows for visualizing, manipulating, capturing, and storage of data with associated attributes. GIS offers better understanding of patterns and relationships of the landscape at different scales, tools inside the GIS allow for manipulation of data for spatial analysis or cartography. A topographical map is the type of map used to depict elevation. In a Geographic Information System, digital models are commonly used to represent the surface of a place. Digital terrain models are another way to represent terrain in GIS, USGS is developing a 3D Elevation Program to keep up with growing needs for high quality topographic data. 3DEP is a collection of enhanced elevation data in the form of high quality LiDAR data over the conterminous United States, Hawaii, there are three bare earth DEM layers in 3DEP which are nationally seamless at the resolution of 1/3,1, and 2 arcseconds. This map is derived from GTOPO30 data that describes the elevation of Earths terrain at intervals of 30 arcseconds and it uses color and shading instead of contour lines to indicate elevation. Hypsography is the study of the distribution of elevations on the surface of the Earth, the term originates from the Greek word ὕψος hypsos meaning height. Most often it is used only in reference to elevation of land, related to the term hypsometry, the measurement of these elevations of a planets solid surface are taken relative to mean datum, except for Earth which is taken relative to the sea level. In the troposphere, temperatures decrease with altitude and this lapse rate is approximately 6.5 °C/km. S
10.
Twin Peaks (San Francisco)
–
The Twin Peaks are two prominent hills with an elevation of about 925 feet located near the geographic center of San Francisco, California. Only 928 foot Mount Davidson is higher within the city, the North and South Twin Peaks, also known as Eureka and Noe respectively, are about 200 m apart, Twin Peaks Boulevard runs a figure eight around them. The peaks form a divide for the coastal fog pushed in from the Pacific Ocean. Their west-facing slopes often get fog and strong winds, while the east-facing slopes receive more sun, elevation at each summit is just over 900 feet. Thin, sandy soil is commonplace on Twin Peaks, making them susceptible to erosion, before the arrival of the Europeans, the native Ohlone people may have used Twin Peaks as a lookout or hunting ground. The ecological diversity of Twin Peaks provided medicinal or ceremonial plants, grains, when the Spanish conquistadors and settlers arrived at the beginning of the 18th century, they called the area Los Pechos de la Chola or Breasts of the Indian Maiden and devoted the area to ranching. When San Francisco passed under American control during the 19th century, christmas Tree Point lies some 70 ft below the North Peak and offers vistas of San Francisco and San Francisco Bay. To the north is one of the many reservoirs. It is owned by the San Francisco Fire Department, and supplies water to the Fire Departments independent HPFS water system for fighting fires, established after the 1906 earthquake, the top of Twin Peaks is undeveloped. It is part of the 31 acres Twin Peaks Natural Area, managed and owned by the San Francisco Recreation and these preserved areas are home to many natural resources and wildlife. As part of the Mission blue butterfly habitat conservation, Twin Peaks is one of the few remaining habitats for endangered species. Many bird species, insects and vegetation thrive in these areas, the Muni Metro Twin Peaks Tunnel runs beneath Twin Peaks, linking Downtown San Francisco with West Portal and the southwestern part of the city. There is no public transportation all the way to the top of the Peaks, the San Francisco Police Department Academy is at the base of the peaks. The name Twin Peaks is also applied to the surrounding neighborhood, 49-Mile Scenic Drive List of San Francisco, California Hills Twin Peaks. Treasures in the curves and swells of Twin Peaks
11.
Diamond Heights, San Francisco
–
Diamond Heights is a neighborhood in central San Francisco, California, roughly bordered by Diamond Heights Boulevard and Noe Valley to the north and east and Glen Canyon Park to the south and west. Few existing residents needed to be relocated for the redevelopment program, which included housing for a range of incomes, churches, schools, parks, and a commercial center. This type of redevelopment came under the Community Redevelopment Law, passed in 1951, Redevelopment in California ended on February 1,2012, after the State Supreme Court ruled the Legislature could end the program on December 29,2011. The Water Department appropriated more than $500,000 for a system for the redevelopment. The Board of Supervisors and Diamond Heights Property Owners Association debated the Diamond Heights Redevelopment Project Area B-1 plan, the Board rejected the motion to add these alternative plans to the legislation. The final plan was approved on October 24,1955, a wood-frame house with separate garage stands at 70 Gold Mine Drive, just downhill from Diamond Heights Boulevard. According to the San Francisco Office of the Assessor, this house was built in 1895, st. Nicholas Orthodox Christian Church is at the top of Diamond Heights Boulevard, at the corner of Duncan Street. George Christopher Playground is located behind the center, and Walter Haas Playground is at the intersection of Diamond Heights Boulevard. Public transportation in Diamond Heights is provided by Munis 35 Eureka,48 Quintara, all connect to the Muni Metro system, the 35 goes to Castro Street Station, the 48 goes to West Portal Station, and the 52 goes to Forest Hill Station. Additionally, the 35 and 52 connect to the Bay Area Rapid Transit system at the Glen Park Station, San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Diamond Heights mid-century modern housing tract developed by architect Claude Oakland for Eichler Homes
12.
Glen Park, San Francisco
–
Glen Park is a small, primarily residential neighborhood in San Francisco, California, named for the adjacent Glen Canyon Park. The neighborhood is nestled at the edge of San Franciscos central hills. It includes the easternmost peak in that range, known as Fairmount Heights or Billy Goat Hill, as well as the south, the neighborhoods streets follow the hills contours down to a small commercial district at the intersection of Chenery and Diamond streets. To the west, the ravine at Glen Canyon Park is the source of upper Islais Creek and it is currently buried in an underground culvert, although organizations such as the San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association have proposed to daylight it. Glen Park developed as a streetcar suburb beginning in the 1890s, after the San Francisco, transit was improved further in 1916, when the SF & SM was acquired by the San Francisco Municipal Railway. A branch of the San Francisco Public Library opened in 1927, today, transit is provided by the Glen Park BART station, the J Church line of the Muni Metro, and several Muni bus lines. Because of Glen Parks small size and mom and pop businesses, a multi-use, urban infill project opened in 2006, anchored by a natural foods grocery and a new branch library. Public spaces include Walter Haas Playground, Billy Goat Hill Park, San Francisco Bay Area portal Demographics, District 8, Under the rainbow by Betsey Culp. San Francisco Call,25 September 2000, Glen Park, The Architecture and Social History Glen Park Community Plan San Francisco Planning Dept. page Glen Park Association Volunteer community group Glen Park Neighborhoods History Project
13.
Cross
–
A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines or bars, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally, a cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is also termed a saltire in heraldic terminology. The word [[wikt, cross|crossded from Old Irish, possibly via Old Norse, ultimately from the Latin crux, stake, the English verb to cross arises from the noun c. 1200, first in the sense to make the sign of the cross, the Latin word was, however, influenced by popular etymology by a native Germanic word reconstructed as*krukjo. This word, by conflation with Latin crux, gave rise to Old French crocier, Latin crux referred to the gibbet where criminals were executed, a stake or pole, but not necessarily to intersecting or cruciform beams. The Latin word derived from the verb crucio to torture, Latin crux originally referred to the tree or stake on which criminals were crucified in the pre-imperial period. This was later specified as crux acuta or crux simplex, the method of execution may have been adopted from the Phoenicians. The addition of a bar, to which the criminal would be fastened with nails or cords. The Latin name of the cross is crux decussata, the heraldic term saltire is introduced only towards the end of the medieval period. The Greek equivalent of Latin crux stake, gibbet is σταυρός stauros stake, the letter Tau was associated with the stauros or crux, while the notion of cruciform shapes, i. e. intersecting lines, were associated with the letter Chi. The Greek term for crossing was χίασμα chiasma, from a verb χιάζω chiázō to shape like the letter Chi, Latin had the comparable decussatus shaped like the numeral ten. Also of prehistoric age are numerous variants of the cross mark, including the crux gammata with curving or angular lines. Speculation of this kind became popular in the mid- to late-19th century in the context of comparative mythology seeking to tie Christian mythology to ancient cosmological myths. Influential works in this vein included G. de Mortillet, L. Müller, W. W. Blake, Ansault, in the European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning, perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial. The cross sign occurs trivially in tally marks, and develops into a number symbol independently in the Roman numerals, the Chinese rod numerals and the Brahmi numerals. In the Phoenician alphabet and derived scripts, the symbol represented the phoneme /t/, i. e. the letter taw. The letter name taw means mark, presumably continuing the Egyptian hieroglyph two crossed sticks, according to W. E. Vines Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, worshippers of Tammuz in Chaldea and thereabouts used the cross as symbol of that god. The shape of the cross, as represented by the letter T, clements contemporary Tertullian rejects the accusation that Christians are crucis religiosi, and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes
14.
Armenian Genocide
–
Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a result of the genocide. Raphael Lemkin was explicitly moved by the Armenian annihilation to define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters, Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide as an accurate term for the mass killings of Armenians that began under Ottoman rule in 1915. It has in recent years been faced with repeated calls to them as genocide. To date,29 countries have recognized the mass killings as genocide, as have most genocide scholars. The western portion of historical Armenia, known as Western Armenia, had come under Ottoman rule following the Peace of Amasya, henceforth, the region was also alternatively referred to as Turkish Armenia or Ottoman Armenia. The Armenian community was made up of three denominations, Armenian Catholic, Armenian Protestant, and Armenian Apostolic, the religion of a vast majority of Armenians. Through the millet system, the Armenian community were allowed to rule themselves under their own system of governance with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government, Ottoman census figures clash with the statistics collected by the Armenian Patriarchate. According to the latter, there were almost three million Armenians living in the empire in 1878, in the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the dhimmi system implemented in Muslim countries, they, like all other Christians and also Jews, were accorded certain freedoms. The dhimmi system in the Ottoman Empire was largely based upon the Pact of Umar, while the Pact of Umar prohibited non-Muslims from building new places of worship, it was not enforced in all regions of the Ottoman Empire. Since there were no laws concerning religious ghettos, the prohibition of non-Muslims building new places of worship led to their clustering around existing ones and it did not mean religious persecution, it meant unutterable contempt. They were dogs and pigs, and their nature was to be Christians, to be spat upon, if their shadow darkened a Turk, to be outraged, in addition to other legal limitations, Christians were not considered equals to Muslims and several prohibitions were placed on them. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride horses and camels. Their houses could not overlook those of Muslims, and their religious practices were severely circumscribed, from 1839 to the declaration of a constitution in 1876, the Ottoman government instituted the Tanzimat, a series of reforms designed to improve the status of minorities. Nevertheless, most of the reforms were never implemented because the empires Muslim population rejected the principle of equality for Christians. By the late 1870s, the Greeks, along several other Christian nations in the Balkans, frustrated with their conditions, had, often with the help of the great powers. The Armenians remained, by and large, passive during these years, in the mid-1860s and early 1870s this passivity gave way to new currents of thinking in Armenian society. The Ottoman government considered these grievances and promised to punish those responsible, under growing pressure, the government of Sultan Abdul Hamid II declared itself a constitutional monarchy with a parliament and entered into negotiations with the powers
15.
San Francisco Municipal Railway
–
The San Francisco Municipal Railway is the public transit system for the city and county of San Francisco, California. In 2006, it served 46.7 square miles with an budget of about $700 million. In ridership Muni is the seventh largest transit system in the United States, with 210,848,310 rides in 2006 and the second largest in California behind Metro in Los Angeles. With a fleet average speed of 8.1 mph, it is the slowest major urban transit system in America and one of the most expensive to operate, costing $19.21 per mile per bus and $24.37 per mile per train. However, it has more boardings per mile and more vehicles in operation than similar transit agencies, many weekday riders are commuters, as the daytime weekday population in San Francisco exceeds its normal residential population. Muni shares four metro stations with BART, on weekends, most Muni bus lines are scheduled to run every ten to twenty minutes. However, complaints of unreliability, especially on less-often-served lines and older lines, are a system-wide problem. Muni has had difficulty meeting a stated goal of 85% voter-demanded on-time service. Most intercity connections are provided by BART and Caltrain heavy rail, AC Transit buses at the Transbay Terminal, 70% of stops are spaced closer than recommended range of 800–1,000 feet apart. Muni is short for the Municipal in San Francisco Municipal Railway and is not an acronym, thus, the Muni metro is often called the train or the streetcar. Most San Francisco natives use Muni when speaking about the system in general, the E Embarcadero and F Market & Wharves lines are referred to by Muni as a historic streetcar line rather than as a heritage railway. Munis logo is a stylized, trademarked worm version of the word muni and this logo was designed by San Francisco-based graphic designer Walter Landor in the mid-1970s. Bus and trolleybus lines have number designations, rail lines have letters, except for cable cars, cash fares are $2.50 for adults, $1. Clipper card fares are $2.25 for adults and $1 for seniors, youth, proof-of-payment, which fare inspectors may demand at any time, is either a Clipper card, Muni Passport, or paper transfer. One fare entitles a rider to unlimited vehicle transfers for the next 90 to 120 minutes, cable cars are $7 one way, with no transfers unless the rider has a Muni Passport or Fast Pass. As of September 2014 monthly passes cost $70 for adults, $35 for low-income residents, or $24 for youth, seniors, passes are valid on all Muni lines—including cable cars—and the $83 adult Fast Pass allows BART transit entirely within San Francisco. Other passes and stickers are valid on all Muni lines, including cable cars, cable car fare is $7 per trip, with no transfers issued or accepted. Muni has implemented a smart card payment system known as Clipper
16.
Adolph Sutro
–
Adolph Heinrich Joseph Sutro was a German-American engineer, politician and philanthropist who served as the 24th mayor of San Francisco from 1895 until 1897. Born a German Jew, he moved to Virginia City, Nevada and he is today perhaps best remembered for the various San Francisco lands and landmarks that still bear his name. Born to a Jewish family in Aachen, Rhine Province, Prussia, Sutro, educated as an engineer, Sutro incorporated the Sutro Tunnel company and raised US$3 million, a considerable fortune through this work in Nevada. He included the miners in his scheme, and planned to sail to Europe to negotiate with the Parisian Bank, but the Franco-Prussian War commenced in the middle of July 1870. Sutro was stymied, but out of the blue came an offer from a London bank led by a banker named McClamont, Sutro set off blasts of dynamite. Leading the way for tunnel diggers and he fought avalanches, mud slides and poisonous gases. He dug air shafts to relieve the danger, the shafts filled with water and he fought cave-ins and solid rock. His wealth was increased by large real estate investments in San Francisco and these land investments included Mount Sutro, Lands End, and Mount Davidson, which was called Blue Mountain at the time. In 1896, Adolph Sutro built a new Cliff House, a seven story Victorian Chateau, called by some the Gingerbread Palace, great throngs of San Franciscans arrived on steam trains, bicycles, carts and horse wagons on Sunday excursions. The baths became popular despite their remote location, across the open dunes to the west of the populated areas of the city. This popularity was due to the low entry fee for visiting the Baths. The railroad grade still exists as a trail along the Lands End cliffs. Sutro managed a great increase in the value of his land investments as a direct result of the development burst that his vacationers railroad spawned. He also increased the value of his lands by planting his property at Mount Sutro with saplings of fast-growing eucalyptus and this occurred at the same time as city Supervisors granted tax-free status to forested lands within city limits. Small fragments of the forest still exist, the largest is at Mount Sutro, where 61 acres are the property of the University of California, San Francisco, and another 19 are property of the City of San Francisco. Sutros reputation as a provider of diversions and culture for the average person led the politically weak and he won on an anti-big business platform, inveighing against the tight grip that the Southern Pacific Railroad had over local businesses. Nevertheless, he was considered a failed mayor, ill suited for political work. At the time of his death, in 1898, his fortune was extensive, as a result, his heirs fought bitterly over his holdings
17.
George Davidson (geographer)
–
George Davidson was a geodesist, astronomer, geographer, surveyor and engineer in the United States. Born on May 9,1825, in England, he went to the U. S. in 1832 with his parents and he graduated at the Central High School in Philadelphia in 1845, standing first in his class. While a student, he had shown interest in scientific work, upon his graduation in 1845, he began his career as clerk to Bache who was superindentent of the United States Coast Survey. From 1846 to 1850, Davidson was occupied in geodetic field work and his work included a survey of Washington and Puget sounds, and he had charge of the main triangulation of the coast in the region of San Francisco. From 1861 until 1867, he was again on the Atlantic seaboard, principally engaged in engineering work on coast, at one time, he was in command of the Coast Survey steamer “Vixen, ” and later performed astronomical work along the eastern coast. In 1866, he became engineer of an expedition for the survey of a ship canal across the Isthmus of Darien. He was placed in charge, during 1867, of the work of the Coast Survey on the Pacific, planned work for the parties from 1868 until 1875. He traveled extensively in Egypt, China, India and Europe, for purposes of scientific study. ”In 1881 and he retired from the Coast Survey in 1895, after 50 years of service. He was awarded the Daly Medal by the American Geographical Society in 1908, the Davidson Seamount off the coast of California, and Mount Davidson and Davidson Street in San Francisco are named for George Davidson. In 1946, Davidsons daughter Ellinor established the George Davidson Medal, along with the American Geographical Society, Davidsons brother Thomas Davidson was a naval architect with the United States Navy
18.
Sierra Club
–
The Sierra Club is an environmental organization in the United States. It was founded on May 28,1892, in San Francisco, California, by the Scottish-American preservationist John Muir, in recent years, the club has gravitated toward green politics and especially toward bright green environmentalism. Recent focuses of the club include promoting green energy, mitigating global warming, in 2015 Sierra Club launched its activism platform AddUp. The Sierra Club does not set standards for or regulate alpinism, but it organizes wilderness courses, hikes, rock climbs, the Sierra Club is governed by a 15-member Board of Directors. Each year, five directors are elected to terms. A president is elected annually by the Board from among its members, the Executive Director runs the day-to-day operations of the group. Michael Brune, formerly of Rainforest Action Network, has served as the executive director since 2010. Pope stepped down amid discontent that the group had strayed from its core principles, Sierra Club members belong to statewide chapters and local groups. National and local special-interest sections, committees, and task forces address particular issues, the national Sierra Club sets the organizations policy agenda. As early as 1889, Johnson had encouraged Muir to form an association to protect the Sierra Nevada. Others involved in the planning included artist William Keith, Willis Linn Jepson, Willard Drake Johnson, Joseph LeConte. The Sierra Clubs charter members elected Muir president, an office he held until his death in 1914, Muir escorted President Theodore Roosevelt through Yosemite in 1903, and two years later the California legislature ceded Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove to the federal government. The Sierra Club won its first lobbying victory with the creation of the second national park. In the first decade of the 1900s, the Sierra Club became embroiled in the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir controversy that divided preservationists from resource management conservationists. In the late 19th century, the city of San Francisco was rapidly outgrowing its limited water supply, which depended on intermittent local springs and streams. Gifford Pinchot, a supporter of public utilities and head of the US Forest Service. Muir appealed to his friend U. S. President Roosevelt, Muir and attorney William Edward Colby began a national campaign against the dam, attracting the support of many eastern conservationists. With the 1912 election of U. S. President Woodrow Wilson, the bill to dam Hetch Hetchy passed Congress in 1913, and so the Sierra Club lost its first major battle
19.
Grace Cathedral, San Francisco
–
Grace Cathedral is an Episcopal cathedral on Nob Hill, San Francisco, California. It is the church of the Episcopal Diocese of California. There is also an adult choir. The director of music and choirmaster is Ben Bachmann, the Very Reverend Alan Jones retired as dean in 2009. He was also the moderator of The Forum at Grace Cathedral, canon Jane Shaw was installed as the eighth dean of Grace Cathedral. The cathedrals ancestral parish, Grace Church, was founded in 1849 during the California Gold Rush, the cathedral is the daughter of the historic Grace Church. The first little chapel was built in the gold rush year of 1849, the family of a railroad baron and banker, William Henry Crocker, gave their ruined Nob Hill property for a diocesan cathedral, which took its name and founding congregation from the nearby parish. In 1865, Mark Twain published purported private correspondence between himself and potential short-term rectors, satirizing the churchs efforts to find a short-term rector in the 1860s and 1870s, dean J. Wilmer Gresham nurtured the young cathedral and work began on the present structure in 1928. Designed in French Gothic style by Lewis P. Hobart, it was completed in 1964 as the third largest Episcopal cathedral in the nation. On March 28,1964, Martin Luther King, Jr. gave a sermon at Grace Cathedral as part of the festival celebrating its completion and consecration, the service took place on the fourth Sunday of Lent. Approximately 5,000 people were present to hear Kings sermon and it was the largest gathering at the cathedral for the next 37 years, until the September 11,2001, memorial service took place. Grace Cathedral has a significant collection of varied works by Jan Henryk De Rosen, among these are a faux-tile mural behind the Chapel of Grace reredos from 1932, the mural in the Chapel of the Nativitys Adoration from 1946 showing the Holy Family with the magi and shepherds. At the donors request, the original angels hovering above were removed by the artist, De Rosen also included a little image of his boyhood home in Warsaw in the mural. On a smaller scale, De Rosen painted exquisite panels for the old high altar which is now in the Chapel of St. Francis columbarium. The cathedral entrance has a pair of doors, often called the Ghiberti doors. They are reproductions of the doors of the Florence Baptistery by Lorenzo Ghiberti and they were hidden in a disused railway tunnel until 1944, and latex casts were made after their rediscovery. The doors now in the baptistery are also modern replicas installed in 1991, laid out on the floor of Grace Cathedral is a labyrinth that is based on the famous medieval labyrinth of Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Chartres located in Chartres, France. It is said if a visitor walks the pattern of the labyrinth it will bring them to a meditative state
20.
Angelo Joseph Rossi
–
Angelo Joseph Rossi was a U. S. political figure who served as the 31st mayor of San Francisco. He was the first mayor of 100% Italian descent of a major U. S. city and he was first appointed mayor when mayor James Rolph resigned to become Governor of California in January,1931. After completing the year of Rolphs term, Rossi was elected in his own right as mayor in November 1931. He was reelected mayor for second and third terms in 1935 and 1939 respectively. A Republican, he served as San Franciscos mayor from 1931 to 1944 and he dedicated the Mount Davidson Cross in March,1934. Rossi was adamantly anti-Communist, and labeled the more militant labor organizing, two strikers were killed by bullets, and eighty-five were hospitalized. On July 19,1934, Mayor Rossi spoke on radio, I congratulate the real leaders of organized labor on their decision. San Francisco has stamped out without bargain or compromise an attempt to import into its life the real danger of revolt. We will deal effectively with the group who opposed peace. During a period of publicized police scandal, he asked for, the District Attorney, Matthew Brady, hired Edwin Atherton, a private investigator, who published the Atherton Report on police corruption in 1937. He presided over groundbreaking ceremonies for the San Francisco City College in April 1937 and he befriended and hosted Fiorello La Guardia in San Francisco and visited New York City as La Guardias guest. In an extended late in the late 1930s, Rossi lashed out at Harry Bridges. Leader, saying the city is sick of the alien in a telegram to President Roosevelt, in May 1942, six months after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, at the Tenney Committee hearings held in San Francisco, Rossi was subpoenaed, having been accused of supporting Italian fascism. According to the New York Times of May 26,1942, With tears in his eyes and he had been accused of making fascist salutes at San Francisco Columbus Day celebrations, which he strongly denied. Rossi testified that he removed a picture of Benito Mussolini from his office before the war began and he was defeated for reelection the following year following a rancorous campaign. He died in 1948 and is buried in Holy Cross Cemetery, Colma, a city park-playground-pool and a street in the Richmond district of San Francisco are named after him
21.
James Rolph
–
James “Sunny Jim” Rolph Jr. was an American politician and a member of the Republican Party. He was elected to a term as the 27th governor of California from January 6,1931 until his death on June 2,1934 at the height of the Great Depression. Previously, Rolph had been the 30th mayor of San Francisco from January 8,1912 until his resignation to become governor, Rolph remains the longest serving mayor in San Francisco history. Rolph was born in San Francisco and he had four brothers and two sisters. After attending school in the Mission District, he went to work as a boy in a commission house. He married Annie Marshall Reid and had at least one son, James Rolph, Rolph entered the shipping business in 1900, by forming a partnership with George Hind. He would over the next serve as president of two banks, one of which he helped establish. Although he was asked to run for mayor in 1909, he chose to wait until 1911 to run for mayor—a position that he would hold for nineteen years, as mayor, he was known as Sunny Jim and his theme song was There Are Smiles That Make You Happy. In 1915 he appeared as himself in a documentary film titled Mabel and Fatty Viewing the Worlds Fair at San Francisco. In 1924, Rolph appeared as himself in a Slim Summerville comedy short film, Hello, Rolph knew of the power in San Francisco of the Roman Catholic Church. Italians, Irish, French and Germans made up the majority of the population of the City and he established a deep friendship with Archbishop Edward Joseph Hanna. In turn, Hanna would support Rolph in his 1930 election as governor of California, in addition to his mayoral duties and overseeing his shipping interests, he directed the Ship Owners and Merchants Tugboat Company and the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce. He also was vice-president of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition and president of the Merchants Exchange and he resigned in 1931 to assume the office of governor of California. Four days before the lynching he had announced he would not call on the National Guard to prevent the lynching, after violence erupted during the San Joaquin cotton strike in October 1933, Governor Rolph appointed a fact-finding committee to investigate the deaths of several strikers. After suffering several heart attacks, he died in Santa Clara County on June 2,1934, aged 64, Rolph was the second governor to die in office, the first being Washington Bartlett in 1887. He is buried at Greenlawn Memorial Park in Colma, California and he was succeeded by Lieutenant Governor Frank Merriam in the Governors Office. One of the names of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge is the James “Sunny Jim” Rolph Bridge. Biography from the State of California James Rolph, Jr. at The Political Graveyard Biography from the Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco James Rolph at the Internet Movie Database
22.
Native Sons of the Golden West
–
In 1890 they placed the first historical marker in the state to honor the discovery of gold which gave rise to the state nickname Golden State and Golden West. Former U. S. President Richard M. Nixon and former U. S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren were both past presidents of the NSGW. The Native Sons of the Golden West was founded 11 July 1875 by General A. M. Winn, General Winn lived in California during the Gold Rush and was impressed with the spirit and perseverance of the Forty-Niners. Today, the Native Sons of the Golden West is open to membership from any native-born, the Native Sons of the Golden West is a charitable and fraternal organization. Organized locally into Parlors, the group is perhaps best known for the number of commemorative markers it has placed throughout the state. They have an organization, the Native Daughters of the Golden West. The term Golden West is a colloquialism for California, popularly known as the Golden State. The Native Sons began as an organization embracing only the sons of those pioneers who arrived on this coast prior to the admission of California as a state. In the 1920s, the Native Sons took two different stances, one on Japanese internment and one on rights for Native Americans. In 1920, then Grand President William P. Canbu of the Native Sons wrote that “California was given by God to a people, and with God’s strength we want to keep it as He gave it to us. ”The Native Sons openly opposed Chinese, Mexican. However, by contrast, the Native Sons actively fought for California Native American rights, the Commonwealth Club of San Francisco was looking into the matter of Indian rights under the 18 treaties as early as 1909. This resulted in a section on Indian Affairs for the purpose of making a complete study of the rights, wrongs. The Native Sons was one of the groups that was active in this area, study committees were formed and publicity as to the needs of the California Indians appeared in its magazine, the California Grizzly Bear. In 1922 and again in 1925, there were articles of importance in arousing public opinion. In Nevada City, Native Sons Hydraulic Parlor No.58 aided the American Indians, in April 1913, Indian agent C. H. Ashbury came from Reno to determine if the Indian land claims was valid and to conduct the proceedings, calling neighbors, city trustees, today, the Native Sons welcome native Californians of all races. The current organization has many Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans and African American members, sutters Fort, Sacramento, By 1888 the once proud fort built by John Sutter was abandoned and deteriorating and the City of Sacramento sought to demolish it. C. E. Grunsky of Native Sons of the Golden West Sunset Parlor #25 in Sacramento led the fight to purchase and restore this most important symbol of Californias pioneer history
23.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
–
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
24.
White House
–
The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
25.
Easter
–
It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
26.
CBS
–
CBS is an American commercial broadcast television network that is a flagship property of CBS Corporation. The company is headquartered at the CBS Building in New York City with major facilities and operations in New York City. CBS is sometimes referred to as the Eye Network, in reference to the iconic logo. It has also called the Tiffany Network, alluding to the perceived high quality of CBS programming during the tenure of William S. Paley. It can also refer to some of CBSs first demonstrations of color television, the network has its origins in United Independent Broadcasters Inc. a collection of 16 radio stations that was purchased by Paley in 1928 and renamed the Columbia Broadcasting System. Under Paleys guidance, CBS would first become one of the largest radio networks in the United States, in 1974, CBS dropped its former full name and became known simply as CBS, Inc. In 2000, CBS came under the control of Viacom, which was formed as a spin-off of CBS in 1971, CBS Corporation is controlled by Sumner Redstone through National Amusements, which also controls the current Viacom. The television network has more than 240 owned-and-operated and affiliated stations throughout the United States. The origins of CBS date back to January 27,1927, Columbia Phonographic went on the air on September 18,1927, with a presentation by the Howard Barlow Orchestra from flagship station WOR in Newark, New Jersey, and fifteen affiliates. Operational costs were steep, particularly the payments to AT&T for use of its land lines, in early 1928 Judson sold the network to brothers Isaac and Leon Levy, owners of the networks Philadelphia affiliate WCAU, and their partner Jerome Louchenheim. With the record out of the picture, Paley quickly streamlined the corporate name to Columbia Broadcasting System. He believed in the power of advertising since his familys La Palina cigars had doubled their sales after young William convinced his elders to advertise on radio. By September 1928, Paley bought out the Louchenheim share of CBS, during Louchenheims brief regime, Columbia paid $410,000 to A. H. Grebes Atlantic Broadcasting Company for a small Brooklyn station, WABC, which would become the networks flagship station. WABC was quickly upgraded, and the relocated to 860 kHz. The physical plant was relocated also – to Steinway Hall on West 57th Street in Manhattan, by the turn of 1929, the network could boast to sponsors of having 47 affiliates. Paley moved right away to put his network on a financial footing. In the fall of 1928, he entered talks with Adolph Zukor of Paramount Pictures. The deal came to fruition in September 1929, Paramount acquired 49% of CBS in return for a block of its stock worth $3.8 million at the time
27.
Herb Caen
–
A special Pulitzer Prize called him the voice and conscience of San Francisco. After high school he covered sports for The Sacramento Union, in 1936 Caen began writing a radio programming column for the San Francisco Chronicle. When that column was discontinued in 1938, Caen proposed a column on the city itself. An astounding and unduplicated feat, by far the longest-running newspaper column in the country. ,9 What makes him unique, readers who turned to Herb on Feb.14,1966, learned that Willie Mays home was on the market for $110,000. The Bank of America now owned the block where it wanted to build its headquarters, dr. Zhivago director David Lean was in town. Meanwhile, Mike Connolly is ready to concede that the situation in Vietnam is complex, Caen had considerable influence on popular culture, particularly its language. He coined the term beatnik in 1958 and popularized hippie during San Franciscos 1967 Summer of Love and he popularized obscure—often playful—terms such as Frisbeetarianism, and ribbed nearby Berkeley as Berserkeley for its often-radical politics. Waiter Edsel Ford Fung, who became famous for berating and insulting the customers, all with tongue in cheek, died Tuesday at age 55, and the skinny old eating place is in mourning. Edsel, always a fellow with a flair, added the Ford and hinted broadly that he was related to the auto family, by the way, there is no Sam Wo at Sam Wo. The name means something analogous to Three Happiness, but there is only sadness there this week, though Caen relied on an army of reliable tipsters all items were fact-checked. Now and then an item was credited to a mysterious Strange de Jim, sometimes suspected to be a Caen alter ego, de Jim was revealed after Caens death to be a Castro District writer who, despite several coy interviews with the press, remains publicly anonymous. Caen took special pleasure in seeing what he could sneak by his editors—his naughties, such as this item about a shopper looking for a Barbie doll,15 On Sundays, current items were set aside in favor of Mr. For an eternity, the victim twitched in spasm after spasm, doesnt hurt a bit, the warden had said. And from that day on, having been made aware of the States awful vengeance. You bet.94 On December 12,1960 Caen wrote, While youre making out your Christmas cards, you remember to send one to Francis Gary Powers, c/o American Embassy, Moscow. Let him know that U-2 havent forgotten, Powers received almost a hundred cards, most from the San Francisco Bay Area. A collection of essays, Baghdad-by-the-Bay was published in 1949, the Cable Car and the Dragon, a childrens picture book, was published in 1972. In April 1996 Caen received a special Pulitzer Prize for extraordinary, the following month doctors treating him for pneumonia discovered he had inoperable lung cancer
28.
Don Siegel
–
Donald Siegel was an American film director and producer. His name variously appeared in the credits of his films as both Don Siegel and Donald Siegel, born to a Jewish family in Chicago, he attended schools in New York and later graduated from Jesus College, Cambridge in England. For a short time he studied at Beaux Arts in Paris, France, in 1945 two shorts he directed, Star in the Night and Hitler Lives, won Academy Awards, which launched his career as a feature director. He directed whatever material came his way, often transcending the limitations of budget and script to produce interesting and he made the original Invasion of the Body Snatchers in 1956. He directed two episodes of The Twilight Zone, The Self-Improvement of Salvadore Ross and Uncle Simon and he was a considerable influence on Eastwoods own career as a director, and Eastwoods film Unforgiven is dedicated for Don and Sergio. He had a collaboration with composer Lalo Schifrin, who scored five of his films, Coogans Bluff, The Beguiled, Dirty Harry, Charley Varrick. Schifrin composed and recorded what would have been his sixth score for Siegel on Jinxed, but it was rejected by the studio despite Siegels objections. This was one of several fights Siegel had on this, his last film, Siegel was also important to the career of director Sam Peckinpah. In 1954, Peckinpah was hired as a coach for Riot in Cell Block 11. His job entailed acting as an assistant to the director, Siegel, the film was shot on location at Folsom Prison. Siegels location work and his use of prisoners as extras in the film made a lasting impression on Peckinpah. He worked as a coach on four additional Siegel films, Private Hell 36, An Annapolis Story, Invasion of the Body Snatchers. 25 years later, Peckinpah was all but banished from the due to his troubled film productions. Siegel gave the director a chance to return to filmmaking and he asked Peckinpah if he would be interested in directing 12 days of second unit work on Jinxed. Peckinpah immediately accepted, and his earnest collaboration with his friend was noted within the industry. While Peckinpahs work was uncredited, it would lead to his hiring as the director of his final film The Osterman Weekend. He has a role as a bartender in Eastwoods Play Misty for Me, and in Philip Kaufmans 1978 Invasion of the Body Snatchers. In Charley Varrick starring Walter Matthau, he has a cameo as a ping-pong player, from 1948 to 1953 he was married to actress Viveca Lindfors, with whom he had a son, Kristoffer Tabori
29.
Dirty Harry
–
Dirty Harry is a 1971 American action thriller film produced and directed by Don Siegel, the first in the Dirty Harry series. Clint Eastwood plays the role, in his first outing as San Francisco Police Department Inspector Dirty Harry Callahan. The film drew upon the case of the Zodiac Killer as the Callahan character seeks out a similar vicious psychopath. Dirty Harry was a critical and commercial success and set the style for a genre of police films. It was followed by four sequels, Magnum Force in 1973, The Enforcer in 1976, Sudden Impact in 1983, in 2012, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant. A psychopathic serial killer calling himself Scorpio shoots a woman in a San Francisco swimming pool from a nearby rooftop. The chief of police and the mayor assign the inspector to the case, while in a local diner, Callahan observes a bank robbery in progress. He goes outside, wielding his Smith & Wesson Model 29 revolver, Callahan then challenges him, I know what you’re thinking, Did he fire six shots or only five. Well, to tell you the truth, in all this excitement, but being this is a.44 Magnum, the most powerful handgun in the world, and would blow your head clean off, you’ve got to ask yourself one question, Do I feel lucky. After the robber surrenders, he tells Callahan that he must know if the gun was still loaded, Callahan pulls the trigger, with the weapon pointed directly at the robber, and laughs, as it is revealed to be empty. Scorpio targets a gay male, but is interrupted by a police helicopter. Later that night, Callahan and his partner, Chico Gonzalez pursue a likely suspect. Following that, Callahan successfully halts a suicide attempt, after which he reveals that the origin of his nickname comes from the fact that he is given every dirty job to do. When Scorpio kills a black boy from another rooftop, the police believe the killer will next pursue a Catholic priest. Scorpio escapes, killing a police officer disguised as a priest, Scorpio then demands $200,000 for a teenage girl he has kidnapped, threatening to let her suffocate otherwise. The mayor decides to pay and tells Callahan to deliver the money with no tricks, but the inspector wears a covert listening device, brings a switchblade, and has his partner follow him. As Scorpio sends Callahan to various payphones throughout the city to make sure he is alone, Scorpio brutally beats Callahan and tells him hes going to kill him and let the girl die anyway, Gonzalez comes to his partners rescue but is wounded. Callahan stabs Scorpio in the leg, but the killer escapes without the money, the doctor who has treated Scorpios wound phones the police and tells Callahan and his new partner that he has seen Scorpio in Kezar Stadium
30.
American Civil Liberties Union
–
It works through litigation and lobbying. The ACLU has 1,000,000 members and a budget of over $100 million. Local affiliates of the ACLU are active in almost all 50 states, the District of Columbia, the ACLU provides legal assistance in cases when it considers civil liberties to be at risk. In addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions that have established by its board of directors. The two organizations share office space and employees, during the 1930s, the ACLU started to engage in work combating police misconduct and supporting Native American rights. Many of the ACLUs cases involved the defense of Communist party members, in 1940, the ACLU leadership voted to exclude Communists from its leadership positions, a decision rescinded in 1968. During World War II, the ACLU defended Japanese-American citizens, unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to internment camps, during the Cold War, the ACLU headquarters was dominated by anti-Communists, but many local affiliates defended members of the Communist Party. By 1964, membership had risen to 80,000, in the 1960s, the ACLU continued its decades-long effort to enforce separation of church and state. It defended several anti-war activists during the Vietnam War, in the 1970s and 1980s, the ACLU ventured into new legal areas, involving the rights of homosexuals, students, prisoners, and the poor. Fundraising and membership spiked after the 2016 election, the ACLUs current membership is more than 1.2 million, the ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, Susan N. Herman and Anthony Romero, respectively, in 2015. The president acts as chairman of the ACLUs board of directors, leads fundraising, the executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the organization. The board of directors consists of 80 persons, including representatives from each state affiliate, the organization has its headquarters in 125 Broad Street, a 40-story skyscraper located in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions, in 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Fords right to distribute anti-union literature. In 1939, a debate took place over whether to prohibit communists from serving in ACLU leadership roles. During the early 1950s and Cold War McCarthyism, the board was divided on whether to defend communists, in 1968, a schism formed over whether to represent Dr. Spocks anti-war activism. In 1973, there was conflict over whether to call for the impeachment of Richard Nixon. In 2005, there was conflict about whether or not a gag rule should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent publication of internal disputes. Membership dues are treated as donations, members choose the amount they pay annually, in the year ending March 31,2014, the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were $133.4 million, spent on programs, management, and fundraising
31.
American Jewish Congress
–
Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, Felix Frankfurter, U. S. In addition to its goals of equal rights for all, it was founded to broaden Jewish leadership. It became effective as a group in 1928 under the leadership of Rabbi Wise. The head of the AJC is Jack Rosen, throughout the 1930s, Rabbi Wise was vocal in his warnings about the dangers of Nazism. When Adolf Hitler was named chancellor of Germany on January 30,1933, Wise organized a mass protest rally at Madison Square Garden, in New York City. He did this despite opposition by the German government, the U. S. State Department. The American Jewish Congress continued to organize protest rallies throughout the 1930s and 1940s, in August 1933 the American Jewish Congress led a general boycott of German goods. In 1934, Daniel Marks was named head of the AJC and he traveled to Germany and brought 5,000 Jews to America. In 1936 the American Jewish Congress was instrumental in establishing the World Jewish Congress, maintaining his position as president of the AJCongress, Rabbi Wise was also elected president of the WJC. During World War II, the AJCongress acted as a liaison between the U. S. government and the WJC on issues relating to rescue attempts made on behalf of European Jews. In August 1942, Rabbi Wise received a cable from Gerhard Riegner, Riegner reported that the Nazis had planned, and were implementing a policy to exterminate all of European Jewry, the cable also referred specifically to the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp. After the State Department confirmed the accuracy of the information in the cable, now known as the Riegner telegram, the committee sought to coordinate the major Jewish organizations in the United States to lobby the Roosevelt administration to take increased measures rescuing European Jews. In December 1942 the American Jewish Congress established a Planning Committee, the committee was never more than marginally successful in mobilizing American public support for rescue efforts. The most impressive of these projects was another rally at Madison Square Garden, held on March 1,1943, the rally drew a crowd of 70,000. Similar rallies were held in a number of cities throughout the United States. In August 1943 Rabbi Stephen Wise met Jan Karski, the American Jewish Congress was pro-Zionist in its platform. Its leadership overlapped with that of the Zionist Organization of America, as a result, the two organizations agreed to concentrate on different tasks during the war. The American Jewish Congress dedicated itself to rescuing European Jews, while the ZOA worked to establish a Jewish state in Palestine and this arrangement continued after the war, although its significance decreased after the creation of the state of Israel in 1948
32.
American Atheists
–
American Atheists is a non-profit activist organization in the United States dedicated to defending the civil liberties of atheists and advocating for the complete separation of church and state. It provides speakers for colleges, universities, clubs and the news media and it also publishes books and the quarterly American Atheist Magazine, currently edited by Pamela Whissel. The organization was founded by Madalyn Murray OHair in 1963, following her role in removing mandatory prayer from public schools, both Schempp and Murray challenged mandatory prayer in public schools. Over the years American Atheists has filed lawsuits against public institutions considered to have breached the wall of separation between church and state. The organization, which has approximately 2,200 members, is headquartered in Cranford, the consolidated case, usually cited as Abington School District v. Schempp, was argued before the United States Supreme Court on February 27 and February 28,1963. In her opening statement, Madalyn Murray said, in part, Your petitioners are atheists, an atheist loves his fellow man instead of god. An atheist believes that heaven is something for which we should work now – here on earth for all men together to enjoy. An atheist believes that he can get no help through prayer but that he must find in himself the inner conviction and strength to meet life, to grapple with it, to subdue it, and enjoy it. An atheist believes that only in a knowledge of himself and a knowledge of his fellow man can he find the understanding that help to a life of fulfillment. He seeks to know himself and his fellow man rather than to know a god, an atheist believes that a hospital should be built instead of a church. An atheist believes that a deed must be instead of a prayer said. An atheist strives for involvement in life and not escape into death and he wants disease conquered, poverty vanquished, war eliminated. He wants man to understand and love man and he wants an ethical way of life. He believes that we rely on a god or channel action into prayer nor hope for an end of troubles in a hereafter. He believes that we are our brothers keepers and are keepers of our own lives, that we are responsible persons and the job is here, the justices rendered their decision on June 17,1963. It was in favor of the petitioners, 8-1 and they ruled that state-mandated prayer and unison bible readings in public schools were a violation of the Establishment Clause in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Justice Potter Stewart was the sole dissenter, on August 27,1995, Madalyn, Jon and Robin OHair disappeared from the organizations former Austin, Texas, headquarters, along with over $550,000 of the organizations funds. The three had been abducted, robbed and murdered by ex-convict and former employee David Waters, ellen Johnson succeeded Madalyn OHair after her disappearance
33.
Salazar v. Buono
–
Salazar v. Buono,559 U. S.700 was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States regarding the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The case concerned the legality of the Mojave Memorial Cross, a Latin cross which was placed atop a prominent rock outcropping, by the VFW foundation, the location is known as “Sunrise Rock” in the Mojave National Preserve in San Bernardino County in southeastern California. The Supreme Court ruled that the cross may stay, but also sent the case back to a lower court, currently, there is a cross atop Sunrise Rock that is between 5 and 8 feet tall and is constructed out of 4-inch-diameter metal pipes painted white. Historical records reflect that a cross was built on that location as early as 1934 by the Veterans of Foreign Wars as a memorial to veterans who died in World War I. Photographs depict the cross and signs near it stating, “The Cross, Erected in Memory of the Dead of All Wars, ” and “Erected 1934 by Members of Veterans of Foreign Wars, Joshua Tree post 2884. ”The wooden signs are no longer present, and the original wooden cross. The cross has been an intermittent gathering place for Easter religious services since as early as 1935, the current version of the cross was built by Henry Sandoz, a local resident, sometime in 1998. When the National Park Service investigated the history of the cross, Sandoz explained that he drilled holes into Sunrise Rock to bolt the cross in place, Sandoz did not receive a permit from NPS to construct the cross. No sign indicates that the cross was or is intended to act as a memorial for war veterans, in 1999, NPS received a request from an individual seeking to build a stupa on a rock outcropping at a trailhead located near the cross. NPS denied that request, citing 36 C. F. R, §2.62 as prohibiting the installation of a memorial without authorization. A handwritten note on the denial letter warned that “ny attempt to erect a stupa will be in violation of Federal Law and it is our intention to have the cross removed. ”In 1999, NPS undertook a study of the history of the cross. NPS determined that neither the nor the property on which it is situated qualifies for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. Specifically, NPS recognized that the cross itself “has been replaced many times and the plaque that once accompanied it has been removed. ”Also, the property does not qualify as a site because, among other things, “the site is used for religious purposes as well as commemoration. ”Following the announcement by NPS of its intention to remove the cross. The first piece of legislation, enacted in December 2000, provided that no government funds could be used to remove the cross. Frank Buono, a former NPS employee, filed suit in March 2001 against the Secretary of the Department of the Interior, the Regional Director of NPS, and the Superintendent of the Preserve. The district court concluded that the presence of the cross in the Preserve violates the Establishment Clause. ”In January 2002, while this matter was pending in court, Congress passed a defense appropriations bill. In June 2004, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed the district court’s permanent injunction, despite the injunction against display of the cross in the Preserve, the government began moving forward with the mechanics of the land exchange under §8121. Buono moved to enforce the district court’s prior injunction, or modify it to prohibit the exchange as a violation of the Establishment Clause. In April 2005, the court granted Buono’s motion to enforce the injunction
34.
Mount Rubidoux
–
Mount Rubidoux is a mountain just west of the city of Riverside, California, United States, that has been designated a city park and landmark. The mountain was once a popular Southern California tourist destination and is still the site of the oldest outdoor non-denominational Easter Sunrise service in the United States. Many historic markers and memorials have been placed on the mountain, the Santa Ana River flows at the base of the mountain, marking the boundary between the city of Riverside and the Rubidoux neighborhood of the ttc City of Jurupa Valley. Tom Patterson, as well as most local Riverside historians, have concluded that the name of Mount Rubidoux was Pachappa. They speculate that one of the owners of Rancho Jurupa reassigned the name Pachappa to another, smaller hill. It is also possible the United States government renamed the hills in order to satisfy requirements of the original Mexican land Grant. Originally the park was named Huntington Park, but the name was changed to the Frank A. Miller Mount Rubidoux Memorial Park after the heirs of Frank Miller donated the property to the city in 1955. On December 13,1925, the Testimonial Peace Tower was dedicated to Miller, the bridge is a replica of a noted bridge in Alcántara, Spain. A plaque for 1932 Olympic equestrian Shunzo Kido was placed on the bridge in 1934 honoring his sacrifice of an Olympic medal in order to save his horse, Kyu Gun, initial improvements, including the road, were completed in February 1907. The first memorial marker on the mountain, the cross and tablet at the summit honoring Father Junipero Serra, was dedicated on April 26,1907, Serra supposedly often travelled through the valley and rested at Rubidoux Rancho. Mount Rubidoux was designated Riverside City Landmark no,26, and has been a city park since 1955, when the land was donated to the city by Frank Millers heirs. In April 1909, Jacob Riis of New York, a friend of President Theodore Roosevelt, was in town to give an address at the Mission Inn. “Also Mt. Rubidoux has a beautiful veiw, it is one of the best things on the mountain. ”In 1912 an estimated crowd of 3,000 people were present to hear Henry Van Dyke read his poem, God of the Open Air. In 1918 plans for an open-air 10, 000-seat amphitheater designed by architect Frederick Heath were considered, the annual service became nationally and internationally known, drawing huge crowds and celebrities, including opera soprano Marcella Craft. In 1915 the Southern Pacific Railroad provided a service from Los Angeles to Riverside just for the event. The Pacific Electric trolley system also implemented special service from Los Angeles, Corona, Redlands, peak attendance in the 1920s was reported to have exceeded 30,000. The popularity of the Rubidoux Easter sunrise services spawned many other services throughout the country. Mount Rubidoux continues to be an important landmark and valued asset to the people of Riverside, on April 12,2009, the 100th anniversary of the Easter Sunrise service was held at the top of Mount Rubidoux
35.
Geographic Names Information System
–
It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
36.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
37.
49-Mile Scenic Drive
–
The 49-Mile Scenic Drive is a designated scenic road tour highlighting much of San Francisco, California. It was created in 1938 by the San Francisco Down Town Association to showcase the citys major attractions, originally beginning at San Francisco City Hall and ending on Treasure Island, the route has been modified several times since. Today the route forms a loop proceeding counterclockwise from Civic Center Plaza, owing variously to its length, its labyrinthine route, and the difficulty of driving through a bustling city, the drive remains relatively unpopular with tourists and locals alike. The drive begins on Polk St opposite San Francisco City Hall, after entering Japantown, the drive turns north onto Webster Street before immediately returning east along Post Street, where it continues past Japan Center, Lower Nob Hill, and Union Square. At Grant Avenue, the route turns north and enters Chinatown through its Dragon Gate. Drivers are soon directed onto California Street and up Nob Hill, at Portsmouth Square, the route proceeds north along Kearny Street for two blocks and turns northwest onto Columbus Avenue, entering North Beach. After passing City Lights Bookstore and turning onto Grant Avenue once more, passing the Joe DiMaggio Playground, the route turns north toward Fishermans Wharf on Mason Street. Over the next few miles, the route passes nearly all of San Franciscos Golden Gate National Recreation Area locations, continuing for a few blocks each on Baker, Bay, Broderick, Chestnut, and Lyon Streets, the route enters the Presidio at Lombard Street. At 8.6 miles, the passes the Letterman Digital Arts Center, proceeds onto Presidio Boulevard. The route detours through the Presidios Main Post before returning to Lincoln Boulevard near San Francisco National Cemetery. Passing above Crissy Field and Fort Point, under the U. S. Highway 101 approach to the Golden Gate Bridge, and above Baker Beach, the route exits the Presidio into Sea Cliff. Continuing along El Camino del Mar into Lincoln Park, the passes the Legion of Honor. Turing westward onto Geary Boulevard, drivers proceed several blocks and continue onto Point Lobos Avenue, soon reaching the Sutro Baths, briefly skirting the Haight-Ashbury and Cole Valley neighborhoods, the route ascends Parnassus Street and passes the University of California, San Franciscos main campus. Turning south onto 7th Avenue in the Inner Sunset, the route curves around Mount Sutro, from Twin Peaks Boulevard, drivers are directed into the north peaks parking area and offered unobstructed views of the city below. The route then descends into Corona Heights—built to take advantage of the views at this height. Winding its way down the hill, the route takes drivers past the Randall Museum before descending east along 14th Street into San Franciscos prominent gay neighborhood, at Cesar Chavez Street, the route continues east through Potrero Hill before abruptly directing drivers onto northbound I-280. After about 40 miles of streets, the route travels along I-280 for the final 1.5 miles of that freeway, exiting near Mission Bay. It winds along The Embarcadero and underneath the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge—once the final leg of the route before its Treasure Island terminus, at Market Street, the route crosses in front of the Ferry Building and shortly thereafter turns westward along Washington Street to enter the Financial District
38.
Alcatraz Island
–
Alcatraz Island is located in San Francisco Bay,1.25 miles offshore from San Francisco, California, United States. The small island was developed with facilities for a lighthouse, a fortification, a military prison. In 1972, Alcatraz became part of a recreation area. Today, the facilities are managed by the National Park Service as part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Visitors can reach the island by ferry ride from Pier 33, near Fishermans Wharf, hornblower Cruises and Events, operating under the name Alcatraz Cruises, is the official ferry provider to and from the island. According to a 1971 documentary on the history of Alcatraz, the island measures 1,675 feet by 590 feet and is 135 feet at highest point during mean tide, however, the total area of the island is reported to be 22 acres. Over the years, the Spanish version Alcatraz became popular and is now widely used, in August 1827, French Captain Auguste Bernard Duhaut-Cilly wrote. Covered with a number of these birds. A gun fired over the feathered legions caused them to fly up in a great cloud, the California brown pelican is not known to nest on the island today. The Spanish built several buildings on the island and other minor structures. Julian Workman is the name of William Workman, co-owner of Rancho La Puente. Later in 1846, acting in his capacity as Military Governor of California, frémont, champion of Manifest Destiny and leader of the Bear Flag Republic, bought the island for $5,000 in the name of the United States government from Francis Temple. Frémont and his heirs sued for compensation during protracted but unsuccessful legal battles that extended into the 1890s. S, Army began studying the suitability of Alcatraz Island for the positioning of coastal batteries to protect the approaches to San Francisco Bay. In 1853, under the direction of Zealous B, tower, the United States Army Corps of Engineers began fortifying the island, work which continued until 1858, eventuating in Fortress Alcatraz. The islands first garrison at Camp Alcatraz, numbering about 200 soldiers and 11 cannons, at this time it also served as the San Francisco Arsenal for storage of firearms to prevent them falling into the hands of Confederate sympathizers. Alcatraz, built as a fortified military site on the West Coast, formed a triangle of defense along with Fort Point and Lime Point. The island was also the site of the first operational lighthouse on the West Coast of the United States, Alcatraz never fired its guns offensively, though during the war it was used to imprison Confederate sympathizers and privateers on the west coast. Because of its isolation from the outside by the cold, strong, hazardous currents of the waters of San Francisco Bay, following the war in 1866, the army determined that the fortifications and guns were being rapidly rendered obsolete by advances in military technology
39.
San Francisco cable car system
–
The San Francisco cable car system is the worlds last manually operated cable car system. An icon of San Francisco, the car system forms part of the intermodal urban transport network operated by the San Francisco Municipal Railway. Of the 23 lines established between 1873 and 1890, only three remain, two routes from downtown near Union Square to Fishermans Wharf, and a route along California Street. While the cable cars are used to an extent by commuters. They are among the most significant tourist attractions in the city, along with Alcatraz Island, the Golden Gate Bridge, the cable cars are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The cable cars are not to be confused with San Franciscos heritage streetcars, which operate on Market Street, the first successful cable-operated street railway was the Clay Street Hill Railroad, which opened on August 2,1873. The promoter of the line was Hallidie, and the engineer was William Eppelsheimer, the line involved the use of grip cars, which carried the grip that engaged with the cable, towing trailer cars, the design was the first to use grips. The term grip became synonymous with the operator, the line started regular service on September 1,1873, and its success led it to become the template for other cable car transit systems. It was a success, and Hallidies patents were enforced on other cable car promoters. Accounts differ as to exactly how involved Hallidie was in the inception of the line, the next cable car line to open was the Sutter Street Railway, which converted from horse operation in 1877. This line introduced the side grip, and lever operation, both designed by Henry Casebolt and his assistant Asa Hovey, and patented by Henry Casebolt. This idea was brought about because Casebolt did not want to pay Hallidie royalties of $50,000 a year for use of his patent, the side grip allowed cable cars to cross at intersections. In 1878, Leland Stanford opened his California Street Cable Railroad and this companys first line was on California Street and is the oldest cable car line still in operation. In 1880, the Geary Street, Park & Ocean Railway began operation, the Presidio and Ferries Railway followed two years later, and was the first cable company to include curves on its routes. The curves were let-go curves, where the car drops the cable, in 1883, the Market Street Cable Railway opened its first line. This company was controlled by the Southern Pacific Railroad and was to grow to become San Franciscos largest cable car operator. At its peak, it operated five lines all of which converged into Market Street to a terminus at the Ferry Building, during rush hours, cars left that terminus every 15 seconds. In 1888, the Ferries and Cliff House Railway opened its initial two-line system, the Powell-Mason line is still operated on the same route today, their other route was the Powell-Washington-Jackson line, stretches of which are used by todays Powell-Hyde line
40.
Castro District, San Francisco
–
The Castro District, commonly referenced as The Castro, is a neighborhood in Eureka Valley in San Francisco. The Castro was one of the first gay neighborhoods in the United States, San Franciscos gay village is mostly concentrated in the business district that is located on Castro Street from Market Street to 19th Street. It extends down Market Street toward Church Street and on sides of the Castro neighborhood from Church Street to Eureka Street. Some consider it to include Duboce Triangle and Dolores Heights, which both have a strong LGBT presence and it reappears in several discontinuous sections before ultimately terminating at Chenery Street, in the heart of Glen Park. Castro Street was named for José Castro, a Californian leader of Mexican opposition to U. S. rule in California in the 19th century, and alcalde of Alta California from 1835 to 1836. The neighborhood now known as the Castro was created in 1887 when the Market Street Railway Company built a line linking Eureka Valley to downtown. In 1891, Alfred E. Clarke built his mansion at the corner of Douglass and it survived the 1906 earthquake and fire which destroyed a large portion of San Francisco. Up to the 19th century, the possession of the Russian Empire in North America included the modern-day U. S. State of Alaska and settlements in the modern-day U. S. states of California. These Russian possessions were collectively and officially referred to by the name Russian America from 1733 to 1867, formal incorporation of the possessions by Russia did not take place until the establishment of the Russian-American Company in 1799. At the time, Russia was a young naval power. From the start, in 1840–1865, three consecutive Finnish pastors served this pastorate, Uno Cygnaeus, Gabriel Plathán and Georg Gustaf Winter, the Finns Aaron Sjöstrom and Otto Reinhold Rehn served as the parish organists/sextons during the same period. In 1841, under the governorship of Russian America by Finnish Arvid Adolf Etholén, during the final three decades of the existence of Russian America, Finnish Chief Managers of Russian America included Arvid Adolf Etholén in 1840–1845 and Johan Hampus Furuhjelm in 1859–1864. A third Finn, Johan Joachim von Bartram, declined the offer for the term between 1850 and 1855. All three were high ranking Imperial naval officers, in reference to San Francisco, researcher Maria J. Enckell states the following about the Finns in the Russian-American Company, Russia relied heavily on Finnish seamen. These seamen manned Russian naval ships as well as its deep-sea-going vessels, Company records show that in the early 1800s these ships were crewed predominantly by merchant seamen from Finland. From 1840 onward the Companys around-the-world ships were manned entirely by Finnish merchant skippers, Most Company ships stationed in Sitka and the Northern Pacific were likewise manned by Finnish skippers and Finnish crews. During the California Gold Rush and in its aftermath, a substantial Finnish population had settled in San Francisco, accordingly, Kalevalas visit in the city received a very warm welcome and created much attention. In addition to the Finnish-built corvette Kalevala now returning to the U. S, Finnish officers serving in the squadron included Theodor Kristian Avellan, who later became the Minister of Naval Affairs of the Russian Empire
41.
Chinatown, San Francisco
–
The Chinatown centered on Grant Avenue and Stockton Street in San Francisco, California, is the oldest Chinatown in North America and the largest Chinese community outside Asia. It is the oldest of the four notable Chinatowns in the city, since its establishment in 1848, it has been highly important and influential in the history and culture of ethnic Chinese immigrants in North America. Chinatown is an enclave that continues to retain its own customs, languages, places of worship, social clubs, there are two hospitals, numerous parks and squares, a post office, and other infrastructure. Chinatown has been defined by the neighborhoods of North Beach, and Telegraph Hill areas as bound by Bush Street, Taylor Street, Bay Street. Officially, Chinatown is located in downtown San Francisco, covers 24 square blocks, within Chinatown there are two major thoroughfares. It is dominated by buildings that are three to four stories high, with shops on the ground floor and residential apartments upstairs. A major focal point in Chinatown is Portsmouth Square, since it is one of the few open spaces in Chinatown and sits above a large underground parking lot, Portsmouth Square bustles with activity such as Tai Chi and old men playing Chinese chess. A replica of the Goddess of Democracy used in the Tiananmen Square protest was built in 1999 by Thomas Marsh and it is made of bronze and weighs approximately 600 lb. According to the San Francisco Planning Department, Chinatown is the most densely populated area west of Manhattan. In the 1970s, the density in Chinatown was seven times the San Francisco average. The estimated total population in the 2000 Census was at 100,574 residents, during the time from 2009 to 2013, the median household income was $20,000 - compared to $76,000 citywide - with 29% of residents below the national poverty threshold. The median age was 50 years, the oldest of any neighborhood, as of 2015, two thirds of the residents lived in one of Chinatowns 105 single room occupancy hotels,96 of which had private owners and nine were owned by nonprofits. Most residents are speakers of Mandarin or Cantonese, in 2015. Many of those Chinese immigrants who gain some wealth while living in Chinatown leave it for the Richmond District, working-class Hong Kong Chinese immigrants began arriving in large numbers in the 1960s. Despite their status and professional qualifications in Hong Kong, many took low-paying employment in restaurants, an increase in Cantonese-speaking immigrants from Hong Kong and Mainland China has gradually led to the replacement in Chinatown of the Hoisanese/Taishanese dialect by the standard Cantonese dialect. These outer neighborhoods have been settled largely by Chinese from Southeast Asia, there are also many suburban Chinese communities in the San Francisco Bay Area, especially in Silicon Valley, such as Cupertino, Fremont, and Milpitas, where Taiwanese Americans are dominant. Despite these developments, many continue to commute in from these neighborhoods and cities to shop in Chinatown, causing gridlock on roads and delays in public transit. To address this problem, the public transit agency, Muni, is planning to extend the citys subway network to the neighborhood via the new Central Subway
42.
San Francisco City Hall
–
San Francisco City Hall is the seat of government for the City and County of San Francisco, California. The structures dome is taller than that of the United States Capitol by 42 feet, the present building replaced an earlier City Hall that was destroyed during the 1906 earthquake, which was two blocks from the present one. It was bounded by Larkin Street, McAllister Street, and City Hall Avenue, largely where the current Public Library and U. N. Plaza stand today. The principal architect was Arthur Brown, Jr. of Bakewell & Brown, whose attention to the finishing details extended to the doorknobs, browns blueprints of the building are preserved at the Bancroft Library at the University of California, Berkeley. Brown also designed the San Francisco War Memorial Opera House, Veterans Building, Temple Emanuel, Coit Tower, the buildings vast open space is more than 500,000 square feet and occupying two full city blocks. It is 390 ft between Van Ness Avenue and Polk Street, and 273 ft between Grove and McAllister Streets and its dome, which owes much to Mansarts Baroque domes of the Val-de-Grâce and Les Invalides in Paris, rises 307.5 ft above the Civic Center Historic District. It is 19 ft higher than the United States Capitol, and has a diameter of 112 ft, resting upon 4 x 50 ton and 4 x 20 ton girders, each 9 ft deep and 60 ft. The building as a whole contains 7,900 tons of steel from the American Bridge Company of Ambridge. It is faced with Madera County granite on the exterior, and Indiana sandstone within, together with finish marbles from Alabama, Colorado, Vermont, much of the statuary is by Henri Crenier. The Rotunda is a space and the upper levels are public. Opposite the grand staircase, on the floor, is the office of the Mayor. A bust of former county supervisor Harvey Milk, who was assassinated in the building was unveiled on May 22,2008, MAYOR1931 The words were written by the previous Mayor Edward Robeson Taylor, and dedicated by Mayor James Rolph. The medallions in the vaults of the Rotunda are of Equality, Liberty, Strength, Learning and, as memorialized in the South Light Court display, Progress. The current City Hall building is a replacement for a building which was completed in 1899 after 27 years of planning. The original city hall was a larger building which also contained a smaller extension which contained the citys Hall of Records. The building was destroyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, after Arthur Brown Juniors design was selected, construction started in 1913 and was completed by 1915, in time for the Exposition. The main rotunda had also served as the location of prominent state funerals. General Fredrick Funston, hero of the Spanish–American War, Philippine–American War, joe DiMaggio and Marilyn Monroe were married at City Hall in 1954
