1.
MPEG LA
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MPEG LA is not affiliated with MPEG, the Moving Picture Experts Group. MPEG LA started operations in July 1997 immediately after receiving a Department of Justice Business Review Letter, in June 2012, MPEG LA announced a call for patents essential to the High Efficiency Video Coding standard. In September 2012, MPEG LA launched Librassay, which makes diagnostic patent rights from some of the leading research institutions available to everyone through a single license. On September 29,2014, the MPEG LA announced their HEVC license which covers the patents from 23 companies, the license is US$0.20 per HEVC product after the first 100,000 units each year with an annual cap. The license has been expanded to include the profiles in version 2 of the HEVC standard, on March 5,2015, the MPEG LA announced their DisplayPort license which is US$0.20 per DisplayPort product. MPEG LA has claimed that video codecs such as Theora and VP8 infringe on patents owned by its licensors and they then called out for “any party that believes it has patents that are essential to the VP8 video codec”. In April 2013, Google and MPEG LA announced an agreement covering the VP8 video format, the United States District Court for the Central District of California dismissed the suit with prejudice on November 29,2010. The MPEG-2 patent pool began with 100 patents in 1997 and since then additional patents have been added, as of 2013 the number of active/expired patents in the MPEG-2 patent pool is over 1,000. The MPEG-2 license agreement states that if possible the license fee will not increase when new patents are added, the MPEG-2 license agreement states that MPEG-2 royalties must be paid when there is one or more active patents in either the country of manufacture or the country of sale. The original MPEG-2 license rate was $4 for a license, $4 for an encoding license. For products from January 1,2002 through December 31,2009 royalties were $2.50 for a license, $2.50 for an encoding license. Since January 1,2010, MPEG-2 patent pool royalties are $2.00 for a license, $2.00 for an encoding license. The following organizations hold one or more patents in MPEG LAs H. 264/AVC patent pool, Fujitsu Limited Hewlett-Packard Company Hitachi, Ltd. JVC Kenwood Corporation Koninklijke Philips Electronics N. V. LG Electronics Inc, microsoft Corporation Mitsubishi Electric Corporation NTT docomo Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation Panasonic Corporation Polycom, Inc. Robert Bosch GmbH Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd, sedna Patent Services, LLC Sharp Corporation Siemens AG Sony Corporation Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York Toshiba Corporation Vidyo, Inc. ZTE Corporation The following organizations hold one or more patents in the HEVC patent pool, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute of Korea Fujitsu Limited Hitachi Maxell, Ltd. JVC KENWOOD Corporation Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Korean Broadcasting System KT Corp, Nippon Hoso Kyokai Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation NTT docomo Orange SA Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd. Siemens AG SK Telecom Tagivan II, LLC The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York Vidyo, the following organizations hold one or more patents in the VC-1 patent pool
2.
MPEG transport stream
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MPEG transport stream is a standard digital container format for transmission and storage of audio, video, and Program and System Information Protocol data. It is used in broadcast systems such as Digital Video Broadcasting, ATSC, further, a transport stream may carry multiple programs. Transport stream is specified in MPEG-2 Part 1, Systems, formally known as ISO/IEC standard 13818-1 or ITU-T Rec, many unrelated streams are often mixed together, such as several different television channels, or multiple angles of a movie. This is particularly important for videoconferencing, where one large frame may introduce unacceptable audio delay. A packet is the unit of data in a transport stream. Each packet starts with a byte and a header, that may be followed with optional additional headers. All header fields are read as big-endian, the 188-byte packet size was originally chosen for compatibility with ATM systems. Each table or elementary stream in a stream is identified by a 13-bit packet identifier. A demultiplexer extracts elementary streams from the stream in part by looking for packets identified by the same PID. In most applications, time-division multiplexing will be used to decide how often a particular PID appears in the transport stream, Transport stream has a concept of programs. Every single program is described by a Program Map Table which has a unique PID, for instance, a transport stream used in digital television might contain three programs, to represent three television channels. Suppose each channel consists of one stream, one or two audio streams, and any necessary metadata. A receiver wishing to decode a particular channel merely has to decode the payloads of each PID associated with its program and it can discard the contents of all other PIDs. A transport stream with more than one program is referred to as MPTS - Multi Program Transport Stream, a single program transport stream is referred to as SPTS - Single Program Transport Stream. There are 4 PSI tables, Program Association, Program Map, Conditional Access, the MPEG-2 specification does not specify the format of the CAT and NIT. PAT stands for Program Association Table and it lists all programs available in the transport stream. Each of the programs is identified by a 16-bit value called program_number. Each of the programs listed in PAT has a value of PID for its Program Map Table
3.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
4.
International Electrotechnical Commission
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The IEC also manages three global conformity assessment systems that certify whether equipment, system or components conform to its International Standards. The first International Electrical Congress took place in 1881 at the International Exposition of Electricity, at that time the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units was agreed to. The IEC was instrumental in developing and distributing standards for units of measurement, particularly Gauss, Hertz and it also first proposed a system of standards, the Giorgi System, which ultimately became the SI, or Système International d’unités. In 1938, it published a multilingual international vocabulary to unify terminology relating to electrical, electronic and this effort continues, and the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary remains an important work in the electrical and electronic industries. The CISPR – in English, the International Special Committee on Radio Interference – is one of the groups founded by the IEC, originally located in London, the commission moved to its current headquarters in Geneva in 1948. It has regional centres in Asia-Pacific, Latin America and North America, today, the IEC is the worlds leading international organization in its field, and its standards are adopted as national standards by its members. The work is done by some 10,000 electrical and electronics experts from industry, government, academia, test labs, IEC standards have numbers in the range 60000–79999 and their titles take a form such as IEC60417, Graphical symbols for use on equipment. Following the Dresden Agreement with CENELEC the numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000, for example IEC27 became IEC60027. Standards of the 60000 series are also preceded by EN to indicate that the IEC standard is also adopted by CENELEC as a European standard. The IEC cooperates closely with the International Organization for Standardization and the International Telecommunication Union, Standards developed jointly with ISO such as ISO/IEC26300, ISO/IEC27001, and CASCO ISO/IEC17000 series, carry the acronym of both organizations. The use of the ISO/IEC prefix covers publications from ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 - Information Technology, as well as conformity assessment standards developed by ISO CASCO, other standards developed in cooperation between IEC and ISO are assigned numbers in the 80000 series, such as IEC 82045-1. IEC standards are also being adopted by other certifying bodies such as BSI, CSA, UL & ANSI/INCITS, SABS, SAI, SPC/GB, IEC standards adopted by other certifying bodies may have some noted differences from the original IEC standard. The IEC is made up of members, called national committees, national committees are constituted in different ways. Some NCs are public sector only, some are a combination of public and private sector, about 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in industry
5.
Data compression
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In signal processing, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction involves encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Compression can be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy, no information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information, the process of reducing the size of a data file is referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission, it is called coding in opposition to channel coding. Compression is useful because it reduces resources required to store and transmit data, computational resources are consumed in the compression process and, usually, in the reversal of the process. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off, Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy, for example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels, instead of coding red pixel, red pixel. The data may be encoded as 279 red pixels and this is a basic example of run-length encoding, there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy. The Lempel–Ziv compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage, DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in PKZIP, Gzip, and PNG, LZW is used in GIF images. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data, for most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded, current LZ-based coding schemes that perform well are Brotli and LZX. LZX is used in Microsofts CAB format, the best modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as a form of statistical modelling. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string, sequitur and Re-Pair are practical grammar compression algorithms for which software is publicly available. In a further refinement of the use of probabilistic modelling. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols
6.
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone
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The Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, commonly known as NTT, is a Japanese telecommunications company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. Ranked 65th in Fortune Global 500, NTT is the third largest telecommunications company in the world in terms of revenue, the company is incorporated pursuant to the NTT Law. While NTT is listed on Tokyo, Osaka, New York, and London stock exchanges, established as a monopoly government-owned corporation in 1952, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation was privatized in 1985 to encourage competition in the telecom market. In 1987, NTT made the largest stock offering to date, because NTT owns most of the last mile, it enjoys oligopolistic control over land lines in Japan. In order to weaken NTT, the company was divided into a holding company, the NTT Law regulating NTT East and West requires them to serve only short distance communications and obligates them to maintain telephone service all over the country. They are also obligated to lease their unused optical fiber to other carriers at regulated rates, NTT Communications is not regulated by the NTT Law. In July 2010, NTT and South African IT company Dimension Data Holdings announced an agreement of an offer from NTT for Dimension Datas entire issued share capital. In late 2010, NTTs Japan-to-US transpacific network reached 400 Gbit/s, in August 2011, its network capacity was expanded to 500 Gbit/s. NTT East, NTT West, NTT Communications, NTT DoCoMo, NTT DoCoMo and NTT Data are listed on the stock markets. NTT East NTT West NTT Communications NTT MSC Verio Inc NTT America On July 28,2011 and it will power those Bloom fuel cells with biogas instead of natural gas to be more environmental-friendly. NTT Group Website, About NTT Group [Fiscal year ended March 31,2015 / As of March 31,2015, japans Telecom Privatization Finished NTT Group
7.
Leonardo Chiariglione
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Leonardo Chiariglione is an Italian engineer. He earned a masters in Electronic Engineering at the Polytechnic of Turin, then obtained his Ph. D. degree at the University of Tokyo in 1973, Chiariglione speaks seven languages including English and French. From March 1971 until July 2003, he was with CSELT and his final position there was Vice President, Multimedia, at Telecom Italia Lab, the new name given to CSELT in 2001. He has initiated efforts to define internationally agreed specifications, such as DAVIC in 1994. But the project for which he is probably best known started in 1988 and he stepped down from this post in 2001, having expressed frustration about conflicts between the members of the group, which had failed to produce effective anti-piracy specifications. He is currently CEO of cedeo. net, Chiariglione has received the IBC1999 John Tucker Award, IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award, Kilby International Award, and IET Faraday Medal. He was appointed as Distinguished Invited Professor at Information and Communication University, Daejeon, Chiariglione was given Honorary Membership of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers in October 2014. MPEG founder Dr. Leonardo Chiariglione launches Digital Media Project
8.
MPEG-1
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MPEG-1 is a standard for lossy compression of video and audio. Today, MPEG-1 has become the most widely compatible lossy audio/video format in the world, perhaps the best-known part of the MPEG-1 standard is the MP3 audio format it introduced. The MPEG-1 standard is published as ISO/IEC11172 – Information technology—Coding of moving pictures, MPEG was formed to address the need for standard video and audio formats, and to build on H.261 to get better quality through the use of more complex encoding methods. Development of the MPEG-1 standard began in May 1988, fourteen video and fourteen audio codec proposals were submitted by individual companies and institutions for evaluation. The codecs were extensively tested for computational complexity and subjective quality and this specific bitrate was chosen for transmission over T-1/E-1 lines and as the approximate data rate of audio CDs. The codecs that excelled in testing were utilized as the basis for the standard and refined further, with additional features. The reported completion date of the MPEG-1 standard varies greatly, a complete draft standard was produced in September 1990. The draft standard was publicly available for purchase, the standard was finished with the 6 November 1992 meeting. The Berkeley Plateau Multimedia Research Group developed an MPEG-1 decoder in November 1992, due in part to the similarity between the two codecs, the MPEG-2 standard includes full backwards compatibility with MPEG-1 video, so any MPEG-2 decoder can play MPEG-1 videos. This means that MPEG-1 coding efficiency can vary depending on the encoder used. The first three parts of ISO/IEC11172 were published in August 1993, the ISO patent database lists one patent for ISO11172, US4,472,747, which expired in 2003. The near-complete draft of the MPEG-1 standard was publicly available as ISO CD11172 by December 6,1991, a May 2009 discussion on the whatwg mailing list mentioned US5,214,678 patent as possibly covering MPEG audio layer II. Filed in 1990 and published in 1993, this patent is now expired, most popular software for video playback includes MPEG-1 decoding, in addition to any other supported formats. The popularity of MP3 audio has established a massive installed base of hardware that can play back MPEG-1 Audio, virtually all digital audio devices can play back MPEG-1 Audio. Many millions have been sold to-date, before MPEG-2 became widespread, many digital satellite/cable TV services used MPEG-1 exclusively. The widespread popularity of MPEG-2 with broadcasters means MPEG-1 is playable by most digital cable and satellite set-top boxes, MPEG-1 was used for full-screen video on Green Book CD-i, and on Video CD. The Super Video CD standard, based on VCD, uses MPEG-1 audio exclusively, the DVD-Video format uses MPEG-2 video primarily, but MPEG-1 support is explicitly defined in the standard. The DVD-Video standard originally required MPEG-1 Layer II audio for PAL countries, MPEG-1 Layer II audio is still allowed on DVDs, although newer extensions to the format, like MPEG Multichannel, are rarely supported
9.
Compact disc
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Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format released in 1982 and co-developed by Philips and Sony. The format was developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan, standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres and can hold up to about 80 minutes of uncompressed audio or about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 millimetres, they are used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. At the time of the introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard drive. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much space as a thousand CDs. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs, by 2007,200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide. In 2014, revenues from digital music services matched those from physical format sales for the first time. American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russells patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970, following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russells patents in the 1980s. The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s, although originally dismissed by Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit, the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the LaserDisc format struggled. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published in 1980, after their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984, by 1988 CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes. The success of the disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, who came together to agree upon and develop compatible hardware. The unified design of the disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company. In 1974, L. However, due to the performance of the analog format
10.
Video CD
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Video CD is a home video format and the first format for distributing films on standard 120 mm optical discs. The format was adopted in Southeast Asia instead of VHS. The format is a digital format for storing video on a compact disc. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most DVD and Blu-ray Disc players, personal computers, the Video CD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the White Book standard. Although they have been superseded by other media, VCDs continue to be retailed as a low-cost video format, in 1979, Philips introduced the optical LaserDisc, which was about 30 cm in diameter. This disc could hold an hour of analog video along with audio on each side. The Laserdisc provided picture quality nearly double that of VHS tape, Philips later teamed up with Sony to develop a new type of disc, the compact disc or CD. Introduced in 1982 in Japan, the CD is about 120 mm in diameter, the format was initially designed to store digitized sound and proved to be a success in the music industry. A few years later, Philips decided to give CDs the ability to produce video and this led to the creation of CD Video in 1987. However, the small size significantly impeded the ability to store analog video. Therefore, CD-V distribution was limited to featuring music videos, by the early 1990s engineers were able to digitize and compress video signals, greatly improving storage efficiency. Because this new format could hold 83 minutes of audio and video, extra capacity was obtained by sacrificing the error correction. This format was named Video CD or VCD, VCD enjoyed a brief period of success, with a few major feature films being released in the format. However, VCDs are still being released in countries in Asia. The development of sophisticated, higher capacity optical disc formats yielded the DVD format. DVD players use lasers that are of shorter wavelength than those used on CDs, allowing the recorded pits to be smaller, the DVD was so successful that it eventually pushed VHS out of the video market once suitable recorders became widely available. Nevertheless, VCDs made considerable inroads into developing nations, where they are still in use today, Video CDs comply with the CD-i Bridge format, and are authored using tracks in CD-ROM XA mode. The first track of a VCD is in CD-ROM XA Mode 2 Form 1 and this track may also contain other non-essential files, and is shown by operating systems when loading the disc
11.
Decimation (signal processing)
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In digital signal processing, decimation is the process of reducing the sampling rate of a signal. Complementary to upsampling and interpolation, which increases sampling rate, it is a case of sample rate conversion in a multi-rate digital signal processing system. Decimation utilizes filtering to mitigate aliasing distortion, which can occur when simply downsampling a signal, a system component that performs decimation is called a decimator. Decimation reduces the rate or the size of the data. The decimation factor is usually an integer or a rational fraction greater than one and this factor multiplies the sampling time or, equivalently, divides the sampling rate. For example, if 16-bit compact disc audio is decimated to 22,050 Hz, the bit rate is also reduced in half, from 705,600 bit/s to 352,800 bit/s, assuming that each sample retains its bit depth of 16 bits. Downsample the filtered signal by M, that is, keep only every Mth sample, downsampling alone causes high-frequency signal components to be misinterpreted by subsequent users of the data, which is a form of distortion called aliasing. The first step, if necessary, is to suppress aliasing to an acceptable level, in this application, the filter is called an anti-aliasing filter, and its design is discussed below. Also see undersampling for information about downsampling bandpass functions and signals, when the anti-aliasing filter is an IIR design, it relies on feedback from output to input, prior to the downsampling step. With FIR filtering, it is a matter to compute only every Mth output. X represents the sequence being downsampled. In a general purpose processor, after computing y, the easiest way to compute y is to advance the starting index in the x array by M, and recompute the dot product. In the case M=2, h can be designed as a half-band filter, impulse response coefficients taken at intervals of M form a subsequence, and there are M such subsequences multiplexed together. The dot product is the sum of the dot products of each subsequence with the samples of the x sequence. Furthermore, because of downsampling by M, the stream of x samples involved in any one of the M dot products is never involved in the dot products. Thus M low-order FIR filters are each filtering one of M multiplexed phases of the stream. This viewpoint offers a different implementation that might be advantageous in a multi-processor architecture, in other words, the input stream is demultiplexed and sent through a bank of M filters whose outputs are summed. When implemented that way, it is called a polyphase filter, the equivalence of this inefficient method and the implementation described above is known as the first Noble identity
12.
MP3
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Compared to CD quality digital audio, MP3 compression commonly achieves 75 to 95% reduction in size. MP3 files are thus 1/4 to 1/20 the size of the digital audio stream. This is important for both transmission and storage concerns, the basis for such comparison is the CD digital audio format which requires 1411200 bit/s. A commonly used MP3 encoding setting is CBR128 kbit/s resulting in file size 1/11 of the original CD-quality file, the MP3 lossy compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a continuous sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is referred to as perceptual coding or psychoacoustics. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce the precision of less audible to human hearing. MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group as part of its MPEG-1 standard, the first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hanover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio, which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992. A backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio extension with lower sample and bit rates was published in 1995, MP3 is a streaming or broadcast format meaning that individual frames can be lost without affecting the ability to decode successfully delivered frames. Storing an MP3 stream in a file enables time-shifted playback, the MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency, in 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy and this work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths. A wide variety of compression algorithms were reported in IEEEs refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. The genesis of the MP3 technology is described in a paper from Professor Hans Musmann who chaired the ISO MPEG Audio group for several years. The immediate predecessors of MP3 were Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain, the first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder in hardware, was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips. Another predecessor of the MP3 format and technology is to be found in the perceptual codec MUSICAM based on an integer arithmetics 32 sub-bands filterbank, driven by a psychoacoustic model. It was primarily designed for Digital Audio Broadcasting and digital TV and this codec incorporated into a broadcasting system using COFDM modulation was demonstrated on air and on the field together with Radio Canada and CRC Canada during the NAB show in 1991. F. As a doctoral student at Germanys University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on music compression in the early 1980s
13.
MPEG-2
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MPEG-2 is a standard for the generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio information. MPEG-2 is widely used as the format of television signals that are broadcast by terrestrial, cable. It also specifies the format of movies and other programs that are distributed on DVD, TV stations, TV receivers, DVD players, and other equipment are often designed to this standard. MPEG-2 was the second of several developed by the Moving Pictures Expert Group and is an international standard. Parts 1 and 2 of MPEG-2 were developed in a collaboration with ITU-T, while MPEG-2 is the core of most digital television and DVD formats, it does not completely specify them. Regional institutions can adapt it to their needs by restricting and augmenting aspects of the standard, MPEG-2 includes a Systems section, part 1, that defines two distinct, but related, container formats. Program stream exceptions are M2TS, which is used on Blu-ray discs, AVCHD on re-writable DVDs, while VOB on DVDs and Enhanced VOB on the short lived HD DVD do not waste storage space and just use the program stream. MPEG-2 Systems is formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-1 and as ITU-T Rec, ISO authorized the SMPTE Registration Authority, LLC as the registration authority for MPEG-2 format identifiers. This provision will permit the MPEG-2 transport standard to all types of data while providing for a method of unambiguous identification of the characteristics of the underlying private data. The Video section, part 2 of MPEG-2, is similar to the previous MPEG-1 standard, but also support for interlaced video. MPEG-2 video is not optimized for low bit-rates, especially less than 1 Mbit/s at standard definition resolutions, all standards-compliant MPEG-2 Video decoders are fully capable of playing back MPEG-1 Video streams conforming to the Constrained Parameters Bitstream syntax. MPEG-2/Video is formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-2 and as ITU-T Rec, with some enhancements, MPEG-2 Video and Systems are also used in some HDTV transmission systems, and is the standard format for over-the-air ATSC digital television.1 multichannel. This method is backwards-compatible, allowing MPEG-1 audio decoders to decode the two main components of the presentation. MPEG-2 part 3 also defined additional bit rates and sample rates for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, MPEG-2 BC low bitrate encoding with halved sampling rate multichannel encoding with up to 5.1 channels, a. k. a. MPEG Multichannel Part 7 of the MPEG-2 standard specifies a rather different, Part 7 is referred to as MPEG-2 AAC. AAC is more efficient than the previous MPEG audio standards, and is in some ways less complicated than its predecessor, MPEG-1 Audio, Layer 3, in that it does not have the hybrid filter bank. It supports from 1 to 48 channels at sampling rates of 8 to 96 kHz, with multichannel, multilingual, advanced Audio is also defined in Part 3 of the MPEG-4 standard. MPEG-2 NBC MPEG-2 AAC multichannel encoding with up to 48 channels MPEG-2 standards are published as parts of ISO/IEC13818, each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification
14.
Interlaced video
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Interlaced video is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured at two different times and this enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon. This effectively doubles the resolution as compared to non-interlaced footage. Interlaced signals require a display that is capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals, Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for painting a video image on an electronic display screen by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame, one field contains all odd-numbered lines in the image, the other contains all even-numbered lines. A Phase Alternating Line -based television set display, for example, the two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second, but with interlacing create a new half frame every 1/50 of a second. To display interlaced video on progressive displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal. The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and they recommend 720p 50 fps for the current production format—and are working with the industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video formats such as DV, DVB. Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in a similar to text on a page—line by line. The interlaced scan pattern in a CRT display also completes such a scan, the first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines and this scan of alternate lines is called interlacing. A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture, persistence of vision makes the eye perceive the two fields as a continuous image. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the displays phosphor aided this effect, interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan of twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate. To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing, format identifiers like 576i 50 and 720p 50 specify the frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate. This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate
15.
High-definition video
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High-definition video is video of higher resolution and quality than standard-definition. While there is no standardized meaning for high-definition, generally any video image with more than 480 horizontal lines or 576 horizontal lines is considered high-definition. 480 scan lines is generally the even though the majority of systems greatly exceed that. Images of standard resolution captured at rates faster than normal, by a camera may be considered high-definition in some contexts. Some television series shot on video are made to look as if they have been shot on film. The first electronic scanning format,405 lines, was the first high definition television system, from 1939, Europe and the US tried 605 and 441 lines until, in 1941, the FCC mandated 525 for the US. In wartime France, René Barthélemy tested higher resolutions, up to 1,042, in late 1949, official French transmissions finally began with 819. In 1984, however, this standard was abandoned for 625-line color on the TF1 network, modern HD specifications date to the early 1980s, when Japanese engineers developed the HighVision 1, 125-line interlaced TV standard that ran at 60 frames per second. The Sony HDVS system was presented at a meeting of television engineers in Algiers, April 1981. HighVision video is still usable for HDTV video interchange, but there is almost no modern equipment available to perform this function, attempts at implementing HighVision as a 6 MHz broadcast channel were mostly unsuccessful. All attempts at using this format for terrestrial TV transmission were abandoned by the mid-1990s, Europe developed HD-MAC, a member of the MAC family of hybrid analogue/digital video standards, however, it never took off as a terrestrial video transmission format. HD-MAC was never designated for video interchange except by the European Broadcasting Union, in essence, the end of the 1980s was a death knell for most analog high definition technologies that had developed up to that time. In the end, however, the DVB standard of resolutions, the FCC officially adopted the ATSC transmission standard in 1996, with the first broadcasts on October 28,1998. In the early 2000s, it looked as if DVB would be the video standard far into the future, high definition video is defined threefold, by, The number of lines in the vertical display resolution. High-definition television resolution is 1,080 or 720 lines, in contrast, regular digital television is 480 lines or 576 lines. However, since HD is broadcast digitally, its introduction sometimes coincides with the introduction of DTV, additionally, current DVD quality is not high-definition, although the high-definition disc systems Blu-ray Disc and the HD DVD are. The scanning system, progressive scanning or interlaced scanning, progressive scanning redraws an image frame when refreshing each image, for example 720p/1080p. Interlaced scanning yields greater image resolution if subject is not moving, the number of frames or fields per second
16.
Digital television
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Digital television is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the channel bandwidth. It is a service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Several regions of the world are in different stages of adaptation and are implementing different broadcasting standards and this standard has been adopted in Europe, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand. Advanced Television System Committee uses eight-level vestigial sideband for terrestrial broadcasting and this standard has been adopted by six countries, United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Dominican Republic and Honduras. Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting is a designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers. It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving and it supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding. This standard has adopted in Japan and the Philippines. ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC that been adopted in most of South America and is also being embraced by Portuguese-speaking African countries. Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcasting adopts time-domain synchronous OFDM technology with a signal frame to serve as the guard interval of the OFDM block. The DTMB standard has adopted in the Peoples Republic of China, including Hong Kong. Digital TVs roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive and it wasnt until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. S. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration, then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a standard was feasible. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements, the final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the electronics industry and the computer industry over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior
17.
Digital Video Broadcasting
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Digital Video Broadcasting is a set of internationally open standards for digital television. The interaction of the DVB sub-standards is described in the DVB Cookbook, many aspects of DVB are patented, including elements of the MPEG video coding and audio coding. Devices interact with the physical layer via a parallel interface, synchronous serial interface. All data is transmitted in MPEG transport streams with additional constraints. A standard for temporally-compressed distribution to mobile devices was published in November 2004 and these distribution systems differ mainly in the modulation schemes used and error correcting codes used, due to the different technical constraints. DVB-S uses QPSK, 8-PSK or 16-QAM, DVB-S2 uses QPSK, 8-PSK, 16-APSK or 32-APSK, at the broadcasters decision. QPSK and 8-PSK are the only regularly used. DVB-C uses QAM, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM or 256-QAM, lastly, DVB-T uses 16-QAM or 64-QAM in combination with OFDM and can support hierarchical modulation. The DVB-T2 specification was approved by the DVB Steering Board in June 2008, ETSI adopted the standard on 9 September 2009. DVB has established a 3D TV group to identify what kind of 3D-TV solution does the market want and need, the CM-3DTV group held a DVB 3D-TV Kick-off Workshop in Geneva on 25 January 2010, followed by the first CM-3DTV meeting the next day. DVB now defines a new standard for 3D video broadcast, DVB 3D-TV, older technologies such as teletext and vertical blanking interval data are also supported by the standards to ease conversion. However, for many more advanced alternatives like DVB-SUB for subtitling are available. The conditional access system defines a Common Scrambling Algorithm and a physical Common Interface for accessing scrambled content, dVB-CA providers develop their wholly proprietary conditional access systems with reference to these specifications. Multiple simultaneous CA systems can be assigned to a scrambled DVB program stream providing operational and commercial flexibility for the service provider, dVB-CPCM has been the source of much controversy in the popular press and It is said that CPCM is the DVBs answer to the failed American Broadcast Flag. By comparison, the rival DigiCipher 2 based ATSC system will not have this issue until 2048 due in part to 32 bits being used, recently, DVB has adopted a profile of the metadata defined by the TV-Anytime Forum. This is an XML Schema based technology and the DVB profile is tailored for enhanced Personal Digital Recorders, DVB lately also started an activity to develop a service for IPTV which also includes metadata definitions for a broadband content guide. The DVB Multimedia Home Platform defines a Java-based platform for the development of consumer video system applications, in addition to providing abstractions for many DVB and MPEG-2 concepts, it provides interfaces for other features like network card control, application download, and layered graphics. DVB has standardised a number of channels that work together with DVB to create bi-directional communication
18.
ISDB
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The Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting is a Japanese standard for digital television and digital radio used by the countrys radio and television networks. ISDB replaced NTSC-J analog television system and the previously used MUSE Hi-vision analogue HDTV system in Japan, Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting services using ISDB-T started in Japan in December 2003 and in Brazil in December 2007 as a trial. Since many countries have adopted ISDB over other digital broadcasting standards, the standards can be obtained for free at the Japanese organization DiBEG website and at ARIB. The core standards of ISDB are ISDB-S, ISDB-T, ISDB-C and 2, ISDB-T and ISDB-Tsb are for mobile reception in TV bands. 1seg is the name of an ISDB-T service for reception on cell phones, laptop computers, the concept was named for its similarity to ISDN, because both allow multiple channels of data to be transmitted together. This is also much like another digital radio system, Eureka 147, which each group of stations on a transmitter an ensemble. ISDB-T operates on unused TV channels, an approach taken by countries for TV. The various flavors of ISDB differ mainly in the modulations used, the 12 GHz band ISDB-S uses PSK modulation,2.6 GHz band digital sound broadcasting uses CDM, and ISDB-T uses COFDM with PSK/QAM. Besides audio and video transmission, ISDB also defines data connections with the internet as a channel over several media. This is used, for example, for interactive interfaces like data broadcasting, the ISDB specification describes a lot of interfaces, but most importantly the Common Interface for Conditional Access System. While ISDB has examples of implementing various kinds of CASes, in Japan CAS called B-CAS is used, defines the Common Scrambling Algorithm system called MULTI2 required for scrambling television. The ISDB CAS system in Japan is operated by a company named B-CAS, the Japanese ISDB signal is always encrypted by the B-CAS system even if it is a free television program. That is why it is commonly called Pay per view system without charge, an interface for mobile reception is under consideration. Since all digital systems carry digital data content, a DVD or high-definition recorder could easily copy content losslessly. Hollywood requested copy protection, this was the reason for RMP being mandated. The content has three modes, “copy once”, “copy free” and “copy never”, “Copy never” programming may only be timeshifted and cannot be permanently stored. There are two types of ISDB receiver, Television and set-top box, the aspect ratio of an ISDB-receiving television set is 16,9, televisions fulfilling these specs are called Hi-Vision TV. There are three TV types, Cathode ray tube, plasma display panel and liquid crystal display, with LCD being the most popular Hi-Vision TV on the Japanese market nowadays
19.
Dish Network
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Dish Network is an American direct-broadcast satellite service provider. The company provides satellite television, satellite Internet access, audio programming, as of November 2016, the company provided services to 13.7 million television and 580,000 broadband subscribers. The company has approximately 16,000 employees, the company is headquartered in Meridian, Colorado, though the postal designation of nearby Englewood, Colorado is used in the corporate mailing address. In January 2008, Dish Network was spun off from its parent company EchoStar. The company began using Dish Network as its brand in March 1997, after the successful launch of its first satellite, EchoStar I. That launch marked the beginning of its television services, and EchoStar has since launched numerous satellites. EchoStar continues to be the technology partner to Dish Network. Joseph Clayton became president and chief officer of the company in June 2011. Clayton remained in the position until March 31,2015 when he retired leaving Ergen to resume the post, Dishs main service is satellite television. Its offerings are similar to satellite and cable companies. Viewers can choose from a series of bundles, paying more money for more channels. A la carte programming is available, however limited other than Premium channels, the company is currently working on diversifying its offerings. With its purchase of Blockbuster LLC, it now owns the Blockbuster trademarks and has used its intellectual property agreement to offer streaming, Dish Anywhere is Dishs subscriber-only streaming video service, which includes HBO and Cinemax programming. In May 2012, the American Customer Satisfaction Index ranked Dish second among American television providers and it weighs ten pounds, is protected from weather, and automatically searches for a signal. The only satellites that are compatible with the Tailgater are at Dishs 119,110. In March 2012, Dish began offering a video recorder called Dish Hopper that can automatically record all prime time programming on the four major television networks. The other half is for video on demand, a Hopper feature, called AutoHop, enables customers to view these programs without commercials, subject to time restrictions. AutoHop has attracted enthusiasts, critics, boycotts and legal action, at the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show Dish won an award for their AutoHop feature on the Hopper
20.
Cable television
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This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables, analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel is a television network available via cable television, alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. Examples of cable/satellite channels/cable networks available in many countries are HBO, MTV, Cartoon Network, E. Eurosport, the abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting for radio are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924, Cable television has gone through a series of steps of evolution in the United States and Canada. Particularly in Canada, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Early systems carried only a maximum of seven channels, using 2,4,5 or 6,7,9,11 and 13, as the equipment was unable to confine the signal discreetly within the assigned channel bandwidth. The reason 4 and 5 along with 6 and 7 could be used together was because of the 4 MHz gap between 4 and 5 and the nearly 90 MHz gap between 6 and 7. Even though eight channels are listed, in systems that maximized 7 channels. As equipment improved, all channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be priority, later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups, about this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7-13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2-13 on each of the two cables, during the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. These stations evolved partially into todays over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e. g, many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into todays many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries, Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, by the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulator to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection, by subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels
21.
Super Video CD
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Super Video CD is a digital format for storing video on standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to Video CD and an alternative to DVD-Video, although SVCDs proved more sophisticated than VCDs, the format remains in the latters shadow. Similar to VCDs, SVCDs comply with the CD-i Bridge format, the first track is in CD-ROM XA Mode 2, Form 1, and contains metadata about the disc. The other tracks are in Mode 2, Form 2, and contain audio and this allows roughly 800 megabytes of data to be stored on one 80 minute CD. One CD can hold up to 35 minutes of full quality SVCD-format video, on the downside, this increase in picture resolution sacrifices video length capacity by over 50%. Because of this, titles released on SVCD has to come in twice the number of discs of their VCD equivalents. Unlike other CD-based formats, such as China Video Disc and Video CD, however, many DVD and Blu-ray players will play back SVCD resolution video from a DVD or Blu-ray disc anyway. Interlaced video is supported for SVCD video, though not required,23.976 frames per second video is supported by use of interlacing and 3,2 pulldown. The combined audio and video bit rates should not exceed 2.7 Mbps and this data rate was chosen, in part, to ensure compatibility with slower and less expensive 2 × speed CD drives. Codec, MPEG-1 Audio Layer II Frequency,44,100 hertz Output, Monaural, dual channel, stereo, SVCDs may have two separate stereo, or four mono audio tracks. Audio may have up to 6 channels using the MPEG Multichannel surround sound format, although space constraints and inconsistent hardware support make it impractical, variable bit rate encoding, while not supported by the MPEG-1 Audio Layer II standard, is part of the SVCD specification. However, variable bit rate audio is not consistently supported by standalone players, play back of SVCD titles is impaired when played on most DVD players, causing dropped frames, choppy video playback or skipping of sound. This is due to the unfortunately chosen two-thirds video ratio in the SVCD format specifications, most DVD players support the video formats VCD, SVCD and DVD but the best resolution usually dictates the design of all the electronics components, most notably the low pass filter. With only one analog low pass filter optimised for one video format, the SVCD format is especially prone to foldover because the 480p format doesnt fit well over a 720p output. Although the aliasing artifacts that result from this bad fit are usually buried in noise from other sources, such as camera, quantization, China Video Disc is a CD-based video format which was created during the development of the SVCD standard and is almost identical to SVCD. The primary technical difference is a video resolution of 352×480 or 352×576. Because 352×480/576 is a recognized DVD resolution, CVD video is fully compatible with the DVD-Video standard, the lower resolution also allows the bitrate to be reduced while keeping compression artifacts to a minimum. CVD also supports all of the features which are supported by SVCD
22.
DVD-Video
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DVD-Video is a consumer video format used to store digital video on DVD discs, and as of 2003 is the dominant consumer video format in Asia, North America, Europe, and Australia. Discs using the DVD-Video specification require a DVD drive and an MPEG-2 decoder, commercial DVD movies are encoded using a combination MPEG-2 compressed video and audio of varying formats. Typically, the rate for DVD movies ranges from 3 Mbit/s to 9.5 Mbit/s. It was first available in November 1996 in Japan, the DVD-Video specification was created by DVD Forum and can be obtained from DVD Format/Logo Licensing Corporation for a fee of $5,000. The specification is not publicly available and every subscriber must sign a non-disclosure agreement, certain information in the DVD Book is proprietary and confidential. To record moving pictures, DVD-Video uses either H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 compression at up to 9.8 Mbit/s or MPEG-1 Part 2 compression at up to 1.856 Mbit/s. DVD-Video supports video with a bit depth of 8-bits per color YCbCr with 4,2,0 chroma subsampling,704 ×480 pixels 352 ×480 pixels. Widescreen video is supported only in D-1 resolutions, the MPEG-1 Part 2 format does not support interlaced video. The H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 format supports both interlaced and progressive-scan content, Content with a frame rate different from one of the rates shown above can be encoded to H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 by using pulldown. This is most commonly used to encode 23.976 frame/s content for playback at 29.97 frame/s. Alternately, the content can be encoded on the disc itself at one of several alternate frame rates, such flags can be added in video stream by the H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 encoder. A DVD player uses these flags to convert progressive content into interlaced video in real-time during playback and these flags also allow reproducing progressive content at their original, non-interlaced format when used with compatible DVD players and progressive-scan television sets. The audio data on a DVD movie can be PCM, DTS, MPEG-1 Audio Layer II, a similar standard exists in countries using the NTSC system, though with no requirement mandating the use of or support for the MP2 format. DTS audio is optional for all players, as DTS was not part of the draft standard and was added later, thus. Only PCM and DTS support 96 kHz sampling rate, because PCM, being uncompressed, requires a lot of bandwidth and DTS is not universally supported by players,96 kHz sampling rate is rare for DVDs. The vast majority of commercial DVD-Video releases today employ AC-3 audio. The official allowed formats for the tracks on a DVD Video are, PCM,48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling rate,16 bit or 24 bit Linear PCM,2 to 6 channels, up to 6,144 kbit/s. DVDs can contain more than one channel of audio to go together with the video content and this is most commonly used for different audio formats – DTS5.1, AC-32.0 etc. – as well as for commentary and audio tracks in different languages
23.
Blu-ray
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Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed to supersede the DVD format, in that it is capable of storing high-definition, the plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional Blu-ray Disc discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs being the standard for feature-length video discs. Triple-layer discs and quadruple layers are available for BD-XL re-writer drives, the name Blu-ray refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs. The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such as films and physical distribution of video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu-ray is associated with a set of multimedia formats, high-definition video may be stored on Blu-ray discs with up to 2160p resolution, at up to 60 frames per second. DVD discs had been limited to a resolution of 480p or 576p. The BD format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware, Sony unveiled the first Blu-ray disc prototypes in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in April 2003 in Japan. Afterwards, it continued to be developed until its release in June 2006. During the high definition disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. Toshiba, the company that supported HD DVD, conceded in February 2008. According to Media Research, high-definition software sales in the US were slower in the first two years than DVD software sales, Blu-ray faces competition from video on demand and the continued sale of DVDs. As of January 2016, 44% of U. S. broadband households had a Blu-ray player, the information density of the DVD format was limited by the wavelength of the laser diodes used. Following protracted development, blue laser diodes operating at 405 nanometers became available on a production basis, Sony started two projects in collaboration with Philips applying the new diodes, UDO, and DVR Blue, a format of rewritable discs that would eventually become Blu-ray Disc. The core technologies of the formats are similar, the first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled at the CEATEC exhibition in October 2000 by Sony. A trademark for the Blue Disc logo was filed February 9,2001, on February 19,2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray Disc, and Blu-ray Disc Founders was founded by the nine initial members. The first consumer device arrived in stores on April 10,2003, the Sony BDZ-S77, but there was no standard for prerecorded video, and no movies were released for this player. On October 4,2004, the name Blu-ray Disc Founders was officially changed to the Blu-ray Disc Association, the Blu-ray Disc physical specifications were completed in 2004
24.
Digital rights management
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Digital rights management schemes are various access control technologies that are used to restrict usage of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies try to control the use, modification, and distribution of copyrighted works, the use of digital rights management is not universally accepted. Furthermore, works can become permanently inaccessible if the DRM scheme changes or if the service is discontinued, the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Free Software Foundation consider the use of DRM systems to be an anti-competitive practice. Worldwide, many laws have been created which criminalize the circumvention of DRM, communication about such circumvention, such laws are part of the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act, and the European Unions Copyright Directive. The term DRM is also referred to as copy protection, technical protection measures, copy prevention, or copy control. The advent of digital media and analog-to-digital conversion technologies has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-owning individuals and these concerns are particularly prevalent within the music and movie industries, because these sectors are partly or wholly dependent on the revenue generated from such works. This, combined with the Internet and popular file-sharing tools, has made unauthorized distribution of copies of copyrighted digital media much easier, DRM technologies enable content publishers to enforce their own access policies on content, such as restrictions on copying or viewing. These technologies have been criticized for restricting individuals from copying or using the content legally, DRM is in common use by the entertainment industry. However, Apple dropped DRM from all iTunes music files around 2009, for instance, tractor companies try to prevent the DIY repairing by the owning farmers under usage of DRM-laws as DMCA. Digital Rights Management Techniques include, Restrictive Licensing Agreements, The access to materials, copyright. Some restrictive licenses are imposed on consumers as a condition of entering a website or when downloading software, encryption, Scrambling of expressive material and embedding of a tag, This technology is designed to control access and reproduction of information. This includes backup copies for personal use, computer games sometimes use DRM technologies to limit the number of systems the game can be installed on by requiring authentication with an online server. Most games with this restriction allow three or five installs, although some allow an installation to be recovered when the game is uninstalled. In mid-2008, the publication of Mass Effect marked the start of a wave of titles primarily making use of SecuROM for DRM, the use of the DRM scheme in 2008s Spore backfired and there were protests, resulting in a considerable number of users seeking an unlicensed version instead. This backlash against the limit was a significant factor in Spore becoming the most pirated game in 2008. Additionally, other games that use intrusive DRM such as BioShock, Crysis Warhead. Although Ubisoft has not commented on the results of the experiment, Ubisoft formally announced a return to online authentication on 9 February 2010, through its Uplay online gaming platform, starting with Silent Hunter 5, The Settlers 7, and Assassins Creed II. Silent Hunter 5 was first reported to have been compromised within 24 hours of release, the Uplay system works by having the installed game on the local PCs incomplete and then continuously downloading parts of the game-code from Ubisofts servers as the game progresses
25.
Java (software platform)
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Java is used in a wide variety of computing platforms from embedded devices and mobile phones to enterprise servers and supercomputers. While they are less common than standalone Java applications, Java applets run in secure, sandboxed environments to provide many features of native applications, in addition, several languages have been designed to run natively on the JVM, including Scala, Clojure and Apache Groovy. Java syntax borrows heavily from C and C++, but object-oriented features are modeled after Smalltalk, Java eschews certain low-level constructs such as pointers and has a very simple memory model where every object is allocated on the heap and all variables of object types are references. Memory management is handled through integrated automatic garbage collection performed by the JVM, on November 13,2006, Sun Microsystems made the bulk of its implementation of Java available under the GNU General Public License. The latest version is Java 8, the only supported version as of 2016, Oracle has announced that using older versions of their JVM implementation presents serious risks due to unresolved security issues. The Java platform is a suite of programs that facilitate developing and running programs written in the Java programming language. A Java platform will include an engine, a compiler. Java ME, Specifies several different sets of libraries for devices with limited storage, display and it is often used to develop applications for mobile devices, PDAs, TV set-top boxes, and printers. Java SE, For general-purpose use on desktop PCs, servers, Java EE, Java SE plus various APIs which are useful for multi-tier client–server enterprise applications. The Java platform consists of programs, each of which provides a portion of its overall capabilities. For example, the Java compiler, which converts Java source code into Java bytecode, is provided as part of the Java Development Kit, the Java Runtime Environment, complementing the JVM with a just-in-time compiler, converts intermediate bytecode into native machine code on the fly. The Java platform also includes a set of libraries. The heart of the Java platform is the concept of a machine that executes Java bytecode programs. This bytecode is the same no matter what hardware or operating system the program is running under, there is a JIT compiler within the Java Virtual Machine, or JVM. The JIT compiler translates the Java bytecode into native processor instructions at run-time, the use of bytecode as an intermediate language permits Java programs to run on any platform that has a virtual machine available. Since JRE version 1.2, Suns JVM implementation has included a just-in-time compiler instead of an interpreter, although Java programs are cross-platform or platform independent, the code of the Java Virtual Machines that execute these programs is not. Every supported operating platform has its own JVM, in most modern operating systems, a large body of reusable code is provided to simplify the programmers job. This code is provided as a set of dynamically loadable libraries that applications can call at runtime
26.
HD DVD
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HD DVD is a discontinued high-density optical disc format for storing data and playback of high-definition video. Supported principally by Toshiba, HD DVD was envisioned to be the successor to the standard DVD format, on 19 February 2008, after a protracted format war with rival Blu-ray, Toshiba abandoned the format, announcing it would no longer develop or manufacture HD DVD players and drives. The HD DVD Promotion Group was dissolved on March 28,2008, the HD DVD physical disc specifications were still in use as the basis for the China Blue High-definition Disc formerly called CH-DVD. Because all variants except 3× DVD and HD REC employed a laser with a shorter wavelength. In the late 1990s, commercial HDTV sets started to enter a larger market, jVCs D-VHS and Sonys HDCAM formats could store that amount of data, but were neither popular nor well-known. It was well known that using lasers with shorter wavelengths would yield optical storage with higher density, shuji Nakamura invented practical blue laser diodes, but a lengthy patent lawsuit delayed commercial introduction. The two formats share several technologies, in February 2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray Disc, and the Blu-ray Disc Association was founded by the nine initial members. The DVD Forum was deeply split over whether to go with the more expensive blue lasers or not, in March 2002, the forum voted to approve a proposal endorsed by Warner Bros. and other motion picture studios that involved compressing HD content onto dual-layer DVD-9 discs. In spite of this decision, the DVD Forums Steering Committee announced in April that it was pursuing its own blue-laser high-definition solution, in August, Toshiba and NEC announced their competing standard Advanced Optical Disc. It was adopted by the DVD forum and renamed to HD DVD the next year, the HD DVD Promotion Group was a group of manufacturers and media studios formed to exchange thoughts and ideas to help promote the format worldwide. The HD DVD promotion group was dissolved on March 28,2008, following Toshibas announcement on February 19,2008 that it would no longer develop or manufacture HD DVD players. Much like the VHS vs. Betamax videotape format war during the late 1970s and early 1980s, HD DVD was competing with a rival format - in this case, in 2008, major content manufacturers and key retailers began withdrawing their support for the format. In an attempt to avoid a costly war, the Blu-ray Disc Association. One of the issues was that Blu-ray Disc companies wanted to use a Java-based platform for interactivity, another problem was the physical formats of the discs themselves. The negotiations proceeded slowly and ultimately stalled, on August 22,2005, the Blu-ray Disc Association and DVD Forum announced that the negotiations to unify their standards had failed. Rumors surfaced that talks had stalled, publicly, the reasons of physical format incompatibility were cited. By the end of September that year, Microsoft and Intel jointly announced their support for HD DVD, the Blu-ray Disc Association did not agree to HPs demands. On March 31,2006, Toshiba released their first consumer-based HD DVD player in Japan at ¥110,000, HD DVD was released in the United States on April 18,2006, with players priced at $499 and $799
27.
MPEG-7
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MPEG-7 is a multimedia content description standard. It was standardized in ISO/IEC15938 and this description will be associated with the content itself, to allow fast and efficient searching for material that is of interest to the user. MPEG-7 is formally called Multimedia Content Description Interface, thus, it is not a standard which deals with the actual encoding of moving pictures and audio, like MPEG-1, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4. It uses XML to store metadata, and can be attached to timecode in order to tag particular events, or synchronise lyrics to a song, MPEG-7 is intended to provide complementary functionality to the previous MPEG standards, representing information about the content, not the content itself. This functionality is the standardization of multimedia content descriptions, MPEG-7 can be used independently of the other MPEG standards - the description might even be attached to an analog movie. The representation that is defined within MPEG-4, i. e. the representation of data in terms of objects, is however very well suited to what will be built on the MPEG-7 standard. This representation is basic to the process of categorization, in addition, MPEG-7 descriptions could be used to improve the functionality of previous MPEG standards. With these tools, we can build an MPEG-7 Description and deploy it. According to the document,1 “a Description consists of a Description Scheme. Extraction algorithms are inside the scope of the standard because their standardization isn’t required to allow interoperability, the MPEG-7 consists of different Parts. Each part covers an aspect of the whole specification. An MPEG-7 architecture requirement is that description must be separate from the audiovisual content, on the other hand, there must be a relation between the content and description. Thus the description is multiplexed with the content itself, on the right side you can see this relation between description and content. MPEG-7 uses the tools, Descriptor, It is a representation of a feature defined syntactically and semantically. It could be that an object was described by several descriptors. Description Schemes, Specify the structure and semantics of the relations between its components, these components can be descriptors or description schemes, Description Definition Language, It is based on XML language used to define the structural relations between descriptors. It allows the creation and modification of description schemes and also the creation of new descriptors, system tools, These tools deal with binarization, synchronization, transport and storage of descriptors. It also deals with Intellectual Property protection, on the right side you can see the relation between MPEG-7 tools. There are many applications and application domains which will benefit from the MPEG-7 standard, a few application examples are, Digital library, Image/video catalogue, musical dictionary
