1.
Alexa Internet
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Alexa Internet, Inc. is a California-based company that provides commercial web traffic data and analytics. It is an owned subsidiary of Amazon. com. Founded as an independent company in 1996, Alexa was acquired by Amazon in 1999 and its toolbar collects data on browsing behavior and transmits them to the Alexa website, where they are stored and analyzed. This is the basis for the web traffic reporting. According to its website, Alexa provides traffic data, global rankings, as of 2015, its website has been visited by over 6.5 million people monthly. Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle, Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited, to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how other sites pointed to it. Alexas operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are crawled and this database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its vision of providing an intelligent search engine. Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003, in May 2006, replaced Google with Bing as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search, built in-house, it was the first major application built on the companys Web platform. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a set of Web services. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexas own servers or elsewhere. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements. In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, Alexa v. Hornbaker, in the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexas servers. Hornbaker removed the term Alexa from his name on March 19,2007. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company, on March 31,2009, Alexa launched a major website redesign
2.
Registered user
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A registered user is a user of a website, program, or other system who has previously registered. Registered users normally provide some sort of credentials to the system in order to prove their identity, systems intended for use by the general public often allow any user to register simply by selecting a register or sign up function and providing these credentials for the first time. Registered users may be granted privileges beyond those granted to unregistered users, user registration and login enables a system to personalize itself. For example, a website might display a welcome banner with the users name, a system could even sell information it has gathered on its users to third parties for advertising or other purposes. Depending on the nature of the system, a user might not have any way of knowing for certain exactly what information is stored, how it is used, the subject of systems transparency in this regard is one of ongoing debate. Registration may also be seen as an annoyance or hindrance, especially if it is not inherently necessary or important or if the system repeatedly prompts users to register. A systems registration process might also be time-consuming or require that the user provide information they might be reluctant to, such as a home address or social security number
3.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
4.
Creative Commons license
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A Creative Commons license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work. A CC license is used when an author wants to give people the right to share, use, there are several types of CC licenses. The licenses differ by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution and they were initially released on December 16,2002 by Creative Commons, a U. S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, as of 2016, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. In October 2014 the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA, work licensed under a Creative Commons license is governed by applicable copyright law. This allows Creative Commons licenses to be applied to all work falling under copyright, including, books, plays, movies, music, articles, photographs, blogs, Creative Commons does not recommend the use of Creative Commons licenses for software. There are over 35,000 works that are available in hardcopy and have a registered ISBN number, Creative Commons splits these works into two categories, one of which encompasses self-published books. However, application of a Creative Commons license may not modify the rights allowed by fair use or fair dealing or exert restrictions which violate copyright exceptions, furthermore, Creative Commons licenses are non-exclusive and non-revocable. Any work or copies of the work obtained under a Creative Commons license may continue to be used under that license, in the case of works protected by multiple Creative Common licenses, the user may choose either. The CC licenses all grant the rights, such as the right to distribute the copyrighted work worldwide for non-commercial purposes. For software, Creative Commons includes three free licenses created by other institutions, the BSD License, the GNU LGPL, mixing and matching these conditions produces sixteen possible combinations, of which eleven are valid Creative Commons licenses and five are not. Of the five invalid combinations, four include both the nd and sa clauses, which are exclusive, and one includes none of the clauses. Of the eleven valid combinations, the five that lack the by clause have been retired because 98% of licensors requested attribution, to address this issue, Creative Commons asked its affiliates to translate the various licenses to reflect local laws in a process called porting. As of July 2011, Creative Commons licenses have been ported to over 50 jurisdictions worldwide, the latest version 4.0 of the Creative Commons licenses, released on November 25,2013, are generic licenses that are applicable to most jurisdictions and do not usually require ports. No new ports have implemented in version 4.0 of the license. Version 4.0 discourages using ported versions and instead acts as a single global license, since 2004, all current licenses require attribution of the original author, the BY component. The attribution must be given to the best of ability using the information available, generally this implies the following, Include any copyright notices. Cite the authors name, screen name, or user ID, if the work is being published on the Internet, it is nice to link that name to the persons profile page, if such a page exists
5.
Perl
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Perl is a family of high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming languages. The languages in this family include Perl 5 and Perl 6, though Perl is not officially an acronym, there are various backronyms in use, the best-known being Practical Extraction and Reporting Language. Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general-purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier, since then, it has undergone many changes and revisions. Perl 6, which began as a redesign of Perl 5 in 2000, both languages continue to be developed independently by different development teams and liberally borrow ideas from one another. The Perl languages borrow features from other programming languages including C, shell script, AWK and they provide powerful text processing facilities without the arbitrary data-length limits of many contemporary Unix commandline tools, facilitating easy manipulation of text files. Perl 5 gained widespread popularity in the late 1990s as a CGI scripting language, in due to its unsurpassed regular expression. In addition to CGI, Perl 5 is used for administration, network programming, finance, bioinformatics. It has been nicknamed the Swiss Army chainsaw of scripting languages because of its flexibility and power, in 1998, it was also referred to as the duct tape that holds the Internet together, in reference to both its ubiquitous use as a glue language and its perceived inelegance. Larry Wall began work on Perl in 1987, while working as a programmer at Unisys, the language expanded rapidly over the next few years. Perl 2, released in 1988, featured a regular expression engine. Perl 3, released in 1989, added support for data streams. Originally, the documentation for Perl was a single man page. In 1991, Programming Perl, known to many Perl programmers as the Camel Book because of its cover, was published and became the de facto reference for the language. At the same time, the Perl version number was bumped to 4, not to mark a change in the language. Perl 4 went through a series of releases, culminating in Perl 4.036 in 1993. At that point, Wall abandoned Perl 4 to begin work on Perl 5, initial design of Perl 5 continued into 1994. The perl5-porters mailing list was established in May 1994 to coordinate work on porting Perl 5 to different platforms and it remains the primary forum for development, maintenance, and porting of Perl 5. Perl 5.000 was released on October 17,1994 and it was a nearly complete rewrite of the interpreter, and it added many new features to the language, including objects, references, lexical variables, and modules
6.
PostgreSQL
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PostgreSQL, often simply Postgres, is an object-relational database – i. e. an RDBMS, with additional object features – with an emphasis on extensibility and standards compliance. As a database server, its functions are to store data securely. PostgreSQL has updatable views and materialized views, triggers, foreign keys, supports functions and stored procedures, PostgreSQL is developed by the PostgreSQL Global Development Group, a diverse group of many companies and individual contributors. It is free and open-source software, released under the terms of the PostgreSQL License, postgreSQLs developers pronounce PostgreSQL as /ˈpoʊstɡrɛs ˌkjuː ˈɛl/. It is abbreviated as Postgres because of support for the SQL Standard among most relational databases. The community considered changing the name back to Postgres, however, the name Postgres refers to the projects origins in that database which was developed at University of California, Berkeley. PostgreSQL evolved from the Ingres project at the University of California, in 1982, the leader of the Ingres team, Michael Stonebraker, left Berkeley to make a proprietary version of Ingres. He returned to Berkeley in 1985, and started a project to address the problems with contemporary database systems that had become increasingly clear during the early 1980s. The new project, POSTGRES, aimed to add the fewest features needed to completely support types and these features included the ability to define types and to fully describe relationships – something used widely before but maintained entirely by the user. In POSTGRES, the database understood relationships, and could retrieve information in related tables in a natural way using rules, POSTGRES used many of the ideas of Ingres, but not its code. Starting in 1986, the POSTGRES team published a number of papers describing the basis of the system, the team released version 1 to a small number of users in June 1989, then version 2 with a re-written rules system in June 1990. Version 3, released in 1991, again re-wrote the rules system, and added support for multiple storage managers, by 1993, the great number of users began to overwhelm the project with requests for support and features. After releasing version 4.2 on June 30,1994 – primarily a cleanup – the project ended, Berkeley had released POSTGRES under an MIT-style license, which enabled other developers to use the code for any use. At the time, POSTGRES used an Ingres-influenced POSTQUEL query language interpreter, in 1994, Berkeley graduate students Andrew Yu and Jolly Chen replaced the POSTQUEL query language interpreter with one for the SQL query language, creating Postgres95. The front-end program monitor was also replaced by psql, Yu and Chen announced the first version to beta testers on May 5,1995. Version 1.0 of Postgres95 was announced on September 5,1995, on July 8,1996, Marc Fournier at Hub. org Networking Services provided the first non-university development server for the open-source development effort. With the participation of Bruce Momjian and Vadim B, mikheev, work began to stabilize the code inherited from Berkeley. In 1996, the project was renamed to PostgreSQL to reflect its support for SQL, the online presence at the website PostgreSQL. org began on October 22,1996
7.
Open data
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Open data is the idea that some data should be freely available to everyone to use and republish as they wish, without restrictions from copyright, patents or other mechanisms of control. The goals of the data movement are similar to those of other open movements such as open source, open hardware, open content and open access. gov. Open data may include non-textual material such as maps, genomes, connectomes, chemical compounds, mathematical and scientific formulae, medical data and practice, bioscience, problems often arise because these are commercially valuable or can be aggregated into works of value. Access to, or re-use of, the data is controlled by organisations, control may be through access restrictions, licenses, copyright, patents and charges for access or re-use. Advocates of open data argue that these restrictions are against the communal good, in addition, it is important that the data are re-usable without requiring further permission, though the types of re-use may be controlled by a license. We are busy locking up that data and preventing the use of advanced technologies on knowledge. Creators of data often do not consider the need to state the conditions of ownership, licensing and re-use, however, the lack of a license makes it difficult to determine the status of a data set and may restrict the use of data offered in an Open spirit. Because of this uncertainty it is possible for public or private organizations to aggregate said data, protect it with copyright. The issue of indigenous knowledge poses a challenge in terms of capturing, storage. Many societies in third-world countries lack the technicality processes of managing the IK, at his presentation at the XML2005 conference, Connolly displayed these two quotations regarding open data, I want my data back. Ive long believed that customers of any application own the data they enter into it, Open data can come from any source. This section lists some of the fields that publish a large amount of open data, the concept of open access to scientific data was institutionally established with the formation of the World Data Center system, in preparation for the International Geophysical Year of 1957–1958. The Human Genome Project was an initiative that exemplified the power of open data. More recent initiatives such as the Structural Genomics Consortium have illustrated that the open data approach can also be used productively within the context of industrial R&D, linkedscience. org/data – Open scientific datasets encoded as Linked Data. There are a range of different arguments for government data. Some make the case that opening up official information can support technological innovation and economic growth by enabling third parties to develop new kinds of digital applications, several national governments have created web sites to distribute a portion of the data they collect. It is a concept for a project in municipal Government to create. Additionally, other levels of government have established open data websites, there are many government entities pursuing Open Data in Canada
21,516 (July 2018[update])[2]
