1.
Director (business)
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A director is a person from a group of managers who leads or supervises a particular area of a company, program, or project. Companies that use this term often have many directors spread throughout different business functions or roles, the director usually reports directly to a vice president or to the CEO directly in order to let them know the progress of the organization. Large organizations also sometimes have assistant directors or deputy directors, Director commonly refers to the lowest level of executive in an organization, but many large companies use the title of associate director more frequently. Some companies also have regional directors and area directors, regional directors are present in companies that are organized by location and have their departments under that. They are responsible for the operations for their particular country, though directors are the first stage in the executive team, area directors are seen as higher up, based on their area of control. Corporate titles are given to individuals within a business depending on the role they have. The larger the business, the titles that are present, such as CEO, COO. There are many titles within a company such as director, managing director, company director. The corporate structure consists of four key areas, Board of directors- Each director oversees a department, C-level executives- C-level is used to define the high ranking titles within a business/company. Management- The management area is next to the C-level executives in the corporate jobs hierarchy and they oversee daily tasks of the business or the company. Employees- This role is ranked at the bottom of the structure, employees work on daily tasks and objectives either in a group or individually aiming for that common goal. US law requires every company to create specific positions such as treasurer, president, american businesses are usually controlled by a chief executive officer. In the UK, a director is usually linked to the role of a CEO. The roles are similar and to some extent the same, the difference being the corporate title. Depending upon the size of an organization or a company, the number of directors can vary, start-up companies can have a single director, which is the minimum for a private limited company according to the law. However, as organizations and businesses expand, the number of directors can increase because more tasks, a board of directors ensures that a clearly outlined structure is in place which will help the business to work much more efficiently. Managing Director - A managing director is employed by the business, other roles include running the business and producing salaries. The managing director manages the board of directors and oversees the performance of the business, Executive Directors - A group of executive directors who each play a significant role within the company
2.
Employment
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
3.
Teddington
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Teddington is a town in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. Until 1965, it was in the county of Middlesex. Teddington is on the bank of the Thames, just after the start of a long meander. Teddingtons centre is mid-rise urban development, Teddington is bisected by an almost continuous road of shops, offices and other facilities running from the river to Bushy Park. There are two clusters of offices on this route, on the edge of Bushy Park the NPL, NMO, around Teddington Station and the town centre are a number of offices in industries such as direct marketing and IT, which include Tearfund and BMT Limited. Several riverside businesses and houses were redeveloped in the last quarter of the 20th century as blocks of riverside flats, as of 2016 the riverside side of the former Teddington Studios is being developed to provide modern apartment blocks and other smaller houses. The first/last lock on the Thames, Teddington Lock, which is just within Hams boundary, is accessible via the Teddington Lock Footbridges, in 2001 the RNLI opened the Teddington Lifeboat Station, one of the four Thames lifeboat stations, below the lock on the Teddington side. The station became operational in January 2002 and is the only station on the river. The name Teddington comes from the name of an Old English tribal leader, the place was known in Saxon and Norman times as Todyngton and Tutington. There have been isolated findings of flint and bone tools from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in Bushy Park, however, the first permanent settlement in Teddington was probably in Saxon times. Teddington was not mentioned in Domesday Book as it was included under the Hampton entry, Teddington Manor was first owned by Benedictine monks in Staines and it is believed they built a chapel dedicated to St. Mary on the same site as todays St. Marys Church. In 971, a charter gave the land in Teddington to the Abbey of Westminster, in 1540 some common land of Teddington was enclosed to form Bushy Park and acted as more hunting grounds. Bushy House was built in 1663, and its residents included British Prime Minister Lord North who lived there for over twenty years. A large minority of the lay in largely communal open fields. These were inclosed in two phases, in 1800 and 1818, the facilities were later converted into the National Physical Laboratory. In subsequent centuries, Teddington enjoyed a life due to the proximity of royalty. But the Little Ice Age had made farming much less profitable and this change resulted in great economic change in the 19th century. The first major event was the construction of Teddington Lock in 1811 with its weir across the river and this was the first of five locks built at the time by the City of London Corporation
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills
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It was disbanded on the creation of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy on 14 July 2016. Following the departments dissolution, it no longer has ministers responsible, the Permanent Secretary was Sir Martin Donnelly. Economic policy is devolved but several important policy areas are reserved to Westminster. Further and higher education policy is mostly devolved, reserved and excepted matters are outlined below. Official website bis. gov. uk/ Archived Website Precursor departments, Department for Business and Regulatory Reform Archived Website Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills Archived Website
6.
National Measurement and Regulation Office
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The National Measurement and Regulation Office was an executive agency of the UK Governments Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Its function were to provide a measurement infrastructure which supports innovation, facilitates fair competition, promotes trade and protects consumers. Until June 28,2007 it was an Agency of the Department of Trade and it then became part of the newly formed Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills. In 2009 an agency moved to Department for Business Innovation and Skills, since July 2017, Regulatory Delivery has been a directorate in the newly created Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. In addition, the NMO / NMRO acts as a National Enforcement Authority for a range of EU-based environmental legislation and it has responsibility for maintaining the national primary standards and disseminating the associated measurements and technologies to the UK for trade and measurement purposes. The Agency also made available to manufacturers of equipment a consultancy service. They also provided calibration and testing services to local authorities and private businesses, as well as training in aspects of legal metrology to national and international clients
7.
Metrology
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The field of metrology is important for establishing a common understanding of units, which is crucial in linking human activities. This led to the creation of the decimal based metric system in 1795 to establish a set of standards for types of measurements. This has since evolved into the International System of Units as a result of a made in the 11th Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures in 1960. The NMS greatly effects how measurements are undertaken in the country and this has wide reaching impacts in a variety of different regions of society. It has implications in the area of economies, energy, environment, health, manufacturing, industry, consumer confidence, the effects of metrology on trade and the economy are some of the easiest observed societal impacts. The field of metrology is important for establishing a common understanding of units and these base concepts of metrology are propagated by the three main fields of metrology, which are, scientific or fundamental metrology, applied, technical or industrial metrology, and legal metrology. While there is no definition of fundamental metrology it is considered to be the top level of scientific metrology that strives for the highest level of accuracy. The BIPM maintains a database of the calibration and measurement capabilities of various institutes around the world. These institutes, whose activities are peer-reviewed, provide the reference points for metrological traceability. In the area of measurement, the BIPM has identified nine metrology areas, including length, mass, although the emphasis in this area of metrology is on the measurements themselves, traceability of the calibration of the measurement devices is necessary to ensure confidence in the measurements. Industrial metrology is important to the economical and industrial development of a country, such statutory requirements might arise from, amongst others, the needs for protection of health, public safety, the environment, enabling taxation, protection of consumers and fair trade. The International Organization for Legal Metrology was established to assist in harmonising such regulations across national boundaries to ensure that legal requirements do not inhibit trade. In Europe WELMEC was established in 1990 to promote cooperation on the field of metrology in the European Union. Throughout history the ability to make measurements has been instrumental in the progress of mankind, the ability to measure alone is not sufficient, rather the ability to compare separate measurements and have agreeability is crucial for the measurements to be meaningful. The first record of a permanent standard is from 2900 BC, the cubit was decreed to be the length of the Pharaohs forearm plus the width of his hand and replica standards were given out to builders. The success of standardized length during the building of the pyramids is evidenced by the lengths of the pyramid bases differing by no more than 0. 05%, other civilizations produced their own measurement standards that were accepted throughout their nations. The architecture of the Roman and Greek empires were based on their own systems of measurement. Nonetheless, the fall of great empires and the rise of the Dark Ages caused much of measurement knowledge
8.
Bushy Park
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Bushy Park in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames is the second largest of Londons Royal Parks, at 445 hectares in area, after Richmond Park. The park, most of which is open to the public, is north of Hampton Court Palace. It is surrounded by Teddington, Hampton, Hampton Hill and Hampton Wick, the parks acid grasslands are mostly just above the 25-foot contour. In September 2014 most of it was designated a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest together with Hampton Court Park and Hampton Court Golf Course as Bushy Park, the park is Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. The area now known as Bushy Park has been settled for at least the past 4,000 years, there is also evidence that the area was used in the medieval period for agricultural purposes. A keen hunter, he established them as deer-hunting grounds and this period also saw the construction of the main thoroughfare, Chestnut Avenue, which runs from Park Road in Teddington to the Lion Gate entrance to Hampton Court Palace in Hampton Court Road. This avenue and the Arethusa Diana Fountain were designed by Sir Christopher Wren as an approach to Hampton Court Palace. The park has long been popular with locals, but also visitors from further afield. From the mid-19th century until World War II, Londoners came here to celebrate Chestnut Sunday, the customs were discovered and resurrected in 1993 by Colin and Mu Pain. Among those who served as ranger was King William IV, while Duke of Clarence, to ensure his consort Queen Adelaide, could remain at their long-time home after his death, he immediately appointed her as his successor as ranger. During World War I, Bushy Park housed the Kings Canadian Hospital, during World War II, General Dwight D. Eisenhower planned the D-Day landings from Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force at Camp Griffiss in the Park. A memorial by Carlos Rey dedicated to the Allied troops who fell on D-Day now marks the spot where General Eisenhowers tent stood, the nearby Eisenhower House is named in the Generals honour. Spaatz went on to command the US Army Air Forces throughout the European Theatre of Operations, also known by its US Army code, AAF-586, Camp Griffiss/Widewing was often confused with the wartime headquarters of Eighth Air Force Fighter Command at Bushey Hall, near Watford, Hertfordshire. It also has fishing and model boating ponds, horse rides, formal plantations of trees and other plants, wildlife conservation areas and herds of both red deer and fallow deer. As part of an upgrade of the facilities, the new Pheasantry Café was added. The work was supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, the closest railway stations are Hampton Court in East Molesey to the south, Hampton Wick to the east, Teddington and Fulwell to the north, and Hampton to the west. All are within a 10- to 20-minute walk, transport for London bus routes 111,216 and 411 pass the Hampton Court Gate on Hampton Court Road. R70, R68 and 285 buses stop near the two Hampton Hill Gates off the High Street, while the R68 also serves the Blandford Road Gate before continuing to Hampton Court Green via Hampton Hill
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Bushy House
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Bushy House is a Grade II* listed former royal residence in Teddington in South West London, on the site of the National Physical Laboratory, overlooking Bushy Park. Today, Bushy House still contains a number of laboratories, two museums that mainly contain old scientific equipment and several rooms used for meetings and conferences. Bushy House was originally built in 1663 by William Samwell for Edward Proger, at a cost of £4000, Proger had been made ranger of Bushy Park to reward him for his loyalty to King Charles II during his exile. It was rebuilt and repaired by Charles Montagu from 1713 to 1715 after he had bought the three parks from the Duchess of Cleveland, the house then passed to Charles cousin George Montague and then to Georges son George Montague-Dunk. From 1771 to 1792, it was occupied by Lord North the Prime Minister. In 1797, after the death of both Lord North and his wife, King George III appointed his son, William, Duke of Clarence, as Ranger of Bushy Park, carrying with it residence at Bushy House. The future King William IV and his mistress Dorothy Jordan lived there together with their ten children until the relationship came to an end in 1811. William continued living in Bushy House with the FitzClarence children and later his wife Princess Adelaide after they married in 1818. As William had appointed her Ranger in her own right upon his accession, after Williams death in 1837, in 1865, Queen Victoria offered Bushy House to the Duc de Nemours and other members of the exiled French royal family as they tried to restore the House of Bourbon. After his return to France in 1871, he kept Bushy House until 1897 in case he was forced to leave France again, the new National Physical Laboratory was opened at Bushy House by the Prince of Wales in March 1902
10.
Private finance initiative
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The private finance initiative is a way of creating public–private partnerships by funding public infrastructure projects with private capital. PFI has also used simply to place a great amount of debt off-balance-sheet. PFI has been controversial in the UK, the National Audit Office felt in 2003 that it provided good value for money overall, however, more recently the Parliamentary Treasury Select Committee found that PFI should be brought on balance sheet. The Treasury should remove any perverse incentives unrelated to value for money by ensuring that PFI is not used to circumvent departmental budget limits and it should also ask the OBR to include PFI liabilities in future assessments of the fiscal rules. It is a sub-set of a broader procurement approach termed Public Private Partnership, a public sector authority signs a contract with a private sector consortium, technically known as a Special Purpose Vehicle. This consortium is typically formed for the purpose of providing the PFI. It is owned by a number of private investors, usually including a construction company and a service provider. The consortiums funding will be used to build the facility and to undertake maintenance, once the contract is operational, the SPV may be used as a conduit for contract amendment discussions between the customer and the facility operator. SPVs often charge fees for this go-between service, PFI contracts are typically for 25–30 years, although contracts less than 20 years or more than 40 years exist, they are considerably less common. During the period of the contract the consortium will provide certain services, the consortium is paid for the work over the course of the contract on a no service no fee performance basis. The public authority will design an output specification which is a document setting out what the consortium is expected to achieve, If the consortium fails to meet any of the agreed standards it should lose an element of its payment until standards improve. In most termination cases the public sector is required to repay the debt, in practice, termination is considered a last resort only. Many steps have been taken over the years to standardise the form of PFI contracts to ensure public interests are better protected, the main contract is between the public sector authority and the Topco. Requirements then flow down from the Topco to the Capco and Opco via secondary contracts, further requirements then flow down to subcontractors, again with contracts to match. Often the main subcontractors are companies with the shareholders as the Topco. Prior to the crisis of 2007–2010, large PFI projects were funded through the sale of bonds and/or senior debt. Since the crisis, funding by senior debt has more common. Smaller PFI projects — the majority by number — have typically always been funded directly by banks in the form of senior debt, refinancing of PFI deals is common
11.
John Laing Group
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It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index. The £150 proceeds from the first house financed the building of the two houses on the same plot of land, one of which was kept by the Laing family to live in. The family and the later moved near Carlisle. When James Laing died in 1882, his son, John Laing took over the running of the company, John began to undertake larger contracts but confined the business to the Carlisle area. Johns son, John William Laing, was working for the business before he was 20 years old, by 1910, John William Laing was running the business. More employees were recruited and larger projects were undertaken, including factory construction, in 1920 the firm became a limited company, and two years later moved its headquarters from Carlisle to a 13 acres site at Mill Hill in north-west London. During the Second World War the company was one of the contractors engaged in building the Mulberry harbour units, William Kirby Laing and John Maurice Laing, the fifth generation of the founding family, joined the company in 1950. John Laing & Sons Ltd was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in January 1953, the family and its trusts and charities held the majority of the shares. John William Laing became the chairman, and his sons became joint managing directors, by this time, the number of employees was around 10,000, and every site had a quality supervisor. John William Laing retired in 1957, the company acquired Holloway Brothers in 1964. Under William Kirby Laing and James Maurice Laing, the continued to expand, winning contracts for power stations. In 1985, Martin Laing, of the generation of the founding family. Martin Laing determined that the company should begin to diversify, home construction in the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Spain, and California was now one of the major sources of the companys growth. In 1999 John Laing plc purchased a controlling interest in the Chiltern Rail franchise and it underwent yet another change when Sir Martin Laing retired in early 2002. Bill Forrester took over as executive chairman, for the first time in its history Laing did not have a member of the founding family at the head of the company. The business expanded rapidly in the late 1990s, such that for the year ended 31 December 2001 its turnover was in excess of £1 billion, following significant losses on certain construction contracts the company cut 800 jobs and in 2001 disposed of its construction division to ORourke for £1. It focused instead on its PPP / PFI activities, laings property developments divisions were sold to Kier Group, and its house building arm was sold to George Wimpey in 2002. In 2003 its affordable housing division was sold in a management buy-out, in December 2006 John Laing plc was acquired by the private equity arm of Henderson Group
12.
Serco
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Serco Group plc is a British outsourcing company based in Hook, Hampshire. It operates public and private transport and traffic control, aviation, military weapons, detention centres, call centres, prisons, Serco has been involved in a variety of controversies having a history of problems, failures, fatal errors and overcharging. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index, Serco operates in Continental Europe, the Middle East, the Asia Pacific region and North America, but the majority of its turnover comes from the UK. Serco was founded in 1929 as RCA Services Limited, a United Kingdom division of the Radio Corporation of America, following the takeover of RCA by General Electric in late 1985, RCA Services Limited was bought out by its local management. It changed its name to Serco in 1987 and has been a London Stock Exchange listed company since 1988, on 29 December 2008, Serco acquired SI International. In November 2014 its share price, which stood at 674p before the scandal broke in 2013 collapsed to 218. 7p. The new chief executive Rupert Soames sold off scores of divisions, on 17 November 2014, it was announced that Alastair Lyons would resign from his position as chairman of Serco. Lyons referred to “operational mis-steps” for which he took “ultimate responsibility”, Serco made a loss of £991 million in 2014, reducing to a loss of £69.4 million in 2015. Sir Roy Gardner was appointed as Non-Executive Chairman on 28 May 2015, Serco, as well as its rival G4S, was accused of overcharging the Ministry of Justice on its contract to tag offenders. The firm issued a warning for 2014 as a result of the costs of becoming embroiled in an electronic tagging scandal. Serco repaid £68.5 million to the government for its overcharging on the contract and we Own It held a protest outside the companys annual general meeting on 8 May called Sick of Serco. The group brought sick bags and proposed a Public Service Users Bill that would provide better, Serco operates the National Border Targeting Centre for UK Visas and Immigration and provides the carrier gateway—the interface between carriers and the agency. Serco operates the Santander Cycles scheme and the NorthLink Ferries Northern Isles lifeline ferry service in Scotland, Serco also has a joint venture with Abellio, the international arm of Dutch national rail operator Nederlandse Spoorwegen, to operate passenger trains in the UK. Serco-Abellio has a 25-year concession for Merseyrail in Liverpool until 2028 and it previously operated the Docklands Light Railway. On 31 March 2015, Serco commenced a 15-year contract to operate the Caledonian Sleeper between London and Scotland, Serco managed the UKs National Physical Laboratory until 2015 and also provides IT Services, Industrial Support and Cryogenic Operations Support and Maintenance at CERN. Serco also was part of a running the National Nuclear Laboratory under contract. In Britain Serco supplies electronic tagging devices for offenders and asylum seekers and it runs four prisons, a Young Offenders Institution and a Secure Training Centre. It has also operated two Immigration Removal Centres since 2007, Serco is also responsible for the contracted-out court escort services in the south-east area
13.
Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)
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The Department of Trade and Industry was a United Kingdom government department formed on 19 October 1970. It was replaced with the creation of the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform and the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills on 28 June 2007. The department was first formed on 19 October 1970 with the merger of the Board of Trade, the new department also took over the Department of Employments former responsibilities for monopolies and mergers. In January 1974, the departments responsibilities for energy production were transferred to a newly created Department of Energy, in 1983 the departments of Trade and Industry were reunited. The Department of Energy was re-merged back into the DTI in 1992, until it was succeeded in June 2007 the DTI continued to set the energy policy of the United Kingdom. The DTI had a range of responsibilities. There were ultimately nine main areas covered by the DTI, Company Law Trade Business Growth Innovation Employment Law Regional Economic Development Energy Science Consumer Law. From 1999 to 2005 it led the national E-Commerce Awards with InterForum and this aimed to encourage Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises to develop their business through the use of E-Commerce technologies. It also had responsibility for investigating misconduct by company directors, in which role Private Eye repeatedly lampooned it as the Department of Timidity and Inaction
14.
Civil Service (United Kingdom)
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As in other states that employ the Westminster political system, Her Majestys Home Civil Service forms an inseparable part of the British government. The executive decisions of government ministers are implemented by HM Civil Service, Civil servants are employees of the Crown and not of the British parliament. Civil servants also have traditional and statutory responsibilities which to some extent protect them from being used for the political advantage of the party in power. Senior civil servants may be called to account to Parliament, as at the end of March 2016 there were 418,343 civil servants in the Home Civil Service, this is down 3. 6% on the previous year. There are two other administratively separate civil services in the United Kingdom, one is for Northern Ireland, the other is the foreign service. The heads of these services are members of the Permanent Secretaries Management Group, the Offices of State grew in England, and later the United Kingdom. Initially, as in countries, they were little more than secretariats for their leaders. In the 18th century, in response to the growth of the British Empire and economic changes, institutions such as the Office of Works, each had its own system and staff were appointed by purchase or patronage. By the 19th century, it increasingly clear that these arrangements were not working. In 1806, the Honourable East India Company established a college, the purpose of this college was to train administrators, it was established on recommendation of officials in China who had seen the imperial examination system. The civil service, based on similar to the Chinese system, was advocated by a number of Englishmen over the next several decades. The report was well-timed, because bureaucratic chaos in the Crimean War promptly caused a clamour for the change, a Civil Service Commission was accordingly set up in 1855 to oversee open recruitment and end patronage, and most of the other Northcote-Trevelyan recommendations were implemented over some years. This system was endorsed by Commissions chaired by Playfair, Ridley, MacDonnell, Tomlin. The Northcote-Trevelyan model remained essentially stable for a hundred years and this was a tribute to its success in removing corruption, delivering public services, and responding effectively to political change. Following the Second World War, however, demands for change again grew, the times were, moreover, ones of keen respect for technocracy, with the mass mobilisation of war having worked effectively, and the French National Plan apparently delivering economic success. Lord Fultons committee reported in 1968 and his 158 recommendations included the introduction of a unified grading system for all categories of staff, a Civil Service College and a central policy planning unit. The new Department was set up by Prime Minister Harold Wilsons Labour Government in 1968 and named the Civil Service Department, the first Minister was Cabinet Minister Lord Shackleton, also Leader of the House of Lords and Lord Privy Seal. The first Permanent Secretary was Sir William Armstrong, who moved over from his post as Permanent Secretary at the Treasury, after the 1970 General Election, new Conservative Prime Minister Ted Heath appointed Lord Jellicoe in Lord Shackletons place
15.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
16.
University of Southampton
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The University of Southampton is a public research university located in Southampton, England. The origins of the university back to the founding of the Hartley Institution in 1862 following a legacy to the Corporation of Southampton by Henry Robinson Hartley. In 1902, the Institution developed into the Hartley University College awarding degrees from the University of London, on 29 April 1952, the institution was granted a Royal Charter to give the University of Southampton full university status, allowing it to award its own degrees. The university has seven teaching campuses, in addition, the university operates a School of Art based in nearby Winchester and an international branch in Malaysia offering courses in Engineering. Each campus is equipped with its own library facilities, the University of Southampton currently has 17,485 undergraduate and 7,390 postgraduate students, making it the largest university by higher education students in the South East region. The university owns and operates a sports ground at nearby Wide Lane for use by students, besides being recognised as one of the leading research universities in the UK, Southampton has also achieved consistently high scores for its teaching and learning activities. It additionally has one of the highest proportions of income derived from activities in Britain. As of 2015, Southampton is one of the few universities to achieve a top 20 UK position in the most established national and international rankings, in the 2016 edition of U. S. News & World Report, Southampton is placed in the top 10 of British Universities. Southampton is a member of the European University Association, the Association of Commonwealth Universities and is an institution of the Worldwide Universities Network. The university consistently ranks in the top 5 in Engineering programs in England, the University of Southampton has its origin as the Hartley Institution which was formed in 1862 from a benefaction by Henry Robinson Hartley. Hartley had inherited a fortune from two generations of successful wine merchants, at his death in 1850, he left a bequest of £103,000 to the Southampton Corporation for the study and advancement of the sciences in his property on Southamptons High Street, in the city centre. Hartley was a straggler, who had little liking of the new age docks. He did not desire to create a college for many but a centre for Southamptons intellectual elite. After lengthy legal challenges to the Bequest, and a debate as to how best interpret the language of his Will. On 15 October 1862, the Hartley Institute was opened by the Prime Minister Lord Palmerston in a civic occasion which exceeded in splendor anything that anyone in the town could remember. After initial years of struggle, the Hartley Institute became the Hartley College in 1883. This move was followed by increasing numbers of students, teaching staff, in 1902, the Hartley College became the Hartley University college, a degree awarding branch of the University of London. This was after inspection of the teaching and finances by the University College Grants Committee, an increase in student numbers in the following years motivated fund raising efforts to move the college to greenfield land around Back Lane in the Highfield area of Southampton
17.
University of Strathclyde
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The University of Strathclyde is a Scottish public research university located in Glasgow, United Kingdom. Founded in 1796 as the Andersonian Institute, it is Glasgows second-oldest university and it takes its name from the historic Kingdom of Strathclyde. The University of Strathclyde is Scotlands third-largest university by number of students, with students, the institution was awarded University of the Year 2012 and Entrepreneurial University of the year 2013 by Times Higher Education. Entry into many of the courses in the university is competitive and this means that successful applicants to Strathclyde have the third-highest average score in Scotland, and is ranked twelfth overall in the UK. It is also one of the 39 old universities in the UK comprising the second cluster of elite universities after Oxbridge. The University later named its city centre campus after him, in 1828, the institution was renamed Andersons University, partially fulfilling Andersons vision of two universities in the city of Glasgow. The name was changed in 1887, to reflect the fact there was no legal authority for the use of the title of university. Undergraduate students could qualify for degrees of the University of Glasgow or the equivalent Associate of the Royal College of Science, the University of Strathclyde was the UKs first technological university reflecting its history, teaching and research excellence in technological education. In 1993, the University incorporated Jordanhill College of Education, in July 2015, Her Majesty The Queen has opened the Technology and Innovation Centre, at the University of Strathclyde. The centrepiece building has long been the massive Royal College Building, started in 1903 and completed in 1912, it was partially opened in 1910 and at the time was the largest educational building in Europe for technical education. Originally built as the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College Building, it now houses Bioscience, Chemistry, meanwhile, a new biomedical sciences building was opened in early 2010. It was designed by Shepparrd Robson, and aims to bring the multi-faceted disciplines of the Institute together under one roof, sited on Cathedral Street in Glasgow, the 8,000 m2 building is the gateway to the University campus and city centre from the motorway. The James Weir Building has been reconstructed and reopened in 2014 after a fire resulted in many rooms being unusable. The Architecture Building, completed in 1967, is considered to be the best post-war building on campus and it was designed by Frank Fielden and Associates, Frank Fielden being the Professor of Architecture in the Architecture School at the time. In 2012, Historic Scotland granted Listed Building Status to it, along with the Wolfson Building designed by Morris,2012 also saw the 20th Century Society select the Architecture Building as their Building of the Month for September due to its cultural significance and enduring appeal. The Andersonian Library is the library of the University of Strathclyde. Established in 1796, it is one of the largest of its type in Scotland and it is situated in the Curran building. Situated over 5 floors at present, the Andersonian Library has more than 2,000 reader places,450 computer places and extensive wi-fi zones for laptop use
18.
University of Surrey
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The University of Surrey is a public research university located within the county town of Guildford, Surrey, in the South East of England, United Kingdom. The university specialises in science, engineering, medicine and business and it received its charter on 9 September 1966, and was previously situated near Battersea Park in south-west London. The institution was known as Battersea College of Technology before gaining university status and its roots, however, go back to the Battersea Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1891 to provide further and higher education for Londons poorer inhabitants. The university conducts research on small satellites and has a number of staff who are members of learned societies. The university has expanded into China by launching the Surrey International Institute with Dongbei University of Finance. The universitys main campus is located on Stag Hill close to the centre of Guildford, a second campus, at Manor Park, is located a short distance away and has been developed to expand upon existing accommodation, academic buildings and sporting facilities. The university is a centre for satellite and mobile communications research. The university has 10 Fellows of the Royal Society,21 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering, the University of Surrey was preceded by the Battersea Polytechnic Institute which was founded in 1891 and admitted its first students in 1894. Its aims were to provide access to further and higher education for some of the poorer inhabitants of London. Special classes for Women in Domestic Economy subjects, Day Classes in Art, Science, Womens subjects and Gymnastics. Classes in preparation for University and Professional Examinations, Science day School for Boys and Girls, Commercial School for Girls, Training School for Domestic Economy and Training for Teachers. The Institute focused on science and technology subjects, and from about 1920 taught some classes for University of London students, the Institute awarded University of London external degrees. In 1956, the Institute was among the first to receive the designation College of Advanced Technology and was renamed Battersea College of Technology, by the beginning of the sixties, the College had virtually outgrown its building in Battersea and had decided to move to Guildford. In addition to this, the Robbins Report of 1963 proposed that the Colleges of Advanced Technology, including Battersea, should expand, in 1965, the university-designate acquired a greenfield site in Guildford from Guildford Cathedral, Guildford Borough Council and the Onslow Village Trust. On 9 September 1966 the University of Surrey was established by Royal Charter, early visitors to the new campus were Led Zeppelin, who performed their very first gig at the university on 25 October 1968. The Assessment and Qualifications Alliance moved from Aldershot to its own building on the Stag Hill campus in 1985. The university celebrated its 35th anniversary year in May 2002 with an event in Guildford Cathedral. It was also marked by the unveiling of the Surrey Scholar sculpture to mark the Golden Jubilee of Her Majesty The Queen, the Surrey Scholar is located at the bottom of Guildford High Street
19.
Nanotechnology
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Nanotechnology is manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale. It is therefore common to see the plural form nanotechnologies as well as nanoscale technologies to refer to the range of research. Because of the variety of applications, governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology research. Until 2012, through its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the USA has invested 3.7 billion dollars, scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, biomaterials energy production. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether regulation of nanotechnology is warranted. The term nano-technology was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, also in 1986, Drexler co-founded The Foresight Institute to help increase public awareness and understanding of nanotechnology concepts and implications. In the 1980s, two major breakthroughs sparked the growth of nanotechnology in modern era, the microscopes developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. Binnig, Quate and Gerber also invented the atomic force microscope that year. Second, Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl, in the early 2000s, the field garnered increased scientific, political, and commercial attention that led to both controversy and progress. Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Societys report on nanotechnology, challenges were raised regarding the feasibility of applications envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology, which culminated in a public debate between Drexler and Smalley in 2001 and 2003. Meanwhile, commercialization of products based on advancements in nanoscale technologies began emerging and these products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter. Governments moved to promote and fund research into nanotechnology, such as in the U. S, by the mid-2000s new and serious scientific attention began to flourish. Projects emerged to produce nanotechnology roadmaps which center on atomically precise manipulation of matter and discuss existing and projected capabilities, goals, Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced, one nanometer is one billionth, or 10−9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0. 12–0.15 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life-forms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length, by convention, nanotechnology is taken as the scale range 1 to 100 nm following the definition used by the National Nanotechnology Initiative in the US. The lower limit is set by the size of atoms since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules
20.
Huddersfield
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Huddersfield is a large market town in West Yorkshire, England. It is the 11th largest town in the United Kingdom, with a population of 162,949 at the 2011 census, halfway between Leeds and Manchester, it lies 190 miles north of London, and 10.3 miles south of Bradford. Huddersfield is near the confluence of the River Colne and the River Holme, within the historic county boundaries of the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is the largest urban area in the metropolitan borough of Kirklees and the administrative centre of the borough. The town is known for its role in the Industrial Revolution, and for being the birthplaces of rugby league, Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson, and the film star James Mason. Huddersfield is home to rugby league team Huddersfield Giants, founded in 1895, who play in the European Super League, and Championship football team Huddersfield Town F. C. founded in 1908. The town is home to the University of Huddersfield and the sixth form colleges Greenhead College, Kirklees College, Huddersfield railway station is a Grade I listed building described by John Betjeman as the most splendid station façade in England, second only to St Pancras, London. The station in St Georges Square was renovated at a cost of £4 million, there has been a settlement in the area for over 4,000 years. The remains of a Roman fort were unearthed in the mid 18th century at Slack near Outlane, Castle Hill, a major landmark, was the site of an Iron Age hill fort. Huddersfield was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Oderesfelt, Huddersfield has been a market town since Anglo-Saxon times. The market cross is on Market Place, the manor of Huddersfield was owned by the de Lacy family until 1322, at which it reverted to royal ownership. In 1599, William Ramsden bought the manor, and the Ramsden family continued to own the manor, Huddersfield was a centre of civil unrest during the Industrial Revolution. Luddites began destroying mills and machinery in response, one of the most notorious attacks was on Cartwright — a Huddersfield mill-owner, the government campaign that crushed the movement was provoked by a murder that took place in Huddersfield. William Horsfall, a mill-owner and a prosecutor of Luddites, was killed in 1812. Although the movement faded out, Parliament began to increase welfare provision for those out of work, Two Prime Ministers have spent part of their childhood in Huddersfield, Harold Wilson and Herbert Asquith. Wilson is commemorated by a statue in front of the railway station, Kirklees Council was the first in the UK to have a Green Party councillor, Nicholas Harvey who was instrumental in protesting against the intended closure of the Settle and Carlisle Railway line. The town has substantial Conservative Party, Liberal Democrats and UKIP presences, centre-right and rightist groups are also active. Huddersfield was incorporated as a borough in the ancient West Riding of Yorkshire in 1868. The borough comprised the parishes of Almondbury, Dalton, Huddersfield, Lindley-cum-Quarmby, when the West Riding County Council was formed in 1889, Huddersfield became a county borough, exempt from county council control
21.
Underwater acoustics
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Underwater acoustics is the study of the propagation of sound in water and the interaction of the mechanical waves that constitute sound with the water and its boundaries. The water may be in the ocean, a lake or a tank, typical frequencies associated with underwater acoustics are between 10 Hz and 1 MHz. Underwater acoustics is sometimes known as hydroacoustics, underwater sound has probably been used by marine animals for millions of years. In 1687 Isaac Newton wrote his Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy which included the first mathematical treatment of sound, the next major step in the development of underwater acoustics was made by Daniel Colladon, a Swiss physicist, and Charles Sturm, a French mathematician. In 1826, on Lake Geneva, they measured the time between a flash of light and the sound of a submerged ships bell heard using an underwater listening horn. They measured a speed of 1435 metres per second over a 17 kilometre distance. The result they obtained was within about 2% of currently accepted values, in 1877 Lord Rayleigh wrote the Theory of Sound and established modern acoustic theory. The sinking of Titanic in 1912 and the start of World War I provided the impetus for the wave of progress in underwater acoustics. Systems for detecting icebergs and U-boats were developed, between 1912 and 1914, a number of echolocation patents were granted in Europe and the U. S. culminating in Reginald A. Fessendens echo-ranger in 1914. Pioneering work was carried out during time in France by Paul Langevin and in Britain by A B Wood. The development of both active ASDIC and passive sonar proceeded apace during the war, driven by the first large scale deployments of submarines, other advances in underwater acoustics included the development of acoustic mines. In 1919, the first scientific paper on underwater acoustics was published, theoretically describing the refraction of sound produced by temperature. The range predictions of the paper were experimentally validated by transmission loss measurements, the next two decades saw the development of several applications of underwater acoustics. The fathometer, or depth sounder, was developed commercially during the 1920s and these systems were used to good effect during World War II by both submarines and anti-submarine vessels. Many advances in underwater acoustics were made which were summarised later in the series Physics of Sound in the Sea, a sound wave propagating underwater consists of alternating compressions and rarefactions of the water. These compressions and rarefactions are detected by a receiver, such as the ear or a hydrophone. These waves may be man-made or naturally generated, the speed of sound c is related to frequency f and wavelength λ of a wave by c = f ⋅ λ. The product of c and ρ from the formula is known as the characteristic acoustic impedance
22.
Wraysbury Reservoir
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The Wraysbury Reservoir is a water supply reservoir for London, just west of the M25 near the village of Wraysbury, and directly under the western approach path of London Heathrow airport. The reservoir was begun in 1967 and completed by W. & C, french in 1970 with a capacity of 34,000 million litres. The reservoir is owned and operated by Thames Water,400 million litres of water are pumped daily from an inlet at Datchet on the River Thames, a neighbouring reservoir is the King George VI Reservoir, opened in 1947, which is supplied from Hythe End. To keep the short and make inspections easier, Thames Water maintains a flock of sheep on the earthen banks. Wraysbury Reservoir has an area of 2.05 square kilometres excluding its embankment and it has been designated since 1999 as a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The reservoir also support notable numbers of wintering gadwall Anas strepera, the SSSI is close to another in Berkshire resulting from gravel extractions at Wraysbury
23.
Robert Watson-Watt
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Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt, KCB, FRS, FRAeS was a Scottish pioneer of radar technology. This system provided the vital information that helped the Royal Air Force win the Battle of Britain. After the success of his invention, Watson-Watt was sent to the US in 1941 to advise on air defence after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1941, was given a knighthood in 1942 and was awarded the US Medal for Merit in 1946. Born in Brechin, Angus, Scotland, on 13 April 1892 Watson-Watt was a descendant of James Watt, after attending Damacre Primary School and Brechin High School, he was accepted to University College, Dundee. Watson-Watt had a time as a student, winning the Carnelley Prize for Chemistry. He graduated with a BSc in engineering in 1912, and was offered an assistantship by Professor William Peddie, at the start of the Great War Watson-Watt was working as an assistant in the Colleges Engineering Department. In 1916 Watson-Watt wanted a job with the War Office, instead he joined the Meteorological Office, which was interested in his ideas on the use of radio for the detection of thunderstorms. Lightning gives off a signal as it ionizes the air. His early experiments were successful in detecting the signal and he proved to be able to do so at ranges up to 2,500 km. However, there was difficulty in determining location. This was accomplished by rotating a loop antenna to maximise the signal, however, the strikes were so fleeting that it was very difficult to turn the antenna in time to positively locate one. Instead, the operator would listen to many strikes and develop an average location. At first, he worked at the Wireless Station of Air Ministry Meteorological Office in Aldershot, in 1924 when the War Department gave notice that they wished to re-occupy their Aldershot site, he moved to Ditton Park near Slough, Berkshire. The National Physical Laboratory was already using this site and had two devices that would prove pivotal to his work. The first was an Adcock antenna, an arrangement of four masts that allowed the signal to be directed through phase differences, using these as two separate loop antennas at right angles, one could make a simultaneous measurement of the lightnings direction in two axes. However, displaying the fleeting signals was a problem and this was solved by the second device, the WE-224 oscilloscope, recently acquired from Bell Labs. By feeding the signals from the two antennas into the X and Y channels of the oscilloscope, a single strike caused the appearance of a line on the display, the scopes relatively slow phosphor allowed the signal to be read long after the strike had occurred
24.
Louis Essen
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Louis Essen FRS O. B. E. was an English physicist whose most notable achievements were in the precise measurement of time and the determination of the speed of light. He was a critic of Albert Einsteins theory of relativity, particularly as it related to time dilation, born in Nottingham, Essen earned his degree in physics from the University of London in 1928, having studied at University College Nottingham. He started work at the National Physical Laboratory the following year, under D. W. Dye, investigating the potential of tuning forks and quartz crystal oscillators for precise time measurement. His research led to his development of the quartz ring clock in 1938, during World War II, Essen worked on radar and developed a number of instruments, including the cavity resonance wavemeter. It was this work that suggested to Essen the possibility of a precise measurement of the speed of light. As the wavelength of the modes was known from the geometry of the cavity and from electromagnetic theory, even NPL director Sir Charles Galton Darwin, while supporting the work, observed that Essen would get the correct result once he had perfected the technique. Hansen at Stanford University had used a technique and obtained a measurement which was more consistent with the conventional wisdom. 5±1 km/s. This was the adopted by the 12th General Assembly of the Radio-Scientific Union in 1957. Most subsequent measurements have been consistent with this value, in 1983, the 17th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures adopted the standard value,299,792.458 km/s for the speed of light. Essen earned his Ph. D. and Doctor of Science from the University of London before becoming interested in the possibility of using the frequency of atomic spectra to improve time measurement. The feasibility of measuring time using caesium as an atomic reference had been demonstrated by the US National Bureau of Standards and this work led Essen to champion the caesium spectrum as an international time standard. The ammonia molecule had already been proposed as such but Essen was convinced that caesium would prove more stable, Essen spent all his working life at the National Physical Laboratory. In 1971 he published The Special Theory of Relativity, A Critical Analysis, questioning Special relativity, Essen said in 1978, No one has attempted to refute my arguments, but I was warned that if I persisted I was likely to spoil my career prospects. He retired in 1972 and died in Great Bookham, Surrey in 1997, popov Gold Medal from the USSR Academy of Sciences O. B. E. Fellow of the Royal Society Rabi Award of the IEEE Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, archived from the original on 10 October 2012. Sciencemuseum, Louis Essen and atomic clocks
25.
Quartz clock
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A quartz clock is a clock that uses an electronic oscillator that is regulated by a quartz crystal to keep time. This crystal oscillator creates a signal with very precise frequency, so that quartz clocks are at least an order of more accurate than mechanical clocks. Generally, some form of digital logic counts the cycles of this signal and provides a numeric display, usually in units of hours, minutes. The first quartz clock was built in 1927 by Warren Marrison, chemically, quartz is a compound called silicon dioxide. Many materials can be formed into plates that will resonate, however, quartz is also a piezoelectric material, that is, when a quartz crystal is subject to mechanical stress, such as bending, it accumulates electrical charge across some planes. In a reverse effect, if charges are placed across the crystal plane, since quartz can be directly driven by an electric signal, no additional speaker or microphone is required to use it in a resonator. Similar crystals are used in low-end phonograph cartridges, The movement of the stylus flexes a quartz crystal, which produces a small voltage, Quartz microphones are still available, though not common. Quartz has an advantage in that its size does not change much as temperature fluctuates. Fused quartz is used for laboratory equipment that must not change shape along with the temperature. A quartz plates resonance frequency, based on its size, will not significantly rise or fall, similarly, since its resonator does not change shape, a quartz clock will remain relatively accurate as the temperature changes. In the early 20th century, radio engineers sought a precise, stable source of radio frequencies, however, when Walter Guyton Cady found that quartz can resonate with less equipment and better temperature stability, steel resonators disappeared within a few years. Later, scientists at NIST discovered that a crystal oscillator could be accurate than a pendulum clock. The electronic circuit is an oscillator, an amplifier whose output passes through the quartz resonator, the resonator acts as an electronic filter, eliminating all but the single frequency of interest. The output of the resonator feeds back to the input of the amplifier, when the circuit starts up, even a single shot can cascade to bringing the oscillator at the desired frequency. If the amplifier is too perfect, the oscillator will not start, the frequency at which the crystal oscillates depends on its shape, size, and the crystal plane on which the quartz is cut. The positions at which electrodes are placed can slightly change the tuning, if the crystal is accurately shaped and positioned, it will oscillate at a desired frequency. In nearly all quartz watches, the frequency is 32,768 Hz, and this frequency is a power of two, just high enough so most people cannot hear it, yet low enough to permit inexpensive counters to derive a 1-second pulse. A 15-bit binary digital counter driven by the frequency will overflow once per second, the pulse-per-second output can be used to drive many kinds of clocks
26.
Barnes Wallis
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Sir Barnes Neville Wallis CBE FRS RDI FRAeS, was an English scientist, engineer and inventor. He is best known for inventing the bouncing bomb used by the Royal Air Force in Operation Chastise to attack the dams of the Ruhr Valley during World War II. The raid was the subject of the 1955 film The Dam Busters, among his other inventions were the geodetic airframe and the earthquake bomb. He subsequently changed his apprenticeship to J. Samuel Whites, the shipbuilders based at Cowes on the Isle of Wight and he originally trained as a marine engineer and in 1922 he took a degree in engineering via the University of London External Programme. He left J. Samuel Whites in 1913 when an opportunity arose for him to work on airship design and he worked for Vickers - later part of Vickers-Armstrongs and latterly part of the British Aircraft Corporation until his retirement in 1971. His many achievements include the first use of design in engineering and in the gasbag wiring of Vickers R100 in 1930. He also pioneered, along with John Edwin Temple, the use of light alloy, nevil Shute Norway was the chief calculator for the project, responsible for calculating the stresses on the frame. Despite a better-than-expected performance and a return flight to Canada in 1930, the R100 was broken up following the crash in northern France of its sister ship. The later destruction of the Hindenburg led to the abandonment of airships as a mode of mass transport, by the time of the R101 crash, Wallis had moved to the Vickers aircraft factory at the Brooklands motor circuit and aerodrome between Byfleet and Weybridge in Surrey. The pre-war aircraft designs of Rex Pierson, the Wellesley, the Wellington, the latter was one of the most robust airframes ever developed, and pictures of its skeleton largely shot away, but still sound enough to bring its crew home safely, are still impressive. The geodetic construction offered a light and strong airframe, with clearly defined space within for fuel tanks, payload, however the technique was not easily transferred to other aircraft manufacturers, nor was Vickers able to build other designs in factories tooled for geodetic work. Referring to the power supplies, he wrote, If their destruction or paralysis can be accomplished they offer a means of rendering the enemy utterly incapable of continuing to prosecute the war. As a means to do this, he proposed huge bombs that could concentrate their force, Walliss first super-large bomb design came out at some ten tonnes, far more than any current bomber could carry. Rather than drop the idea, this led him to suggest a plane that could carry it - the Victory Bomber, early in 1942, Wallis began experimenting with skipping marbles over water tanks in his garden, leading to his April 1942 paper Spherical Bomb — Surface Torpedo. After some initial scepticism, the Air Force accepted Walliss bouncing bomb for attacks on the Möhne, Eder, the raid on these dams in May 1943 was immortalised in Paul Brickhills 1951 book The Dam Busters and the 1955 film of the same name. The Möhne and Eder dams were breached, causing damage to German factories. After the success of the bomb, Wallis was able to return to his huge bombs, producing first the Tallboy. These were not the same as the 5-tonne blockbuster bomb, which was a conventional blast bomb and they were the forerunners of modern bunker-busting bombs
27.
Fatigue (material)
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In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive and localized damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be less than the strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit. Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading, if the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the stress concentrators such as the surface, persistent slip bands, and grain interfaces. Eventually a crack will reach a size, the crack will propagate suddenly. The shape of the structure will affect the fatigue life. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets will therefore increase the strength of the structure. ASTM defines fatigue life, Nf, as the number of cycles of a specified character that a specimen sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs. Engineers have used any of three methods to determine the life of a material, the stress-life method, the strain-life method. One method to predict fatigue life of materials is the Uniform Material Law, UML was developed for fatigue life prediction of aluminium and titanium alloys by the end of 20th century and extended to high-strength steels, and cast iron. Macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities as well as component design features which cause stress concentrations are common locations at which the process begins. Fatigue is a process that has a degree of randomness, often showing considerable scatter even in seemingly identical sample in well controlled environments, Fatigue is usually associated with tensile stresses but fatigue cracks have been reported due to compressive loads. The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life, Fatigue life scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives. Materials do not recover when rested, some materials exhibit a theoretical fatigue limit below which continued loading does not lead to fatigue failure. High cycle fatigue strength can be described by stress-based parameters, a load-controlled servo-hydraulic test rig is commonly used in these tests, with frequencies of around 20–50 Hz. Other sorts of machines—like resonant magnetic machines—can also be used, to achieve frequencies up to 250 Hz, low cycle fatigue is associated with localized plastic behavior in metals, thus, a strain-based parameter should be used for fatigue life prediction in metals. Testing is conducted with constant strain amplitudes typically at 0. 01–5 Hz,1837, Wilhelm Albert publishes the first article on fatigue. He devised a test machine for conveyor chains used in the Clausthal mines,1839, Jean-Victor Poncelet describes metals as being tired in his lectures at the military school at Metz
28.
James Lighthill
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Sir Michael James Lighthill, FRS was a British applied mathematician, known for his pioneering work in the field of aeroacoustics. Lighthill was educated at Winchester College, and graduated with a BA from Trinity College, Cambridge in 1943 and he specialised in fluid dynamics, and worked at the National Physical Laboratory at Trinity. Between 1946 and 1959 he was Beyer Professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Manchester, Lighthill then moved from Manchester to become director of the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough. There he worked on the development of television and communications satellites and this latter work was used in the development of the Concorde supersonic airliner. In 1955, together with G. B, whitham, Lighthill set out the first comprehensive theory of kinematic waves, with a multitude of applications, prime among them fluid flow and traffic flow. Lighthills early work included two dimensional theory, and supersonic flow around solids of revolution. In addition to the dynamics of gas at high speeds he studied shock and blast waves and he is credited with founding the subject of aeroacoustics, a subject vital to the reduction of noise in jet engines. Lighthills eighth power law states that the power radiated by a jet engine is proportional to the eighth power of the jet speed. He also founded non-linear acoustics, and showed that the same non-linear differential equations could model both flood waves in rivers and traffic flow in highways, Lighthill then became Provost of University College London – a post he held until 1989. Lighthill founded the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications in 1964, in 1968, he was awarded an Honorary Degree by the University of Bath. In 1972 he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland and he chose the subject Aquatic Animal Locomotion. Lighthill was awarded the Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt for outstanding contribution in the field of engineering in 1983. He died in the water in 1998 when the valve in his heart ruptured while he was swimming round the island of Sark. Proceedings of the Royal Society A.211, 564–587, turbulence as a source of sound. Proceedings of the Royal Society A.222, 1–32, introduction to Fourier analysis and generalised functions. An informal introduction to fluid mechanics. CBMS-NSF Regional Conference Series in Applied Mathematics, Lighthill, M. J. Waves in fluids. Lighthill, M. J. Hussaini, M. Yousuff, Lighthill method in differential equations James Lighthill House
29.
Boundary layer
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In the Earths atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface. On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the close to the wing. Laminar boundary layers can be classified according to their structure. When a fluid rotates and viscous forces are balanced by the Coriolis effect, in the theory of heat transfer, a thermal boundary layer occurs. A surface can have multiple types of boundary layer simultaneously, the viscous nature of airflow reduces the local velocities on a surface and is responsible for skin friction. The layer of air over the surface that is slowed down or stopped by viscosity, is the boundary layer. There are two different types of boundary layer flow, laminar and turbulent, laminar Boundary Layer Flow The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or eddies. The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow. As the flow continues back from the edge, the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness. Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow At some distance back from the leading edge, the low energy laminar flow, however, tends to break down more suddenly than the turbulent layer. The aerodynamic boundary layer was first defined by Ludwig Prandtl in a paper presented on August 12,1904 at the third International Congress of Mathematicians in Heidelberg and this allows a closed-form solution for the flow in both areas, a significant simplification of the full Navier–Stokes equations. The majority of the transfer to and from a body also takes place within the boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the layer in the direction normal to the surface remains constant throughout the boundary layer. The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is defined as the distance from the solid body at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity. Displacement Thickness is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The no-slip condition requires the flow velocity at the surface of an object be zero. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the layer, governed by the boundary layer equations
30.
Aerodynamics
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Aerodynamics, from Greek ἀήρ aer + δυναμική, the study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, the term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that gas dynamics applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the sense in the eighteenth century. Most of the efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to flow, turbulence. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle, in 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows, the Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow, in 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond dAlembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, in 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift. Building on these developments as well as carried out in their own wind tunnel. During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Wilhelm Kutta, Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil, as aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near or greater than the speed of sound. The differences in air flows under such conditions leds to problems in control, increased drag due to shock waves. The ratio of the speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of supersonic flow. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds around Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly, by the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an line of high performance aircraft. Understanding the motion of air around an object enables the calculation of forces, in many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight, lift, drag, thrust, and weight
31.
Thermodynamics
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Thermodynamics is a branch of science concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics, the laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering. The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was extended early on to the study of chemical compounds, Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field. Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged in the following decades, statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, concerned itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory presented a mathematical approach to the field in his axiomatic formulation of thermodynamics. A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis, the first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work. In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized, central to this are the concepts of the thermodynamic system and its surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes. With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment and this can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in thermodynamic equilibrium, non-equilibrium thermodynamics is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotles long-held supposition that nature abhors a vacuum. Shortly after Guericke, the English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of Guerickes designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In time, Boyles Law was formulated, which states that pressure, later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and he did not, however, follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papins designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine, although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the idea of the condenser which resulted in a large increase in steam engine efficiency. Drawing on all the work led Sadi Carnot, the father of thermodynamics, to publish Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
32.
Numerical analysis
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Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation for the problems of mathematical analysis. Being able to compute the sides of a triangle is important, for instance, in astronomy, carpentry. Numerical analysis continues this tradition of practical mathematical calculations. Much like the Babylonian approximation of the root of 2, modern numerical analysis does not seek exact answers. Instead, much of numerical analysis is concerned with obtaining approximate solutions while maintaining reasonable bounds on errors, before the advent of modern computers numerical methods often depended on hand interpolation in large printed tables. Since the mid 20th century, computers calculate the required functions instead and these same interpolation formulas nevertheless continue to be used as part of the software algorithms for solving differential equations. Computing the trajectory of a spacecraft requires the accurate numerical solution of a system of differential equations. Car companies can improve the safety of their vehicles by using computer simulations of car crashes. Such simulations essentially consist of solving differential equations numerically. Hedge funds use tools from all fields of analysis to attempt to calculate the value of stocks. Airlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms to decide ticket prices, airplane and crew assignments, historically, such algorithms were developed within the overlapping field of operations research. Insurance companies use programs for actuarial analysis. The rest of this section outlines several important themes of numerical analysis, the field of numerical analysis predates the invention of modern computers by many centuries. Linear interpolation was already in use more than 2000 years ago, to facilitate computations by hand, large books were produced with formulas and tables of data such as interpolation points and function coefficients. The function values are no very useful when a computer is available. The mechanical calculator was developed as a tool for hand computation. These calculators evolved into electronic computers in the 1940s, and it was found that these computers were also useful for administrative purposes. But the invention of the computer also influenced the field of analysis, since now longer
33.
Outline of physical science
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Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a physical science, in natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria. Natural science can be broken into two branches, life science, for example biology and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences, physics – natural and physical science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. Branches of astronomy Chemistry – studies the composition, structure, properties, branches of chemistry Earth science – all-embracing term referring to the fields of science dealing with planet Earth. Earth science is the study of how the natural environment works and it includes the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Branches of Earth science History of physical science – history of the branch of science that studies non-living systems. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a physical science, however, the term physical creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the problems concerning the motion of rockets. History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars, History of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. History of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale structures, History of planetary science – history of the scientific study of planets, moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them. History of neurophysics – history of the branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system, History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. History of computational physics – history of the study and implementation of algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. History of condensed matter physics – history of the study of the properties of condensed phases of matter. History of cryogenics – history of the cryogenics is the study of the production of low temperature. History of biomechanics – history of the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, History of fluid mechanics – history of the study of fluids and the forces on them
34.
Materials science
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The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials, with an emphasis on solids. Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering, as such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Materials science is a syncretic discipline hybridizing metallurgy, ceramics, solid-state physics and it is the first example of a new academic discipline emerging by fusion rather than fission. Many of the most pressing scientific problems humans currently face are due to the limits of the materials that are available, thus, breakthroughs in materials science are likely to affect the future of technology significantly. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material influences its structure, the understanding of processing-structure-properties relationships is called the § materials paradigm. This paradigm is used to advance understanding in a variety of areas, including nanotechnology, biomaterials. Such investigations are key to understanding, for example, the causes of various accidents and incidents. The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point, phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering, modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from mining and ceramics and the use of fire. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors. Before the 1960s, many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, reflecting the 19th, a material is defined as a substance that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us—they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft, Materials can generally be divided into two classes, crystalline and non-crystalline. The traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics, New and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials and biomaterials, etc. The basis of science involves studying the structure of materials. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and these characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a materials microstructure, and thus its properties. As mentioned above, structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science, Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material, structure is studied at various levels, as detailed below
35.
Computing
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Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating a mathematical sequence of steps known as an algorithm — e. g. through computers. The field of computing includes computer engineering, software engineering, computer science, information systems, the ACM Computing Curricula 2005 defined computing as follows, In a general way, we can define computing to mean any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computers. For example, an information systems specialist will view computing somewhat differently from a software engineer, regardless of the context, doing computing well can be complicated and difficult. Because society needs people to do computing well, we must think of computing not only as a profession, the fundamental question underlying all computing is What can be automated. The term computing is also synonymous with counting and calculating, in earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, but long before abstractions like the number arose, there were mathematical concepts to serve the purposes of civilization. These concepts include one-to-one correspondence, comparison to a standard, the earliest known tool for use in computation was the abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon circa 2400 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles, abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known computer and most advanced system of calculation known to date - preceding Greek methods by 2,000 years. The first recorded idea of using electronics for computing was the 1931 paper The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena by C. E. Wynn-Williams. Claude Shannons 1938 paper A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations, a computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions called a computer program. The program has a form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its source code form, enables a programmer to study. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, the execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer and they trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions, computer software or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms, program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software
36.
Naval architecture
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Naval architecture also known as naval engineering, is an engineering discipline dealing with the engineering design process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine vessels and structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation, preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are required for ships being modified. Naval architecture also involves formulation of safety regulations and damage control rules, the word vessel includes every description of watercraft, including non-displacement craft, WIG craft and seaplanes, used or capable of being used as a means of transportation on water. The principal elements of architecture are, Hydrostatics concerns the conditions to which the vessel is subjected to while at rest in water. This involves computing buoyancy, and other properties, such as trim. Hydrodynamics concerns the flow of water around the hull, bow, and stern. Resistance – resistance towards motion in water primarily caused due to flow of water around the hull, powering calculation is done based on this. Propulsion – to move the vessel through water using propellers, thrusters, water jets, engine types are mainly internal combustion. Some vessels are powered using nuclear or solar energy. Ship motions – involves motions of the vessel in seaway and its responses in waves, controllability – involves controlling and maintaining position and direction of the vessel. Arrangements involves concept design, layout and access, fire protection, allocation of spaces, ergonomics, construction depends on the material used. Other joining techniques are used for materials like fibre reinforced plastic. Traditionally, naval architecture has been more craft than science, the suitability of a vessels shape was judged by looking at a half-model of a vessel or a prototype. Ungainly shapes or abrupt transitions were frowned on as being flawed and this included rigging, deck arrangements, and even fixtures. Subjective descriptors such as ungainly, full, and fine were used as a substitute for the precise terms used today. A vessel was, and still is described as having a ‘fair’ shape and these tools are used for static stability, dynamic stability, resistance, powering, hull development, structural analysis, green water modelling, and slamming analysis. Data is regularly shared in international conferences sponsored by RINA, Society of Naval Architects, computational Fluid Dynamics is being applied to predict the response of a floating body in a random sea
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Aircraft design process
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The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which aircraft are designed. These depend on factors such as customer and manufacturer demand, safety protocols, physical. For some types of aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities and this article deals with powered aircraft such as airplanes and helicopter designs. Aircraft design is a compromise between competing factors and constraints and accounts for existing designs and market requirements to produce the best aircraft. The design process starts with the intended purpose. The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e. g, another important factor that influences the design of the aircraft are the regulations put forth by national aviation airworthiness authorities. Airports may also impose limits on aircraft, for instance, the maximum allowed for a conventional aircraft is 80 m to prevent collisions between aircraft while taxiing. Budget limitations, market requirements and competition set constraints on the design process, competition leads to companies striving for better efficiency in the design without compromising performance and incorporating new techniques and technology. An increase in the number of aircraft also means greater carbon emissions, environmental scientists have voiced concern over the main kinds of pollution associated with aircraft, mainly noise and emissions. Noise also arises from the airframe, where the directions are changed. Improved noise regulations have forced designers to create engines and airframes. Emissions from aircraft include particulates, carbon dioxide, Sulfur dioxide, Carbon monoxide, various oxides of nitrates, to combat the pollution, ICAO set recommendations in 1981 to control aircraft emissions. Newer, environmentally friendly fuels have been developed and the use of materials in manufacturing have helped reduce the ecological impact due to aircraft. Environmental limitations also affect airfield compatibility, airports around the world have been built to suit the topography of the particular region. Space limitations, pavement design, runway end safety areas and the location of airport are some of the airport factors that influence aircraft design. The high speeds, fuel tanks, atmospheric conditions at altitudes, natural hazards. Airworthiness is the standard by which aircraft are determined fit to fly, the responsibility for airworthiness lies with national aviation regulatory bodies, manufacturers, as well as owners and operators. Every country has its own body such as the Federal Aviation Authority in USA, DGCA in India
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Radar
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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, Radio waves from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the objects location and speed. Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before, the term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging. The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, high tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is lidar, which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves, as early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, an instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt. The next year, he added a spark-gap transmitter, in 1897, while testing this equipment for communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of an interference beat caused by the passage of a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that this phenomenon might be used for detecting objects, the German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect the presence of distant metallic objects. In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog and he obtained a patent for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. He also got a British patent on September 23,1904 for a radar system. It operated on a 50 cm wavelength and the radar signal was created via a spark-gap. In 1915, Robert Watson-Watt used radio technology to advance warning to airmen. Watson-Watt became an expert on the use of direction finding as part of his lightning experiments. As part of ongoing experiments, he asked the new boy, Arnold Frederic Wilkins, Wilkins made an extensive study of available units before selecting a receiver model from the General Post Office. Its instruction manual noted that there was fading when aircraft flew by, in 1922, A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Taylor submitted a report, suggesting that this might be used to detect the presence of ships in low visibility, eight years later, Lawrence A. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa followed prewar Great Britain, and Hungary had similar developments during the war. Hugon, began developing a radio apparatus, a part of which was installed on the liner Normandie in 1935
39.
Computer network
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A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, networked computing devices exchange data with other using a data link. The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media, the best-known computer network is the Internet. Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes, nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange information with the other device, Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the networks size, topology and organizational intent. In most cases, application-specific communications protocols are layered over other more general communications protocols and this formidable collection of information technology requires skilled network management to keep it all running reliably. The chronology of significant computer-network developments includes, In the late 1950s, in 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research environment went online with two connected mainframes. Licklider developed a group he called the Intergalactic Computer Network. In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth College developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer to route. Throughout the 1960s, Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran, and Donald Davies independently developed network systems that used packets to transfer information between computers over a network, in 1965, Thomas Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network. This was an precursor to the ARPANET, of which Roberts became program manager. Also in 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that implemented true computer control, in 1972, commercial services using X.25 were deployed, and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper Ethernet, Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks, in 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard. In 1976, John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a network first used to share storage devices. In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s, by 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of a Gigabit. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 100 Gbit/s were added, the ability of Ethernet to scale easily is a contributing factor to its continued use. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks, a network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network
40.
Global Positioning System
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The Global Positioning System is a space-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception, the GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, however, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War. The U. S. Department of Defense developed the system and it became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A, getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes, in 2000, the U. S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a denial of access. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System was developed contemporaneously with GPS, GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system and Chinas BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earths observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to 10 kilometers per day, the relativistic time effect of the GPS clocks running faster than the clocks on earth was corrected for in the design of GPS. The Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik 1, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkinss Applied Physics Laboratory, decided to monitor Sputniks radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, the Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. The next spring, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem — pinpointing the users location and this led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. In 1959, ARPA also played a role in TRANSIT, the first satellite navigation system, TRANSIT, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour, in 1967, the U. S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required by GPS. In the 1970s, the ground-based OMEGA navigation system, based on comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy, during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded and it is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time
41.
Second
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The second is the base unit of time in the International System of Units. It is qualitatively defined as the division of the hour by sixty. SI definition of second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom. Seconds may be measured using a mechanical, electrical or an atomic clock, SI prefixes are combined with the word second to denote subdivisions of the second, e. g. the millisecond, the microsecond, and the nanosecond. Though SI prefixes may also be used to form multiples of the such as kilosecond. The second is also the unit of time in other systems of measurement, the centimetre–gram–second, metre–kilogram–second, metre–tonne–second. Absolute zero implies no movement, and therefore zero external radiation effects, the second thus defined is consistent with the ephemeris second, which was based on astronomical measurements. The realization of the second is described briefly in a special publication from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 1 international second is equal to, 1⁄60 minute 1⁄3,600 hour 1⁄86,400 day 1⁄31,557,600 Julian year 1⁄, more generally, = 1⁄, the Hellenistic astronomers Hipparchus and Ptolemy subdivided the day into sixty parts. They also used an hour, simple fractions of an hour. No sexagesimal unit of the day was used as an independent unit of time. The modern second is subdivided using decimals - although the third remains in some languages. The earliest clocks to display seconds appeared during the last half of the 16th century, the second became accurately measurable with the development of mechanical clocks keeping mean time, as opposed to the apparent time displayed by sundials. The earliest spring-driven timepiece with a hand which marked seconds is an unsigned clock depicting Orpheus in the Fremersdorf collection. During the 3rd quarter of the 16th century, Taqi al-Din built a clock with marks every 1/5 minute, in 1579, Jost Bürgi built a clock for William of Hesse that marked seconds. In 1581, Tycho Brahe redesigned clocks that displayed minutes at his observatory so they also displayed seconds, however, they were not yet accurate enough for seconds. In 1587, Tycho complained that his four clocks disagreed by plus or minus four seconds, in 1670, London clockmaker William Clement added this seconds pendulum to the original pendulum clock of Christiaan Huygens. From 1670 to 1680, Clement made many improvements to his clock and this clock used an anchor escapement mechanism with a seconds pendulum to display seconds in a small subdial
