Acid dissociation constant
An acid dissociation constant, Ka, is a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution. It is the equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction known as dissociation in the context of acid–base reactions. K a =; the chemical species HA, A−, H+ are said to be in equilibrium when their concentrations do not change with the passing of time, because both forward and backward reactions are occurring at the same fast rate. The chemical equation for acid dissociation can be written symbolically as: HA ↽ − − ⇀ A − + H + where HA is a generic acid that dissociates into A−, the conjugate base of the acid and a hydrogen ion, H+, it is implicit in this definition that the quotient of activity coefficients, Γ, Γ = γ A − γ H + γ A H is a constant that can be ignored in a given set of experimental conditions. For many practical purposes it is more convenient to discuss the logarithmic constant, pKa p K a = − log 10 The more positive the value of pKa, the smaller the extent of dissociation at any given pH —that is, the weaker the acid.
A weak acid has a pKa value in the approximate range −2 to 12 in water. For a buffer solution consisting of a weak acid and its conjugate base, pKa can be expressed as: p K a = pH − log 10 The pKa for a weak monoprotic acid is conveniently determined by potentiometric titration with a strong base to the equivalence point and taking the pH value measured at one-half this volume as being equal to pKa; that is because at this half equivalence point, the number of moles of strong base added is one-half the number of moles of weak acid present, while the concentrations of the conjugate base and the remaining weak acid are the same. Acids with a pKa value of less than about −2 are said to be strong acids. In water, the dissociation of a strong acid in dilute solutions is complete such that the final concentration of the undissociated acid final is low. Consider a strong monoprotic acid, such as HCl; because of their 1:1 ratio, the final concentration of the conjugate base, final, is taken to be equal to the concentration of the hydronium ion, which can be directly measured by a pH meter.
For strong monoprotic acids like HCl, final and are both nearly equal to the initial concentration of initial placed into solution. With conventional acid-base titration methods it is difficult to measure the pH of a strong acid solution and, hence, to determine the or final, with a sufficient number of significant figures to and compute the low values encountered for final, which can be as low as 10-9 mol per liter for some strong acids. Furthermore, if 100% dissociation is assumed, final is zero and the fraction within parenthesis in the equation above becomes undefined; because the second expression on the right-hand side of the above equation is therefore indeterminable by conventional titration methods, the entire equation is not as useful a means of experimentally measuring pKa for strong acids as it is for weak acids. However, pKa and/or Ka values for strong acids can be estimated by theoretical means, such as computing gas phase dissociation constants and using Gibbs free energies of solvation for the molecular anions.
It is possible to use spectroscopy in some cases to determine the ratio of the concentrations of the conjugate base produced and the undissociated acid. For example, the Raman spectra of dilute nitric acid solutions contain signals of the nitrate ion and as the solutions become more concentrated signals of undissociated nitric acid molecules emerge; the acid dissociation constant for an acid is a direct consequence of the underlying thermodynamics of the dissociation reaction. The value of the pKa changes with temperature and can be understood qualitatively based on Le Châtelier's principle: when the reaction is endothermic, Ka increases and pKa decreases with
Monoclinic crystal system
In crystallography, the monoclinic crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. A crystal system is described by three vectors. In the monoclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal lengths, as in the orthorhombic system, they form a rectangular prism with a parallelogram as its base. Hence two vectors are perpendicular, while the third vector meets the other two at an angle other than 90°. There is only one monoclinic Bravais lattice in two dimensions: the oblique lattice. Two monoclinic Bravais lattices exist: the primitive monoclinic and the base-centered monoclinic lattices. In the monoclinic system there is a used second choice of crystal axes that results in a unit cell with the shape of an oblique rhombic prism. In this axis setting, the primitive and base-centered lattices swap in centering type; the table below organizes the space groups of the monoclinic crystal system by crystal class. It lists the International Tables for Crystallography space group numbers, followed by the crystal class name, its point group in Schoenflies notation, Hermann–Mauguin notation, orbifold notation, Coxeter notation, type descriptors, mineral examples, the notation for the space groups.
Sphenoidal is monoclinic hemimorphic. The three monoclinic hemimorphic space groups are as follows: a prism with as cross-section wallpaper group p2 ditto with screw axes instead of axes ditto with screw axes as well as axes, parallel, in between; the four monoclinic hemihedral space groups include those with pure reflection at the base of the prism and halfway those with glide planes instead of pure reflection planes. Crystal structure Crystallography Crystal Hurlbut, Cornelius S.. Manual of Mineralogy. Pp. 69–73. ISBN 0-471-80580-7. Hahn, Theo, ed.. International Tables for Crystallography, Volume A: Space Group Symmetry. A. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. Doi:10.1107/97809553602060000100. ISBN 978-0-7923-6590-7
Hygroscopy
Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules from the surrounding environment, at normal or room temperature. This is achieved through either absorption or adsorption with the adsorbing substance becoming physically changed somewhat; this could be an increase in volume, boiling point, viscosity, or other physical characteristic or property of the substance, as water molecules can become suspended between the substance's molecules in the process. The word hygroscopy uses combining forms of hygro- and -scopy. Unlike any other -scopy word, it no longer refers to a viewing or imaging mode, it did begin that way, with the word hygroscope referring in the 1790s to measuring devices for humidity level. These hygroscopes used materials, such as certain animal hairs, that appreciably changed shape and size when they became damp; such materials were said to be hygroscopic because they were suitable for making a hygroscope. Though, the word hygroscope ceased to be used for any such instrument in modern usage.
But the word hygroscopic lived on, thus hygroscopy. Nowadays an instrument for measuring humidity is called a hygrometer. Hygroscopic substances include cellulose fibers, caramel, glycerol, wood, sulfuric acid, many fertilizer chemicals, many salts, a wide variety of other substances. If a compound absorbs enough moisture so that it dissolves it is classed as hydrophilic. Zinc chloride and calcium chloride, as well as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, are so hygroscopic that they dissolve in the water they absorb: this property is called deliquescence. Not only is sulfuric acid hygroscopic in concentrated form but its solutions are hygroscopic down to concentrations of 10% v/v or below. A hygroscopic material will tend to become cakey when exposed to moist air; because of their affinity for atmospheric moisture, hygroscopic materials might require storage in sealed containers. When added to foods or other materials for the express purpose of maintaining moisture content, such substances are known as humectants.
Materials and compounds exhibit different hygroscopic properties, this difference can lead to detrimental effects, such as stress concentration in composite materials. The volume of a particular material or compound is affected by ambient moisture and may be considered its coefficient of hygroscopic expansion or coefficient of hygroscopic contraction —the difference between the two terms being a difference in sign convention. Differences in hygroscopy can be observed in plastic-laminated paperback book covers—often, in a moist environment, the book cover will curl away from the rest of the book; the unlaminated side of the cover absorbs more moisture than the laminated side and increases in area, causing a stress that curls the cover toward the laminated side. This is similar to the function of a thermostat's bi-metallic strip. Inexpensive dial-type hygrometers make use of this principle using a coiled strip. Deliquescence is the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water and forms a solution.
Deliquescence occurs when the vapour pressure of the solution, formed is less than the partial pressure of water vapour in the air. While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other solid substances attract water, but are not changed in the process; the amount of moisture held by hygroscopic materials is proportional to the relative humidity. Tables containing this information can be found in many engineering handbooks and is available from suppliers of various materials and chemicals. Hygroscopy plays an important role in the engineering of plastic materials; some plastics are hygroscopic. The seeds of some grasses have hygroscopic extensions that bend with changes in humidity, enabling them to disperse over the ground. An example is Needle-and-Thread, Hesperostipa comata; each seed has an awn. Increased moisture causes it to untwist, upon drying, to twist again, thereby drilling the seed into the ground. Thorny dragons collect moisture in the dry desert via nighttime condensation of dew that forms on their skin and is channeled to their mouths in hygroscopic grooves between the spines of their skin.
Water collects in these grooves when it rains. Capillary action allows the lizard to suck in water from all over its body. Deliquescence, like hygroscopy, is characterized by a strong affinity for water and tendency to absorb moisture from the atmosphere if exposed to it. Unlike hygroscopy, deliquescence involves absorbing sufficient water to form an aqueous solution. Most deliquescent materials are salts, including calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, ferric chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, ferric ammonium citrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide. Owing to their high affinity for water, these substances are used as desiccants an application for concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids; these compounds are used in the chemical industry to remove the water produced by chemical reactions. Many engineering polymers are hygroscopic, including nylon, ABS, polycarbonate and poly. Other polyme
Safety data sheet
A safety data sheet, material safety data sheet, or product safety data sheet is a document that lists information relating to occupational safety and health for the use of various substances and products. SDSs are a used system for cataloging information on chemicals, chemical compounds, chemical mixtures. SDS information may include instructions for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product, along with spill-handling procedures. SDS formats can vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements. A SDS for a substance is not intended for use by the general consumer, focusing instead on the hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting. There is a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physico-chemical, health or environmental risk. Labels can include hazard symbols such as the European Union standard symbols; the same product can have different formulations in different countries. The formulation and hazard of a product using a generic name may vary between manufacturers in the same country.
The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals contains a standard specification for safety data sheets. The SDS follows a 16 section format, internationally agreed and for substances the SDS should be followed with an Annex which contains the exposure scenarios of this particular substance; the 16 sections are: SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking 1.1. Product identifier 1.2. Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against 1.3. Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet 1.4. Emergency telephone number SECTION 2: Hazards identification 2.1. Classification of the substance or mixture 2.2. Label elements 2.3. Other hazards SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients 3.1. Substances 3.2. Mixtures SECTION 4: First aid measures 4.1. Description of first aid measures 4.2. Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed 4.3. Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed SECTION 5: Firefighting measures 5.1.
Extinguishing media 5.2. Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture 5.3. Advice for firefighters SECTION 6: Accidental release measure 6.1. Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures 6.2. Environmental precautions 6.3. Methods and material for containment and cleaning up 6.4. Reference to other sections SECTION 7: Handling and storage 7.1. Precautions for safe handling 7.2. Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities 7.3. Specific end use SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection 8.1. Control parameters 8.2. Exposure controls SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties 9.1. Information on basic physical and chemical properties 9.2. Other information SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity 10.1. Reactivity 10.2. Chemical stability 10.3. Possibility of hazardous reactions 10.4. Conditions to avoid 10.5. Incompatible materials 10.6. Hazardous decomposition products SECTION 11: Toxicological information 11.1. Information on toxicological effects SECTION 12: Ecological information 12.1.
Toxicity 12.2. Persistence and degradability 12.3. Bioaccumulative potential 12.4. Mobility in soil 12.5. Results of PBT and vPvB assessment 12.6. Other adverse effects SECTION 13: Disposal considerations 13.1. Waste treatment methods SECTION 14: Transport information 14.1. UN number 14.2. UN proper shipping name 14.3. Transport hazard class 14.4. Packing group 14.5. Environmental hazards 14.6. Special precautions for user 14.7. Transport in bulk according to Annex II of MARPOL73/78 and the IBC Code SECTION 15: Regulatory information 15.1. Safety and environmental regulations/legislation specific for the substance or mixture 15.2. Chemical safety assessment SECTION 16: Other information 16.2. Date of the latest revision of the SDS In Canada, the program known as the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System establishes the requirements for SDSs in workplaces and is administered federally by Health Canada under the Hazardous Products Act, Part II, the Controlled Products Regulations. Safety data sheets have been made an integral part of the system of Regulation No 1907/2006.
The original requirements of REACH for SDSs have been further adapted to take into account the rules for safety data sheets of the Global Harmonised System and the implementation of other elements of the GHS into EU legislation that were introduced by Regulation No 1272/2008 via an update to Annex II of REACH. The SDS must be supplied in an official language of the Member State where the substance or mixture is placed on the market, unless the Member State concerned provide otherwise; the European Chemicals Agency has published a guidance document on the compilation of safety data sheets. The German Federal Water Management Act requires that substances be evaluated for negative influence on the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water; these are classified into numeric water hazard classes. WGK nwg: Non-water polluting substance WGK 1: Slightly water polluting substance WGK 2: Water polluting substance WGK 3: Highly water polluting substance This section contributes to a better understanding of the regulations governing SDS within the South African framework.
As regulations may change, it is the responsibility of the reader to verify the validity of the regulations mentioned in text. As globalisation increased and countries engaged in cross-border trade, the quantity of hazardous material crossing international borders a
Solubility
Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature and presence of other chemicals of the solution; the extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration, where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution and begins to precipitate the excess amount of solute. Insolubility is the inability to dissolve in a liquid or gaseous solvent. Most the solvent is a liquid, which can be a pure substance or a mixture. One may speak of solid solution, but of solution in a gas. Under certain conditions, the equilibrium solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution, metastable. Metastability of crystals can lead to apparent differences in the amount of a chemical that dissolves depending on its crystalline form or particle size.
A supersaturated solution crystallises when'seed' crystals are introduced and rapid equilibration occurs. Phenylsalicylate is one such simple observable substance when melted and cooled below its fusion point. Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to'dissolve' a substance, because the solution might occur because of a chemical reaction. For example, zinc'dissolves' in hydrochloric acid as a result of a chemical reaction releasing hydrogen gas in a displacement reaction; the zinc ions are soluble in the acid. The solubility of a substance is an different property from the rate of solution, how fast it dissolves; the smaller a particle is, the faster it dissolves although there are many factors to add to this generalization. Crucially solubility applies to all areas of chemistry, inorganic, physical and biochemistry. In all cases it will depend on the physical conditions and the enthalpy and entropy directly relating to the solvents and solutes concerned. By far the most common solvent in chemistry is water, a solvent for most ionic compounds as well as a wide range of organic substances.
This is a crucial factor in much environmental and geochemical work. According to the IUPAC definition, solubility is the analytical composition of a saturated solution expressed as a proportion of a designated solute in a designated solvent. Solubility may be stated in various units of concentration such as molarity, mole fraction, mole ratio, mass per volume and other units; the extent of solubility ranges from infinitely soluble such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term insoluble is applied to poorly or poorly soluble compounds. A number of other descriptive terms are used to qualify the extent of solubility for a given application. For example, U. S. Pharmacopoeia gives the following terms: The thresholds to describe something as insoluble, or similar terms, may depend on the application. For example, one source states that substances are described as "insoluble" when their solubility is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent. Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution and phase joining.
The solubility equilibrium occurs. The term solubility is used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis. For example, many metals and their oxides are said to be "soluble in hydrochloric acid", although in fact the aqueous acid irreversibly degrades the solid to give soluble products, it is true that most ionic solids are dissolved by polar solvents, but such processes are reversible. In those cases where the solute is not recovered upon evaporation of the solvent, the process is referred to as solvolysis; the thermodynamic concept of solubility does not apply straightforwardly to solvolysis. When a solute dissolves, it may form several species in the solution. For example, an aqueous suspension of ferrous hydroxide, Fe2, will contain the series + as well as other species. Furthermore, the solubility of ferrous hydroxide and the composition of its soluble components depend on pH. In general, solubility in the solvent phase can be given only for a specific solute, thermodynamically stable, the value of the solubility will include all the species in the solution.
Solubility is defined for specific phases. For example, the solubility of aragonite and calcite in water are expected to differ though they are both polymorphs of calcium carbonate and have the same chemical formula; the solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of intermolecular forces between the solvent and solute, the entropy change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will alter this balance. Solubility may strongly depend on the presence of other species dissolved in the solvent, for example, complex-forming anions in liquids. Solubility will depend on the excess or deficiency of a common ion in the solution, a phenomenon known as the common-ion effect. To a lesser extent, solubility will depend on the ionic strength of solutions; the last two effects can be quantified using the equation for solubility equilibrium. For a solid that dissolves in a redox reaction, solubility is expe
Density
The density, or more the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume: ρ = m V where ρ is the density, m is the mass, V is the volume. In some cases, density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume, although this is scientifically inaccurate – this quantity is more called specific weight. For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials have different densities, density may be relevant to buoyancy and packaging. Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material water.
Thus a relative density less than one means. The density of a material varies with pressure; this variation is small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid; this causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material. The reciprocal of the density of a substance is called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. In a well-known but apocryphal tale, Archimedes was given the task of determining whether King Hiero's goldsmith was embezzling gold during the manufacture of a golden wreath dedicated to the gods and replacing it with another, cheaper alloy.
Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated and compared with the mass. Baffled, Archimedes is said to have taken an immersion bath and observed from the rise of the water upon entering that he could calculate the volume of the gold wreath through the displacement of the water. Upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!". As a result, the term "eureka" entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment; the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius' books of architecture, two centuries after it took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time. From the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume; as there are many units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use.
The SI unit of kilogram per cubic metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are the most used units for density. One g/cm3 is equal to one thousand kg/m3. One cubic centimetre is equal to one millilitre. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are more practical and US customary units may be used. See below for a list of some of the most common units of density. A number of techniques as well as standards exist for the measurement of density of materials; such techniques include the use of a hydrometer, Hydrostatic balance, immersed body method, air comparison pycnometer, oscillating densitometer, as well as pour and tap. However, each individual method or technique measures different types of density, therefore it is necessary to have an understanding of the type of density being measured as well as the type of material in question; the density at all points of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume. The mass is measured with a scale or balance.
To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively. Hydrostatic weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object. If the body is not homogeneous its density varies between different regions of the object. In that case the density around any given location is determined by calculating the density of a small volume around that location. In the limit of an infinitesimal volume the density of an inhomogeneous object at a point becomes: ρ = d m / d V, where d V is an elementary volume at position r; the mass of the body t
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in the form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules; the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since been extended. In 2007, an open standard called. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser line notation, ROSDAL, SYBYL Line Notation; the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. Acknowledged for their parts in the early development were "Gilman Veith and Rose Russo and Albert Leo and Corwin Hansch for supporting the work, Arthur Weininger and Jeremy Scofield for assistance in programming the system." The Environmental Protection Agency funded the initial project to develop SMILES. It has since been modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems.
In 2007, an open standard called "OpenSMILES" was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other'linear' notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN. In July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is considered to have the advantage of being more human-readable than InChI; the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is commonly used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings; the terms "canonical" and "isomeric" can lead to some confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms are not mutually exclusive. A number of valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol. Algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule; this SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the canonicalization algorithm used to generate it, is termed the canonical SMILES.
These algorithms first convert the SMILES to an internal representation of the molecular structure. Various algorithms for generating canonical SMILES have been developed and include those by Daylight Chemical Information Systems, OpenEye Scientific Software, MEDIT, Chemical Computing Group, MolSoft LLC, the Chemistry Development Kit. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database; the original paper that described the CANGEN algorithm claimed to generate unique SMILES strings for graphs representing molecules, but the algorithm fails for a number of simple cases and cannot be considered a correct method for representing a graph canonically. There is no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, double bond geometry; these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES.
A notable feature of these rules is. The term isomeric SMILES is applied to SMILES in which isotopes are specified. In terms of a graph-based computational procedure, SMILES is a string obtained by printing the symbol nodes encountered in a depth-first tree traversal of a chemical graph; the chemical graph is first trimmed to remove hydrogen atoms and cycles are broken to turn it into a spanning tree. Where cycles have been broken, numeric suffix labels are included to indicate the connected nodes. Parentheses are used to indicate points of branching on the tree; the resultant SMILES form depends on the choices: of the bonds chosen to break cycles, of the starting atom used for the depth-first traversal, of the order in which branches are listed when encountered. Atoms are represented by the standard abbreviation of the chemical elements, in square brackets, such as for gold. Brackets may be omitted in the common case of atoms which: are in the "organic subset" of B, C, N, O, P, S, F, Cl, Br, or I, have no formal charge, have the number of hydrogens attached implied by the SMILES valence model, are the normal isotopes, are not chiral centers.
All other elements must be enclosed in brackets, have charges and hydrogens shown explicitly. For instance, the SMILES for water may be written as either O or. Hydrogen may be written as a separate atom; when brackets are used, the symbol H is added if the atom in brackets is bonded to one or more hydrogen, followed by the number of hydrogen atoms if greater than 1 by the sign + for a positive charge or by - for a negative charge. For example, for ammonium. If there is more than one charge, it is written as digit.
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