1.
Hidden Words
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Hidden Words is a book written in Baghdad around 1857 by Baháulláh, the founder of the Baháí Faith. This work is partly in Arabic and partly in Persian. Baháís are advised by Abdul-Bahá, Baháulláhs son and the interpreter of His teachings, to read them every day and every night. He also said that The Hidden Words is a treasury of divine mysteries and that when one ponders its contents, there is a Shia Muslim tradition called Mushaf of Fatimah, which speaks of Fatimah upon the passing of her father, Muhammad. There are several versions of tradition, but common to all are that the angel Gabriel appeared to her. According to one tradition they were prophesies, the book, if ever physical, did not survive, and was seen to be something that the Mahdi would reveal in the last days. Baháís believe that The Hidden Words was revealed by Baháulláh in fulfillment of this tradition, indeed, Baháulláh originally named the book The Book of Fatimah, though he later referred to it in its modern appellation. This aspect of fulfillment corresponds with the Baháí beliefs that end times prophesies of all the religions are to be interpreted mystically and metaphorically. This puts the Baháí understanding of what Gabriel revealed to Fatimah somewhat at odds with the Shia traditions, the text of the Hidden Words is divided up into two sections, one from Arabic, and another from Persian. Each consist of short, numbered passages. The Arabic has 71 passages, and the Persian has 82, each passage begins with an invocation, many of which repeat. Some common invocations include O Son of Spirit, O Son of Man, Baháí prayers are written in the first person of humanity, so that the reader can feel like they are having a conversation with God. The Hidden Words are written in the first person of God and my first counsel is this, Possess a pure, kindly and radiant heart, that thine may be a sovereignty ancient, imperishable and everlasting. If thou lovest Me, turn away from thyself, and if thou seekest My pleasure, regard not thine own, the true lover yearneth for tribulation even as doth the rebel for forgiveness and the sinful for mercy. In the garden of thy heart plant naught but the rose of love, treasure the companionship of the righteous and eschew all fellowship with the ungodly. Close one eye and open the other, close one to the world and all that is therein, and open the other to the hallowed beauty of the Beloved. Notwithstanding I have concealed thy secret and desired not thy shame and that the favor is complete, the argument fulfilled, the proof manifest and the evidence established. Let it now be seen what your endeavors in the path of detachment will reveal, in this wise hath the divine favor been fully vouchsafed unto you and unto them that are in heaven and on earth
2.
The Seven Valleys
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The Seven Valleys is a book written in Persian by Baháulláh, the founder of the Baháí Faith. The Four Valleys was also written by Baháulláh and the two books are published together under the title The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys. The two books are different and have no direct relation. The Seven Valleys was written around 1860 in Baghdad after Baháulláh had returned from the Sulaymaniyah region in Kurdistan, the work was written in response to questions posed by Shaykh Muhyid-Din, a judge, who was a follower of the Qádiríyyih Order of Sufism. About the time of writing to Baháulláh, he quit his job, the style of The Seven Valleys is highly poetic, though not composed in verse. Nearly every line of the text contains rhymes and plays on words, as the recipient was of Sufi origin, Baháulláh used historical and religious subtleties which sometimes used only one or a few words to refer to Quranic verses, traditions, and well-known poems. In English, frequent footnotes are used to convey certain background information, Baháulláh in the work explains the meanings and the significance of the seven stages. In the introduction, Baháulláh says Some have called these Seven Valleys, and others, Seven Cities. The stages are accomplished in order, and the goal of the journey is to follow the Right Path, abandon the drop of life and come to the sea of the Life-Bestower, and gaze on the Beloved. It is also used in the Will and Testament of the Báb as well as in other Bábí contexts, the valley of search is described as the first step that a seeker must take in his path. Baháulláh states that the seeker must cleanse his heart, and not follow the paths of his forefathers and it is explained that ardour and patience are required to traverse this valley. The next valley is the Valley of Love, Baháulláh describes how love burns away reason, causing pain, madness and single minded endeavour. This valley is called the last limited valley, the next stage is the valley of unity, and it is explained that the seeker now sees creation not by its limitations, but sees the attributes of God in all created things. The seeker, it is written, is detached from earthly things, is not concerned with his own self and has no ego, instead he praises God for all of creation. Happiness is explained to be the attribute of the true believer, being led from one mystery of creation to the next, it is explained that the seeker continues to be astonished by the works of God. The final valley is the valley of true poverty and absolute nothingness, the seeker, it is explained is poor of all material things, and is rich in spiritual attributes. The Four Valleys Gems of Divine Mysteries Kitáb-i-Íqán Layla and Majnun Baháulláh, the Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys. Wilmette, Illinois, USA, Baháí Publishing Trust, the Ocean of His Words, A Readers Guide to the Art of Baháulláh
3.
Universal House of Justice
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For the building, see the Seat of the Universal House of Justice The Universal House of Justice is the supreme governing institution of the Baháí Faith. The Seat of the Universal House of Justice and its members reside in Haifa, Israel, while empowered to legislate on matters that are not explicitly stated in the Bahai holy writings, the Universal House of Justice has, since its inception, limited its exercise of this function. Instead it has provided guidance to Baháís around the world through letters. The books and documents published by the Universal House of Justice are considered authoritative, the institution has also collected and published extracts from the writings of the Báb, Baháulláh and Abdul-Bahá. The institutions responsibilities are also expanded on and referred to in other of Baháulláhs writings including in his Tablets of Baháulláh. Later, Abdul-Bahá, Baháulláhs son and successor, in his Will and Testament, elaborated on its functioning, its composition and outlined the method for its election. He wrote that the Universal House of Justice would be under Baháulláhs protection, that it would be freed of error, and that obedience to it would be obligatory. Abdul-Bahá first used the term Universal House of Justice to distinguish the body from those local Houses of Justice to be established in each community. He also stated that the decisions could be by majority vote, but that unanimous decisions were preferred. He also confirmed Baháulláhs statements that its membership would be confined to men, while both Abdul-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, heads of the religion after Baháulláh, considered establishing the Universal House of Justice, they both declined to do so. Shoghi Effendis reason was due to his belief in the weakness of the existing Baháí institutions — there were a limited number of national spiritual assemblies. Thus during his lifetime, Shoghi Effendi prepared for the election of the Universal House of Justice, in 1951 when there were 9 national spiritual assemblies, Shoghi Effendi appointed members to the International Baháí Council, and described it as an embryonic international House of Justice. In 1961 the International Baháí Council was changed to an elected body, then in April 1963 the first Universal House of Justice was elected, six years after the passing of Shoghi Effendi, by 56 national spiritual assemblies. Since then the Universal House of Justice has acted as the head of the religion, the Universal House of Justice is elected through secret ballot and plurality vote in a three-stage election by adult Baháís throughout the world. The House of Justice is elected without nominations or campaigning and all male members of the Baháí Faith are eligible for election to the House. The body is elected every five years during a convention of the members of the various National or Regional Spiritual Assemblies across the world, each member of the various NSAs, who were themselves elected by the Baháís of their country, votes for nine adult male Baháís. Absentee ballots are mailed or carried by delegates, the nine people who have the most votes are elected onto the Universal House of Justice. Women are not eligible for election to the Universal House of Justice, Abdul-Bahá stated that the wisdom for this will become clear in the future, and that women and men are spiritually equal
4.
Spiritual Assembly
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Spiritual Assembly is a term given by Abdul-Bahá to refer to elected councils that govern the Baháí Faith. Because the Baháí Faith has no clergy, they out the affairs of the community. In addition to existing at the level, there are national Spiritual Assemblies. Spiritual Assemblies appoint individuals, task forces, and committees to carry out many of their functions and they should consider themselves as entering the Court of the presence of God, the Exalted, the Most High, and as beholding Him Who is the Unseen. It behoveth them to be the ones of the Merciful among men. The passage gives the institution a name, a number. While the resulting institution is local, in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas Baháulláh also spoke about the responsibilities of the supreme or Universal House of Justice. In response to the passage, Mírzá Asadulláh Isfahání, a prominent Baháí teacher, organized an unofficial Baháí consultative body in Tehran, Iran, about 1878. The first official Baháí consultative body was organized under Abdul-Bahá’s direction by Hand of the Cause Hají Ákhúnd in Tehran in 1897, because of the difficulties in Iran caused by persecution of the Baháí Faith, the Tehran body served to coordinate both local and national Baháí activities. It is not known what name the body was organized under, the development of a Baháí community in the United States in the 1890s necessitated the creation of local Baháí consultative bodies there. In 1899 the Baháís of Chicago elected a council based on their awareness of the provisions of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. The New York Baháís elected a “Board of Counsel” in December 1900, in 1901 the Chicago body was reorganized and re-elected and took the name “House of Justice of Bahais of Chicago, Ills. This same designation hath been universally adopted throughout Iran. ”For this reason, the first decade of the twentieth century saw the proliferation of local Baháí governing bodies. Often unaware of Abdul-Bahá’s guidance, they had a variety of titles in English and Persian, such as “Council Board, “Board of Consultation, ” “House of Spirituality, ” and Executive Committee. Unaware Abdul-Bahá had told the Chicago Baháís to elect their body every five years, the number of members varied from five to nineteen. In the period of 1900 -1911, consultative bodies are known to have existed in Kenosha, Wisconsin, Boston, Massachusetts, Washington, consultative bodies also existed for the Jewish and Zoroastrian Baháís in Tehran and for the women of a few Baháí communities. Because efforts to organize local Baháí consultative bodies remained informal, few additional ones had formed by 1921, and some of the ones in the United States had lapsed. Upon assuming the Guardianship of the Baháí Faith, Shoghi Effendi read Abdul-Bahás Will and Testament and made establishment of local assemblies a early priority. ”The letter also quoted extensively from Baháulláh
5.
Shaykh Ahmad
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For the Indian Naqshbandi Sufi scholar, see Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi. Shaykh Ahmad ibn Zayn al-Dín ibn Ibráhím al-Ahsáí was the founder of a 19th-century Shii school in the Persian and Ottoman empires and he was a native of the Al-Ahsa region, educated in Bahrain and the theological centers of Najaf and Karbala in Iraq. Spending the last twenty years of his life in Iran, he received the protection and his soul was filled with anguish at the sight of the corruption and strife which characterised the Shíah sect of Islam. Forsaking his home and kindred, on one of the islands of Bahrayn, to the south of the Persian Gulf, to unravel the mysteries of those verses of Islamic Scriptures which foreshadowed the advent of a new Manifestation. There burned in his soul the conviction that no reform, however drastic, within the Faith of Islam, could achieve the regeneration of this perverse people. That nothing short of a new and independent Revelation, as attested and foreshadowed by the sacred Scriptures of Islam, could revive the fortunes, Shaykh Ahmad, at about age forty, began to study in earnest in the Shii centres of religious scholarship such as Karbala and Najaf. He attained sufficient recognition in such circles to be declared a mujtahid and he contended with Sufi and Neo-Platonist scholars, and attained a positive reputation among their detractors. Most interestingly, he declared that all knowledge and sciences were contained within the Quran, to this end he developed systems of interpretation of the Quran and sought to inform himself of all the sciences current in the Muslim world. His views on the soul posited a subtle body separate from and it was this body that ascended into Heaven, he posited, when Muhammad was said to have bodily ascended, and this also altered his views on the occultation of the Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi. His views resulted in his denunciation by several learned clerics, and it was in Yazd that much of his books and letters were written. He saw himself as a mainstream Shiite, not as a sectarian leader, yet he clearly innovated in Shii thought in ways that, toward the end of his life, sparked great controversy. Among the contentious arenas he entered was that of the nature of religious authority and he lived at a time when his branch of Islam was deeply divided on the role of the Muslim learned man. Was he an exemplar to be emulated by the laity without fail, or merely the first among equals, or was he, as the Sufis maintained, a pole channeling the grace of God to those less enlightened than himself. How may we situate Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsai with regard to these visions of Shii Islam. Momen has some interesting and useful commentary on Shaykh Ahmads doctrines, Shaykh Ahmad appointed Sayyid Kazim Rashti as his successor, who led the Shaykhí movement until his death. He taught his students how to recognize the Mahdi and the Masih, after his death in 1843, many of his students spread out around Iraq and Iran to search for a new leader. Bábism Baháí Faith Islam Published Works of Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsai, scholarly European Language Sources on Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsai. The Development of Shaykhi Thought in Shii Islam, ph. D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles
6.
Shoghi Effendi
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Shoghí Effendí Rabbání, better known as Shoghi Effendi, was the Guardian and appointed head of the Baháí Faith from 1921 until his death in 1957. Shoghi Effendi was referred to as the Guardian, and had the authority to interpret the writings of the three figures of the religion and define the sphere of legislative authority. His writings are limited to commentaries on the works of the central figures. Future hereditary Guardians were permitted in the Baháí scripture by appointment from one to the next with the prerequisite that appointees be male descendants of Baháulláh. At the time of Shoghi Effendis death, all living descendants of Baháulláh had been declared Covenant-breakers by either Abdul-Bahá or Shoghi Effendi. Shoghi was the first and last person acknowledged as Guardian of the Baháí Faith, Abdul-Bahá, who provided much of his initial training, greatly influenced Shoghi Effendi from the early years of his life. Shoghi Effendi learned prayers from his grandfather Abdul-Bahá, who encouraged him to chant, Abdul-Bahá also insisted that people address the child as Shoghi Effendi, rather than simply as Shoghi, as a mark of respect towards him. From his early years, Shoghi Effendi was introduced to the suffering which accompanied the Baháís in Akká, as a young boy, he was aware of the desire of Sultán Abdul-Hamíd to banish Abdul-Bahá to the deserts of North Africa where he was expected to perish. At one point, Shoghi Effendi was warned not to drink coffee in the homes of any of the Baháís in the fear that he would be poisoned, as the eldest grandson of Abdul-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi from his earliest childhood had a special relationship with his grandfather. Dr. Baghdadi reports that when Shoghi Effendi was only 5 years old, he pestered his grandfather to write a tablet for him and he wrote the following for his grandson, He is God. O My Shoghi, I have no time to talk, leave me alone and you said write, I have written. Now is not the time for you to read and write and it is the time for jumping about and chanting O My God. Therefore, memorize the prayers of the Blessed Beauty and chant them that I may hear them, because there is no time for anything else. Shoghi Effendi then set out to memorize a number of prayers and this caused family members to ask Abdul-Bahá to quieten him down, a request which he apparently refused. Shoghi Effendi later attended the Syrian Protestant College for his years of high school and first years of university. He reports being very unhappy in school and often returned on vacations to Haifa to spend time with Abdul-Bahá, a few days later he opened Abdul-Bahás Will and Testament, which was addressed to Shoghi Effendi. In the will Shoghi Effendi found that he had designated as the Sign of God, the chosen branch. He also learned that he had designated as this when he was still a small child
7.
Hands of the Cause
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The Hands of the Cause of God, Hands of the Cause, or Hands were a select group of Baháís, appointed for life, whose main function was to propagate and protect the Baháí Faith. The title is no longer conferred, the last living Hand of the Cause was Alí-Muhammad Varqá. The work of the Hands of the Cause is now carried out by the Continental Counsellors, there were fifty Hands of the Cause in all, four named by Baháulláh, four by Abdul-Bahá and forty-two by Shoghi Effendi. Twenty-seven Hands were alive when Shoghi Effendi died in 1957, the most complete list of the Hands available is from The Baháí World, Vol XIV. The Universal House of Justice has confirmed that this list may not be complete, note, Orthography of some names below is not correct. Accented and underscored characters were not transcribed, the Hands of the Cause maintained the number of Custodians, replacing those who died or were unable, for health or personal reasons, to remain at the Bahá’í World Center permanently. Apostles of Baháulláh Disciples of Abdul-Bahá Institution of the Counsellors Letters of the Living Baháulláh, the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, The Most Holy Book. Wilmette, Illinois, USA, Baháí Publishing Trust, tablets of Baháulláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Wilmette, Illinois, USA, Baháí Publishing Trust, wilmette, Illinois, USA, Baháí Publishing Trust. Lights of Guidance, A Baháí Reference File, Baháí Publishing Trust, New Delhi, India. The Ministry of the Custodians 1957-1963, reflections on the Institution of the Hands of the Cause of God. Hands of the Cause of God, National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States. Portraits of the Hands of the Cause of God Braun, Eunice, Hands of the Cause of God. Evanston, IL, National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States, Hands of the Cause of God - links to biographies Fadil-i-Mazandarani - House of Justice message of 1998 concerning the status and rank of Fadil-i-Mazandarani. The Guardian Announces Appointment of Hands of the Cause - Announcement of the first contingent of 12 Hands in 1951, second Appointment of Hands of the Cause - Announcement of the second contingent, appointing 7 new hands in 1952. A Tribute to the Hands of the Cause of God - History, appointments, and other details
8.
Martha Root
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Martha Louise Root was a prominent traveling teacher of the Baháí Faith in the late 19th and early 20th century. Shoghi Effendi, then head of the Baháí Faith, called her the foremost travel teacher in the first Baháí Century, and named her a Hand of the Cause posthumously. Known by her numerous visits with Heads of State and other figures, of special importance was her efforts with Queen Marie of Romania. Martha Root was born on August 10,1872 to Timothy and Nancy Root in Richwood and she had two older brothers, Clarence and Claude. Shortly after her birth, the moved to Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania. She distinguished herself in school and college, attending Oberlin College. While she started teaching after her degree, she gave that up to writing for different newspapers. In the summer of 1900 she worked at the Pittsburgh Chronicle Telegraph as the society editor and she then started writing about automobiles, which took her to France and then back to Pittsburgh. In 1909 she met Roy C. Wilhelm who introduced her to the Baháí Faith by giving her some literature, during this time, she kept on writing and in 1909 she wrote a detailed article for the Pittsburgh Post about the history and teachings of the Baháí Faith. She also participated in the first annual Baháí convention, which place in Chicago in 1911. During 1911 and 1912, Abdul-Bahá, the son of the founder of the Baháí Faith, visited the United States, Martha Root attended many of Abdul-Bahás talks, and arranged his talk in Pittsburgh. During this time Martha Root developed breast cancer, but it went into remission for many years, after meeting with Abdul-Bahá, Martha Root began a world trip where she would spread the teachings of the Baháí Faith. So instead, she travelled to Egypt, and stayed there for six months, during that time she wrote newspaper articles. She then travelled to Bombay, Rangoon, Japan, and Hawaii and she arrived back in the continental United States when she reached San Francisco on August 29,1915. After staying in the United States for five years, she travelled to Canada in 1920, visiting Saint John, Montreal, London. She then travelled to Mexico and then Guatemala where she was going to meet with the president, but due to a political revolution, the meeting never happened. By 1921, her breast cancer had spread and she was in frequent pain, her fathers health was also failing, after her fathers death on November 3,1922, Martha started her travels once again at the age of 50. She travelled to parts of the United States, Canada, Japan and China to spread the teachings of Baháulláh
9.
Haifa
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Haifa, is the third-largest city in the State of Israel, with a population of 278,903 in 2015. The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area and it is also home to the Baháí World Centre, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a destination for Bahai pilgrims. Built on the slopes of Mount Carmel, the settlement has a history spanning more than 3,000 years, the earliest known settlement in the vicinity was Tell Abu Hawam, a small port city established in the Late Bronze Age. In the 3rd century CE, Haifa was known as a dye-making center, over the centuries, the city has changed hands, being conquered and ruled by the Phoenicians, Persians, Hasmoneans, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Ottomans, British, and the Israelis. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the Haifa Municipality has governed the city, as of 2016, the city is a major seaport located on Israels Mediterranean coastline in the Bay of Haifa covering 63.7 square kilometres. It lies about 90 kilometres north of Tel Aviv and is the regional center of northern Israel. According to researcher J. Kis-Lev Haifa is considered a haven for coexistence between Jews and Arabs. Two respected academic institutions, the University of Haifa and the Technion, are located in Haifa, in addition to the largest k-12 school in Israel, the city plays an important role in Israels economy. It is home to Matam, one of the oldest and largest high-tech parks in the country, Haifa also owns the underground rapid transit system located in Israel. Haifa Bay is a center of industry, petroleum refining. Haifa formerly functioned as the terminus of an oil pipeline from Iraq via Jordan. With locals using it to refer to a tell at the foot of the Carmel Mountains that contains its remains. The name Efa first appears during Roman rule, some time after the end of the 1st century, Haifa is also mentioned more than 100 times in the Talmud, a work central to Judaism. Hefa or Hepha in Eusebius of Caesareas 4th-century work, Onomasticon, is said to be another name for Sycaminus, references to this city end with the Byzantine period. Following the Arab conquest in the 7th century, Haifa was used to refer to a site established on Tel Shikmona upon what were already the ruins of Sycaminon. Haifa is mentioned by the mid-11th-century Persian chronicler Nasir Khusraw, the Crusaders, who captured Haifa briefly in the 12th century, call it Caiphas, and believe its name related to Cephas, the Aramaic name of Simon Peter. Other spellings in English have included Caipha, Kaipha, Caiffa, Kaiffa and Khaifa.5 miles to the east. The new village, the nucleus of modern Haifa, was first called al-imara al-jadida by some, but others residing there called it Haifa al-Jadida at first, the ultimate origin of the name Haifa remains unclear
10.
Acre, Israel
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Acre is a city in the northern coastal plain region of the Northern District, Israel at the northern extremity of Haifa Bay. The city occupies an important location, as it sits on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, traditionally linking the waterways and this location helped it become one of the oldest cities in the world, continuously inhabited since the Middle Bronze Age some 4000 years ago. Acre is the holiest city of the Baháí Faith, and as such receives many Bahai pilgrims, in 2015 the population was 47,675. Acre is a city, that includes Jews, Muslims, Christians. The mayor is Shimon Lankri, who was reelected in 2011, Acres etymology is a matter of controversy, though most likely deriving from the early Canaanite language. According to Biblical tradition, the name is derived from Canaanite Adco, meaning a border, the city was known as Ptolemais during the Hellenistic and Roman-Byzantine periods. During the Crusades it was known as St. John dAcre after the Knights Hospitaller, Acre is therefore counted among the oldest continuously inhabited sites in the region. Egyptian sources seem to be mentioning Acre, starting possibly with execration texts from ca.1800 BCE, the name Aak, which appears on the tribute lists of Thutmose III, may be a reference to Acre. The Amarna letters also mention a place named Akka, as well as the Execration texts, First settlement at the site of Ancient Acre appears to have been in the Early Bronze Age, or about 3000 BC. In the Hebrew Bible, Akko is one of the places from which the Israelites did not drive out the Canaanites and it is later described in the territory of the tribe of Asher and according to Josephus, was ruled by one of Solomons provincial governors. Throughout Israelite rule, it was politically and culturally affiliated with Phoenicia, around 725 BC, Akko joined Sidon and Tyre in a revolt against Shalmaneser V. Greek historians refer to the city as Ake, meaning cure, according to the Greek myth, Heracles found curative herbs here to heal his wounds. Strabo refers to the city as once a rendezvous for the Persians in their expeditions against Egypt, about 165 BC Judas Maccabeus defeated the Seleucids in several battles in Galilee, and drove them into Ptolemais. About 153 BC Alexander Balas, son of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, contesting the Seleucid crown with Demetrius, seized the city, which opened its gates to him. Demetrius offered many bribes to the Maccabees to obtain Jewish support against his rival, including the revenues of Ptolemais for the benefit of the Temple in Jerusalem, Jonathan Apphus threw in his lot with Alexander and in 150 BC he was received by him with great honour in Ptolemais. Some years later, however, Tryphon, an officer of the Seleucid Empire, the city was captured by Alexander Jannaeus, Cleopatra and Tigranes the Great. Here Herod the Great built a gymnasium, the Christian Acts of the Apostles reports that Luke the Evangelist, Paul the Apostle and their companions spent a day in Ptolemais with the Christian brethren there. A Roman colonia was established at the city, Colonia Claudii Cæsaris, the Romans enlarged the port and the city, that flourished for six centuries even as a Christian center
11.
Fasting
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Fasting is a willing abstinence or reduction from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. An absolute fast is normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a period, usually a period of 24 hours. Water fasting allows drinking water but nothing else, other fasts may be partially restrictive, limiting only particular foods or substances. A fast may also be intermittent in nature, Fasting practices may preclude intercourse and other activities as well as food. In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the status of a person who has not eaten overnight. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting, and some tests are used to determine a fasting state. For example, a person is assumed to be fasting after 8–12 hours from their last meal, metabolic changes toward the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal, post-absorptive state is synonymous with this usage, in contrast to the postprandial state of ongoing digestion. A diagnostic fast refers to prolonged fasting conducted under observation for investigation of a problem, many people may also fast as part of a medical procedure or check-up such as a colonoscopy. Fasting is also a part of religious observances. Fasting is often practiced prior to surgery or other procedures that require general anesthetics because of the risk of aspiration of gastric contents after induction of anesthesia. Additionally, certain tests, such as cholesterol testing or certain blood glucose measurements require fasting for several hours so that a baseline can be established. In the case of a panel, failure to fast for a full 12 hours will guarantee an elevated triglyceride measurement. Fasting is of no help in preventing or treating cancer. Fasting can help alleviate symptoms of depression. However the psychological effects may include anxiety and depression. Fasting will lead to weight loss, using fasting for weight loss is considered dangerous. It has been argued that fasting makes one better appreciate food, Fasting is often used as a tool to make a political statement, to protest, or to bring awareness to a cause. A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt, a spiritual fast incorporates personal spiritual beliefs with the desire to express personal principles, sometimes in the context of a social injustice
12.
Equinox
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An equinox is the moment in which the plane of Earths equator passes through the center of the Sun, which occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 23 September. On an equinox, day and night are of equal duration all over the planet. They are not exactly equal, however, due to the size of the sun. To avoid this ambiguity, the word equilux is sometimes used to mean a day in which the durations of light, see Length of equinoctial day and night for further discussion. The word is derived from the Latin aequinoctium, aequus and nox, the equinoxes are the only times when the solar terminator is perpendicular to the equator. As a result, the northern and southern hemispheres are equally illuminated, the word comes from Latin equi or equal and nox meaning night. In other words, the equinoxes are the times when the subsolar point is on the equator. The subsolar point crosses the equator moving northward at the March equinox, the equinoxes, along with solstices, are directly related to the seasons of the year. In the southern hemisphere, the equinox occurs in September. When Julius Caesar established the Julian calendar in 45 BC, he set 25 March as the date of the spring equinox. Because the Julian year is longer than the tropical year. By 1500 AD, it had drifted backwards to 11 March and this drift induced Pope Gregory XIII to create a modern Gregorian calendar. However, the leap year intervals in his calendar were not smooth and this causes the equinox to oscillate by about 53 hours around its mean position. This in turn raised the possibility that it could fall on 22 March, the astronomers chose the appropriate number of days to omit so that the equinox would swing from 19 to 21 March but never fall on the 22nd. Vernal equinox and Autumnal equinox, these names are direct derivatives of Latin. The equivalent common language English terms spring equinox and autumn equinox are even more ambiguous, March equinox and September equinox, names referring to the months of the year they occur, with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context. They are still not universal, however, as not all use a solar-based calendar where the equinoxes occur every year in the same month. Northward equinox and southward equinox, names referring to the apparent direction of motion of the Sun
13.
Manifestation of God
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The Manifestation of God is a concept in the Baháí Faith that refers to what are commonly called prophets. They act as perfect mirrors reflecting the attributes of God into the physical world, Baháí teachings hold that the motive force in all human development is due to the coming of the Manifestations of God. The Manifestations of God are directly linked with the Baháí concept of progressive revelation, the Baháí concept of the intermediary between God and humanity is expressed in the term Manifestation of God. Baháís believe in a single, imperishable God, the creator of all things, though inaccessible directly, God is nevertheless seen as conscious of his creation, with a mind, will and purpose. Baháís believe that God expresses this will at all times and in many ways, in expressing Gods intent, these Manifestations are seen to establish religion in the world. The Manifestations of God are not seen as incarnations of God as God cannot be divided and does not descend to the condition of his creatures, instead, the Baháí concept of a Manifestation of God emphasizes the simultaneously existing qualities of humanity and divinity. In the station of divinity, they show forth the will, knowledge and attributes of God, in the station of humanity, a common Baháí analogy used to explain the relationship between the Manifestation of God and God is that of a perfect mirror. In the analogy, God is likened to the Sun – the source of life on earth. The spirit and attributes of God are likened to the rays of the Sun, thus, the Manifestations of God act as pure mirrors that reflect the attributes of God onto this material world. The Manifestations of God are seen to represent a level of existence which is an intermediary between God and humans and they may at times emphasize their humanity, and at other times proclaim their divinity. These stations are rather than mutually exclusive. The Manifestations of God are believed to possess capacities that do not exist in humans, thus, the Manifestations of God are special beings, having a unique relationship to God as they have been sent by God from the spiritual world as an instrument of divine revelation. They are understood to have existed in the world prior to their physical birth in this life. They are also seen to have innate, divinely revealed knowledge, the purpose of the Manifestation of God, according to Baháí belief, is to educate humanity. The Manifestations of God are seen as divine educators, who are raised up by God with the purpose of uplifting mankind, in expressing Gods intent, the Manifestations of God are seen to establish religion in the world. Each brings a book and reveals teachings and laws according to the time, the light which these souls radiate is responsible for the progress of the world and the advancement of its peoples. They are like unto leaven which leaveneth the world of being, through them the clouds rain their bounty upon men, and the earth bringeth forth its fruits. All things must needs have a cause, a motive power and these souls and symbols of detachment have provided, and will continue to provide, the supreme moving impulse in the world of being
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Lent
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Lent is a solemn religious observance in the Christian liturgical calendar that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends approximately six weeks later, before Easter Sunday. The purpose of Lent is the preparation of the believer through prayer, doing penance, mortifying the flesh, repentance of sins, almsgiving and this event is observed in the Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Methodist, and Roman Catholic Churches. Some Anabaptist and evangelical churches also observe the Lenten season, in Lent, many Christians commit to fasting, as well as giving up certain luxuries in order to replicate the sacrifice of Jesus Christ’s journey into the desert for 40 days. Many Christians also add a Lenten spiritual discipline, such as reading a daily devotional or praying through a Lenten calendar, the Stations of the Cross, a devotional commemoration of Christs carrying the Cross and of his execution, are often observed. Throughout Christendom, some adherents mark the season with the abstention from the consumption of meat. The English word Lent is a form of the Old English word lenten, meaning spring season. A dated term in German, lenz, is also related, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the shorter form seems to be a derivative of *laŋgo- long. And may possibly have reference to the lengthening of the days as characterizing the season of spring. The origin of the -en element is clear, it may simply be a suffix, or lencten may originally have been a compound of *laŋgo- long. In languages spoken where Christianity was earlier established, such as Greek and Latin, in modern, Greek the term is Σαρακοστή, derived from the earlier Τεσσαρακοστή, meaning fortieth. In other languages, the name used refers to the activity associated with the season, thus it is called fasting period in Czech, German, and Norwegian, and it is called great fast in Polish and Russian. The terms used in Filipino are kuwaresma and Mahál na Araw, various Christian denominations calculate the 40 days of Lent differently. The way they observe Lent also differs, in the Roman Rite, the definition of Lent varies according to different documents. Lent ends on either Holy Thursday or Good Friday, though some sources try to reconcile this with the phrase forty days by excluding Sundays and extending Lent through Holy Saturday no official documents support this interpretation. The day for beginning the Lenten fast is the following Monday, the special Ash Wednesday fast is transferred to the first Friday of the Ambrosian Lent. The period of Lent observed in the Eastern Catholic Churches corresponds to that in churches of Eastern Christianity that have similar traditions. In the Byzantine Rite, i. e. the Eastern Orthodox Great Lent is the most important fasting season in the church year, Great Lent is broken only after the Paschal Divine Liturgy. The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the traditional Churchs teaching on fasting, the rules for lenten fasting are the monastic rules
15.
Yom Kippur
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Yom Kippur, also known as the Day of Atonement, is the holiest day of the year in Judaism. Its central themes are atonement and repentance, Jewish people traditionally observe this holy day with an approximate 25-hour period of fasting and intensive prayer, often spending most of the day in synagogue services. Yom means day in Hebrew and Kippur comes from a root that means to atone, Yom Kippur is usually expressed in English as Day of Atonement. Yom Kippur is the day of seventh month and is regarded as the Sabbath of Sabbaths. Rosh Hashanah is the first day of that month according to the Hebrew calendar, on this day forgiveness of sins is also asked of God. Yom Kippur completes the period known in Judaism as the High Holy Days or Yamim Noraim that commences with Rosh Hashanah. According to Jewish tradition, God inscribes each persons fate for the year into a book, the Book of Life, on Rosh Hashanah. During the Days of Awe, a Jew tries to amend his or her behavior and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God, the evening and day of Yom Kippur are set aside for public and private petitions and confessions of guilt. At the end of Yom Kippur, one hopes that they have been forgiven by God, the Yom Kippur prayer service includes several unique aspects. One is the number of prayer services. Unlike a regular day, which has three services, or a Shabbat or Yom Tov, which have four prayer services. The prayer services also include private and public confessions of sins, as one of the most culturally significant Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur is observed by many secular Jews who may not observe other holidays. Many secular Jews attend synagogue on Yom Kippur—for many secular Jews the High Holy Days are the times of the year during which they attend synagogue—causing synagogue attendance to soar. Erev Yom Kippur is the day preceding Yom Kippur, corresponding to the day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei. This day is commemorated with additional morning prayers, asking others for forgiveness, giving charity, performing the ritual, an extended afternoon prayer service. Leviticus 16,29 mandates establishment of this day on the 10th day of the 7th month as the day of atonement for sins. It calls it the Sabbath of Sabbaths and a day upon which one must afflict ones soul, Leviticus 23,27 decrees that Yom Kippur is a strict day of rest. Five additional prohibitions are traditionally observed, as detailed in the Jewish oral tradition, the number five is a set number, relating to, In the Yom Kippur section of the Torah, the word soul appears five times
16.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
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Latitude
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In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earths surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles, lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the location of features on the surface of the Earth. Without qualification the term latitude should be taken to be the latitude as defined in the following sections. Also defined are six auxiliary latitudes which are used in special applications, there is a separate article on the History of latitude measurements. Two levels of abstraction are employed in the definition of latitude and longitude, in the first step the physical surface is modelled by the geoid, a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses. The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface, the simplest choice for the reference surface is a sphere, but the geoid is more accurately modelled by an ellipsoid. The definitions of latitude and longitude on such surfaces are detailed in the following sections. Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface, latitude and longitude together with some specification of height constitute a geographic coordinate system as defined in the specification of the ISO19111 standard. This is of importance in accurate applications, such as a Global Positioning System, but in common usage, where high accuracy is not required. In English texts the latitude angle, defined below, is denoted by the Greek lower-case letter phi. It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds or decimal degrees, the precise measurement of latitude requires an understanding of the gravitational field of the Earth, either to set up theodolites or to determine GPS satellite orbits. The study of the figure of the Earth together with its field is the science of geodesy. These topics are not discussed in this article and this article relates to coordinate systems for the Earth, it may be extended to cover the Moon, planets and other celestial objects by a simple change of nomenclature. The primary reference points are the poles where the axis of rotation of the Earth intersects the reference surface, the plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator. Planes parallel to the plane intersect the surface in circles of constant latitude. The Equator has a latitude of 0°, the North Pole has a latitude of 90° North, the latitude of an arbitrary point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the radius to that point. The latitude, as defined in this way for the sphere, is termed the spherical latitude
