1.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
2.
Administrative units of Pakistan
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The administrative units of Pakistan consist of four provinces, one federal capital territory, two autonomous and disputed territories, and a group of federally administered tribal areas. Pakistan has three tiers of government, including 34 divisions,149 districts,588 sub-districts. The administrative units as of 2010 derived from the administrative units inherited from British India, from independence in 1947 to 1971, Pakistan had two wings separated by 1600 kilometres of Indian territory. The eastern wing comprised the province of East Bengal, which included the Sylhet District from the former British Raj province of Assam. The western wing was formed from three provinces, one Chief Commissioners Province, thirteen princely states, and parts of Kashmir. In 1948 the area around Karachi was separated from Sindh province to form the Federal Capital Territory, in 1950, NWFP was expanded to include the small states of Amb and Phulra and the name of West Punjab was changed to Punjab. The four princely states of southwest Pakistan formed the Baluchistan States Union in 1952, simultaneously, East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan, with Dhaka as the provincial capital. In 1960 the federal capital moved from Karachi to Rawalpindi and, later, in 1961 the Federal Capital Territory was merged into West Pakistan. The second military President, Yahya Khan, dissolved West Pakistan in 1970, East Pakistan became independent in December 1971 as the new country of Bangladesh. In 1974 the two last princely states were abolished and their territory merged with the Gilgit Agency to form the Northern Areas, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas were formed from parts of Hazara, districts of Peshawar, and Dera Ismail Khan in 1975. The status of the Islamabad area was changed to a territory in 1981. As of 2015 Gilgit-Baltistan is now a de facto province, north-West Frontier Province was renamed Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in 2010. In August 2000, the divisions were abolished as part of a plan to local government. Many of the functions previously handled by the provinces have transferred to the districts. In 2008 the new government restored the former tier of divisions. Pakistans administrative units are as follows, *Disputed with India, the provinces are subdivided into 34 divisions, which are subdivided into 149 districts called zillahs. Zillahs are further subdivided into 588 sub-districts called tehsils, the term tehsil is used everywhere except in Sindh province, where the term taluka predominates. Tehsils may contain villages or municipalities, Pakistan has over five thousand local governments
3.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
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Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, located in the northwestern region of the country. It was formerly known as North-West Frontier Province and commonly called Sarhad and its provincial capital and largest city is Peshawar, followed by Mardan. It shares borders with the Federally Administered Tribal Areas to the west, Gilgit–Baltistan to the northeast, Azad Kashmir, Islamabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa does not share a border with Balochistan, which lies to its southwest. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa also shares a border with Afghanistan, connected through the Khyber Pass. It is also the site of the ancient kingdom Gandhara, the ruins of its capital, Pushkalavati, and the most prominent center of learning in the Peshawar Valley, Takht-i-Bahi. It has been under the suzerainty of the Persians, Greeks, Mauryans, Kushans, Shahis, Ghaznavids, Mughals, Afghanistan, Sikhs, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the third largest province of Pakistan by the size of both population and economy though it is geographically the smallest of four. It comprises 10. 5% of Pakistans economy, and is home to 11. 9% of Pakistans total population, with the majority of the inhabitants being Pashtuns, Hazarewal, Chitrali. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa means Khyber side of the land of Pakhtuns while only the word Pakhtunkhwa means Land of Pakhtuns and according to scholars it means Pakhtun culture. When the British established it as a province, they called it North West Frontier Province due to its location being in north west of their Indian Empire. After independence of Pakistan, Pakistan continued with this name but a Pakhtun nationalist party and their logic behind that demand was that Punjabi people, Sindhi people and Balochi people have their provinces named after their ethnicities but that is not the case for Pashtun people. Major political parties especially Pakistan Muslim League were against that name since it was too similar to Bacha Khans demand of separate nation Pashtunistan. The ancient Aryan Migration is believed to have taken place around 2000 BCE, darius Hystaspes sent Scylax, a Greek seaman from Karyanda, to explore the course of the Indus river. Darius Hystaspes subsequently subdued the races dwelling west of the Indus, Gandhara was incorporated into the Persian Empire as one of its far easternmost satrapy system of government. The satrapy of Gandhara is recorded to have sent troops for Xerxes invasion of Greece in 480 BCE, in the spring of 327 BCE Alexander the Great crossed the Indian Caucasus and advanced to Nicaea, where Omphis, king of Taxila and other chiefs joined him. Alexander then dispatched part of his force through the valley of the Kabul River, while he advanced into modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwas Bajaur. Alexander then made Embolima his base, after Alexanders death in 323 BCE Porus obtained possession of the region, but was murdered by Eudemus in 317 BCE. Eudemus then left the region, and with his departure Macedonian power collapsed, sandrocottus, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, then declared himself master of the province. His grandson, Ashoka, made Buddhism the dominant religion in ancient Gandhara, after Ashokas death the Mauryan empire collapse, just as in the west the Seleucid power was rising
4.
Federally Administered Tribal Areas
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The territory is almost exclusively inhabited by the Pashtuns, who also live in the neighbouring provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Northern Balochistan, they are largely Muslims. The main towns of the territory are Parachinar, Miranshah, Razmak, Kaniguram, Wana, Kalaya, Landi Kotal, Ghalanai and Khaar. The annexed areas continued under the same governance after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, through the Dominion of Pakistan in 1947, in 2001, the Tehrik-e-Taliban militants began entering into the region. In 2003, Taliban forces sheltered in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas began crossing the border into Afghanistan, attacking military, shkin, Afghanistan is a key location for these frequent battles. This heavily fortified military base has housed mostly American special operations forces since 2002 and is located just six kilometers from the Pakistani border and it is considered the most dangerous location in Afghanistan. With the encouragement of the United States,80,000 Pakistani troops entered the Federally Administered Tribal Areas in March 2004 to search for al-Qaeda operatives and they were met with fierce resistance from Pakistani Taliban. It was not the elders, but the Pakistani Taliban who negotiated a truce with the army, troops entered the region, into South Waziristan and North Waziristan eight more times between 2004 and 2006 and faced further Pakistani Taliban resistance. On 4 June 2007, the National Security Council of Pakistan met to decide the fate of Waziristan and take up a number of political, the meeting was chaired by President Pervez Musharraf and it was attended by the Chief Ministers and Governors of all four provinces. They discussed the law and order situation and the threat posed to state security. The Federally Administered Tribal Areas are bordered by, Afghanistan to the north and west with the border marked by the Durand Line, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the east, and Balochistan to the south. The seven Tribal Areas lie in a strip that is adjacent to the west side of the six Frontier Regions. The areas within each of two regions are geographically arranged in a sequence from north to south. The geographical arrangement of the seven Tribal Areas in order from north to south is, Bajaur, Mohmand, Khyber, Orakzai, Kurram, North Waziristan, South Waziristan. The geographical arrangement of the six Frontier Regions in order from north to south is, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Lakki Marwat, Tank, Dera Ismail Khan. The total population of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas was estimated in 2000 to be about 3,341,080 people, only 3. 1% of the population resides in established townships. It is thus the most rural administrative unit in Pakistan, according to 2011 estimates FATA gained 62. 1% population over its 1998 figures totaling up to 4,452,913. This is the fourth highest increase in population after Balochistan, Sindh,99. 1% of population speaks the Pashto language. However, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas were not allowed to organize political parties and this was a departure from prior tribal politics, where power was focused in the hands of secular authorities, Maliks
5.
Miramshah
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Miramshah, or Miranshah, is a town and administrative headquarters of the North Waziristan Agency in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan. The town lies on the banks of the Tochi River in a valley surrounded by the foothills of the Hindu Kush mountains. It is situated approximately 17 km from the Pakistan-Afghanistan border at an elevation of approximately 3,050 ft, the nearest town in Pakistan is Bannu and the nearest town across the border in Afghanistan is Khost. Miramshah was named after the Timurid ruler, Miran Shah, the son of Timur, in 1905, the British constructed Miramshah Fort to control North Waziristan. In the 1950s, Miramshah was also the site of a firing range of the PAF. Miramshah and its surrounding areas have also witnessed fighting between militants and Pakistani military and paramilitary forces. Miramshah has a fort built by the British in 1905. The town also has a 7,000 ft. long airfield, other notable places include a bazaar, a sports stadium, a primary school, a secondary school and a college. He has been linked to attacks against US targets in Afghanistan, daande Darpkhel airstrike, very close to Miramshah, of 8 September 2008 Miramshah airstrike, of 12 September 2008. Waziristan and Mughal empire Nehru in Waziristan Sketch map of Waziristan Mehsuds and Wazirs, the King-makers in a game of thrones Lawrence of Arabia in Waziristan
6.
Pashto
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Pashto, known in Persian literature as Afghānistani and in Urdu and Hindi literature as Paṭhānī, is the South-Central Asian language of the Pashtuns. Its speakers are called Pashtuns or Pukhtuns and sometimes Afghans or Pathans and it is an Eastern Iranian language, belonging to the Indo-European family. Pashto is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, and it is the second-largest regional language of Pakistan, mainly spoken in the west and northwest of the country. Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas are almost 100% Pashto-speaking, while it is the majority language of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pashto is the main language among the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is estimated to be 45–60 million people worldwide, Pashto belongs to the Northeastern Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian branch, but Ethnologue lists it as Southeastern Iranian. Pashto has two main groups, “soft” and “hard”, the latter known as Pakhto. As a national language of Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, the exact numbers of speakers are unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60% of the total population of Afghanistan. In Pakistan Pashto is spoken as a first language by about 15. 42% of Pakistans 170 million people and it is the main language of the Pashtun-majority regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and northern Balochistan. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province and in Islamabad, modern Pashto-speaking communities are found in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh. Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in Tajikistan, and further in the Pashtun diaspora, there are also communities of Pashtun descent in the southwestern part of Jammu and Kashmir. Pashto is one of the two languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari. Since the early 18th century, all the kings of Afghanistan were ethnic Pashtuns except for Habibullah Kalakani, Persian as the literary language of the royal court was more widely used in government institutions while Pashto was spoken by the Pashtun tribes as their native tongue. Although officially strengthening the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a “sophisticated language, king Zahir Shah thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933, that both Persian and Pashto were to be studied and utilized by officials. Thus Pashto became a language, a symbol for Afghan nationalism. The status of language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari. The lyrics of the anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto. In Pakistan, Urdu and English are the two official languages, Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the language of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas
7.
Urdu
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Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
8.
Waziristan
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Waziristan covers some 15,000 square kilometres. The area is populated by ethnic Pashtuns. It is named after the Wazir tribe, the language spoken in the valley is Pashto, predominantly the Wazir dialect. Most of the forms the southern part of Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Waziristan comprises the area west and southwest of Peshawar between the Tochi River to the north and the Gomal River to the south. Bannu, Tank and FR DI Khan lie immediately to the east, Kurram Valley lies to the northeast, while Paktia, Khost and Paktika lie to the west, the region was an independent tribal territory until 1893, remaining outside the British Empire. Tribal raiding into British-ruled territory was a constant problem for the British, the region became part of Pakistan in 1947. For administrative purposes, Waziristan was divided into two agencies, North Waziristan and South Waziristan, with an estimated populations in 1998 of 361,246 and 429,841 respectively, the two parts have quite distinct characteristics, though both are inhabited by the Wazir tribe. They have a reputation as formidable warriors, the Wazir tribes are divided into clans governed by male village elders who meet in a tribal jirga. Socially and religiously, Waziristan is a conservative area. Women are carefully guarded, and every household must be headed by a male figure, Tribal cohesiveness is also kept strong by means of the so-called Collective Responsibility Acts in the Frontier Crimes Regulations. Taliban presence in the area has been an issue of concern in the War on Terrorism particularly since the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. North Waziristans District capital is Miranshah, also known as Miramshah, the South Waziristans Agency has its district headquarters at Wana. South Waziristan, comprising about 6,500 square kilometres, is the most volatile agency of Pakistan, in south Waziristan Agency, there are three tribes, Wazir, Maseed and Burki. The Waziristan Revolt of 1919–1920 was sparked by the Afghan invasion of British India in 1919, though the British made peace with the Afghans, the Waziri and Mahsud tribesmen gave the imperial forces a very difficult fight. One aspect of conflict was the effective use of air power against the Waziris. This is similar to Royal Air Force tactics in suppressing the Arab Revolt in Iraq in 1920 and 1921, in 1936, trouble again flared up in Waziristan in the form of a political and religious agitator known as the Fakir of Ipi. Trouble flared up again in 1938–39, although to a lesser extent
9.
Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
10.
Kurram River
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Kurram River is located in Paktia and Khost provinces of Afghanistan and Kurram Agency, North Waziristan Agency and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It drains the southern flanks of the Spin Ghar mountain range and is a right tributary of the Indus River. Kurram River is also mentioned in the Rig Veda under the name of Krumu, Kurram River rises 20 km southeast of Gardez in Spin Ghar mountains, Paktia Province in eastern Afghanistan. The route crossed the Peiwar Kotal Pass 3,439 m high, just over 20 km west of Parachinar, the Kurram River joins the Indus River near Isa Khel after a course of more than 320 km. Kurram River has great hydropower potential which could be harnessed for cheap electric power generation
11.
Gomal River
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Gomal River is a 400 km long river in Afghanistan and Pakistan, which is mentioned in the Rigveda as Gomatī. The river lends its name to the Gomal University in Dera Ismail Khan, Gomal Rivers headwaters are located south-east of Ghazni. The Gomals other branch, the Second Gomal, joins the main channel about 14 miles below its source, the Gomal flows southeast through eastern Ghilji country for approximately 110 miles before it merges with the Zhob River, its major tributary, near Khajuri Kach. It is about 100 miles from the Zhob River to the Indus River, within Pakistan, the Gomal river surrounds the South Waziristan agency and forms the boundary between Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan. From South Waziristan, the river enters the Gomal Valley in the district of Tank, Pakistan at a known as Girdavi. It is mainly here that the water of Gomal is used to cultivate the lands in Gomal Valley through Zam System. The river passes then through the Damaan plain in Kulachi Tehsil and later on through Dera Ismail Khan Tehsil, there is also a street in E-7, Islamabad called the Gomal Road. Gomal Zam Dam Gomal Pass Gomal District Gomal University Zhob River South Waziristan Paktika Province http, //www. khyber. org/places/2005/TheGomalRiver. shtml
12.
Bannu
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Bannu, is the principal city of the Bannu District in southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Bannu was once a British military base used for action against Afghan border tribes, inhabitants of Bannu are known as Banuchi, and speak a specific dialect of Pashto. The town was founded in 1848 by Herbert Benjamin Edwardes, a Lieutenant in the 1st Bengal European Fusiliers Regiment of the East India Companys private army and he ordered the construction of the fort – named Dhulipgarh in honour of the Maharajah of Lahore – at the same time. At the time of its founding the town was named Dhulipnagar and its name was later changed to Edwardesabad in 1869. In 1903, it received its current name, Bannu, Bannu formed the base of operations for all punitive expeditions undertaken by troops of the British empire to the Tochi Valley and the Waziristan frontier. A military road led from the town of Bannu toward Dera Ismail Khan and this road was built by military engineers under the supervision of a Bannu engineer, Ram N. Mullick. Mullick, graduated from Banaras Engineering College had served in Iraq, the Imperial British Gazetteer described Bannu as,14,291, including cantonment and civil lines. It was founded in 1848 by Lieutenant Edwardes, who selected the site for political reasons, the fort, erected at the same time, bore the name of Dhulipgarh, in honour of the Maharaja of Lahore, and the bazar was also known as Dhulipnagar. A town gradually grew up around the bazar, and many Hindko speaking Hindu traders moved there from Bazar Ahmad Khan, the Church Missionary Society supports a small church and a high school founded in 1865. The cantonment centers in the fort of Dhulipgarh and its garrison consists of a mountain battery, a regiment of native cavalry, and two regiments of infantry. The municipality was constituted in 1867, the municipal receipts and expenditure during the ten years ending 1903–1904 averaged Rs.46,000. In 1903–1904 the income was Rs.47,000 chiefly derived from octroi, the receipts and expenditure of cantonment funds during the ten years ending 1902–3 averaged Rs.4,200 and Rs.3,700. The profuse irrigation and insufficient drainage of the surrounding fields render Bannu an unhealthy station, the town has a considerable trade, including fish guts and butts. Also, embracing the whole traffic in local produce of the Bannu valley, the nearest railway station is at Kohat on the Khushalgarh-Thal branch of the North-Western Railway,79 miles distant by road. A weekly fair collects a number of 8,000 buyers and sellers. The chief articles of trade are cloth, live-stock, wool, cotton, tobacco, Bannu possesses a dispensary and two high schools, a public library and a town hall known as the Nicholson Memorial
13.
Loya Paktia
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Loya Paktia is a historical and cultural region of Afghanistan, comprising the modern Afghan provinces of Paktia, Paktika, Khost, and also parts of Logar and Ghazni. The Kurram Agency in Pakistan may be included too, Loya Paktia is vaguely defined by a common culture and history that is connected to the local indigenous tribes that reside in the region. For instance, a Pashtun tribesman from Loy Kandahar may quickly recognize a Pashtun from Loya Paktia based upon his turban style, likewise, a Pashtun from Loya Paktia may recognize someone from Loy Kandahar based upon his unique style of collarless kameez with specific embroidered patterns on the front. Predominant tribes with notable large populations native to Loya Paktia include the Kharoti, Zazi, Zadran, Bangash, kuchis are also common here throughout the year
14.
Khost
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Khost or Khowst, a city in eastern Afghanistan, lies on 7,139 hectares in a mountainous region near the Pakistani border. The urban population of 106,083, mainly from the Zadran, Mangal, Zazi, Tani, Gurbaz, Muqbal, the town was besieged from July 1983 to November 1987, during the nine-year Soviet war in Afghanistan in the 1980s. Khost Airfield, with a 9, 000-foot runway, served as a base for Soviet military helicopter operations, American forces have used the Khost Airfield since as early as at least January 2007 during the war which commenced in October 2001. Khost is the home of Khost University, the inhabitants of area are Pashto-speaking ethnic Pashtuns. Khost Mosque serves as the mosque in the city. Khost is located about 150 kilometres south of Kabul and 100 kilometres southeast of Gardez, the city lies on a plateau of minimally 1,000 metres altitude that extends to the East for about 40 kilometres until the Bannu Pakistan border. 30 km to the North the peaks start up to 2,500 to 3,000 metres right next to the frontier, while 20 kilometres to the South, near the border, the average is around 1,800 m. The valley of Khost is closed to the west with a mountain chain with peaks that go over 3,000 metres. Through this runs for about 90 kilometres the road to Gardez, so Taliban invaded Khost in 1995. The capital of Khost province is Matoon, Khost has the following 12 district units. Spera Dwa monda Nadershah koot Ismail khail va Mandozi Musa khail Qalander Tani Gurbaz Bak Zazi maidan Sabari Ali shir Khost has a semi-arid climate and it is located in the Khost Bowl, a valley with lower elevation than the surrounding highlands. Nonetheless, for a proportion of the year Khost remains hot and dry. During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, Khost was the object of a siege which lasted for more than eight years. Soon after the invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet troops, Afghan guerillas took control of the land route between Khost and Gardez, effectively putting a stop to the Soviet advance. Khost is a Provincial Center in eastern Afghanistan on the border with Pakistan, the eastern districts are characterized by forests and residential land while the western districts have more barren land with residential. There are also several waterways accounting for 5% of total land use, Khost has been in American control since the 2001 US led invasion of Afghanistan. Due to its location in eastern Afghanistan, it was a hotbed for insurgent activity attempting to dislodge the American forces there, like most other provinces, Khost is home to maneuver forces and a Provincial Reconstruction Team. Maneuver forces wage war against insurgents and assist the Afghan National Army, the FPFs brought a broader sense of security and prosperity to surrounding areas
15.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
16.
Aurangzeb
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Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad, commonly known as Aurangzeb or by his regnal title Alamgir, was the sixth, and widely considered the last effective Mughal Emperor. He ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent during some parts of his reign, Aurangzeb was a notable expansionist and during his reign, the Mughal Empire temporarily reached its greatest extent. During his reign,4.6 million people were said have died due to war, Aurangzebs policies partly abandoned the legacy of pluralism, which remains a very controversial aspect of his reign and led to the downfall of the Mughal Empire. Rebellions and wars led to the exhaustion of the imperial Mughal treasury and he was a strong-handed authoritarian ruler, and following his death the expansionary period of the Mughal Empire came to an end. Nevertheless, the territory of the Mughal Empire still remained intact more or less until the reign of Muhammad Shah. Aurangzeb was born on 3 November 1618, in Dahod, Gujarat and he was the third son and sixth child of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. In June 1626, after a rebellion by his father, Aurangzeb. His daily allowance was fixed at Rs.500 which he spent on religious education, on 28 May 1633, Aurangzeb escaped death when a powerful war elephant stampeded through the Mughal Imperial encampment. He rode against the elephant and struck its trunk with a lance, Aurangzebs valour was appreciated by his father who conferred him the title of Bahadur and had him weighed in gold and presented gifts worth Rs.200,000. This event was celebrated in Persian and Urdu verses and Aurangzeb said, If the fight had ended fatally for me, death drops the curtain even on Emperors, it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did, by arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took the advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the Siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power, Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess, Dilras Banu Begum and she was his first wife and chief consort. He also had an infatuation with a girl, Hira Bai. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, the latter had formerly been a companion to Dara Shikoh. In the same year,1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana, in 1644, Aurangzebs sister, Jahanara, was burned when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in Agra. This event precipitated a crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his fathers displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately, Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects
17.
Sikh Empire
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The Sikh Empire, was a major power that originated on the Indian Subcontinent, which arose under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh who established a secular empire basing it around the Punjab. The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh captured Lahore, at its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west to western Tibet in the east, and from Mithankot in the south to Kashmir in the north. It was the last major region of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British, the foundations of the Sikh Empire can be traced to as early as 1707, the year of Aurangzebs death and the start of the downfall of the Mughal Empire. This led to a growth of the army split into different confederacies or semi-independent misls. Each of these component armies controlled different areas and cities, however, in the period from 1762 to 1799, Sikh commanders of the misls appeared to be coming into their own as independent warlords. Ranjit Singh was proclaimed as Maharaja of the Punjab on 12 April 1801, sahib Singh Bedi, a descendant of Guru Nanak, conducted the coronation. Ranjit Singh rose to power in a short period, from a leader of a single misl to finally becoming the Maharaja of Punjab. He began to modernise his army, using the latest training as well as weapons, after the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire was weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. Finally, by 1849 the state was dissolved after the defeat in the Anglo-Sikh wars, the Sikh Empire was divided into four provinces, Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital, Multan, also in Punjab, Peshawar and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. The Sikh religion began around the time of the conquest of Northern India by Babur and his conquering grandson, Akbar the Great, supported religious freedom and after visiting the langar of Guru Amar Das got a favourable impression of Sikhism. As a result of his visit he donated land to the langar and his successor Jahangir, however, saw the Sikhs as a political threat. He ordered Guru Arjun Dev, who had arrested for supporting the rebellious Khusrau Mirza. When the Guru refused, Jahangir ordered him to be put to death by torture, Guru Arjan Devs martyrdom led to the sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind, declaring Sikh sovereignty in the creation of the Akal Takht and the establishment of a fort to defend Amritsar. Jahangir attempted to assert authority over the Sikhs by jailing Guru Hargobind at Gwalior, the Sikh community did not have any further issues with the Mughal empire until the death of Jahangir in 1627. The succeeding son of Jahangir, Shah Jahan, took offence at Guru Hargobinds sovereignty, the ninth Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, moved the Sikh community to Anandpur and travelled extensively to visit and preach in defiance of Aurangzeb, who attempted to install Ram Rai as new guru. Guru Tegh Bahadur aided Kashmiri Pandits in avoiding conversion to Islam and was arrested by Aurangzeb, when offered a choice between conversion to Islam and death, he chose to die rather than compromise his principles and was executed. Guru Gobind Singh assumed the guruship in 1675 and to battles with Sivalik Hill rajas moved the guruship to Paunta. There he built a fort to protect the city and garrisoned an army to protect it
18.
Sikh Khalsa Army
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The Sikh Khalsa Army, also known as the Army of Lahore, Punjab Army, Khalsa or simply Sikh Army was the military force of the Sikh Empire. It was formed in 1799 with the capture of Lahore by Ranjit Singh, from then on the army was modernised on Franco-British principles. It was divided in three wings, the Fauj-i-Khas, Fauj-i-Ain and Fauj-i-Be Qawaid, due to the lifelong efforts of the Maharaja and his European officers, it gradually became a prominent fighting force of Asia. Ranjit Singh changed and improved the training and organisation of his army and he reorganized responsibility and set performance standards in logistical efficiency in troop deployment, manoeuvre, and marksmanship. He reformed the staffing to emphasize steady fire over cavalry and guerrilla warfare, improved the equipment, the military system of Ranjit Singh combined the best of both old and new ideas. He strengthened the infantry and the artillery and he paid the members of the standing army from treasury, instead of the Mughal method of paying an army with local feudal levies. Before the reign of Ranjit Singh, the armies in Punjab consisted purely of cavalry, after Ranjit Singh became the Sardar of Sukerchakia Misl he gradually unified most of the Punjab through conquests and diplomacy. However the Afghans, the British and the Gurkhas remained a threat while his empire was in its infancy, therefore, in 1805, he began recruiting regular forces and employing deserters from the East India Company as officers or soldiers. This latter tactic did not work well because most of the deserters were constantly in touch with the British. A Muslim regiment under Charles Metcalfe, 1st Baron Metcalfe was sent to Amritsar for talks with the Maharaja, the soldiers went into the temple without taking their shoes off, and some Nihang guards unsheathed their sabres and challenged them. The Muslim soldiers formed a line and fired musket volleys, resulting in the death of many Nihangs whilst wounding others, realising the power of the British Indian Army, he accepted The Treaty of Amritsar and started modernizing his army on European principles. Throughout 1805, Ranjit Singh recruited many East India Company deserters in his army, during the visit of Charles Metcalfe, he was shown a band of soldiers, most of them wearing traditional kurtas and colourful turbans, while others wore European infantry ornaments. They had either traditional matchlock or European muskets, previously, as the Sikhs refused to join infantry service, Pashtuns, Gurkhas and Purbias served in this sector of the army. However, with the passage of time and owing to Ranjit Singhs efforts, in 1822 Ranjit Singh employed a veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, General Jean-Baptiste Ventura to train the infantry in European style. In a few years, under his command, the infantry was modernized in French pattern, similarly, in 1822, Ranjit Singh employed another French Napoleonic War veteran, General Jean-François Allard to modernize the Sikh cavalry. In 1827 Claude Auguste Court was hired to modernize the artillery, Ranjit Singh wanted to westernise his army thoroughly. However, due to reasons he couldnt discard the military system that he had inherited from his forefathers. The military system of the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh finally evolved as a compromise between the old and the new ideas, thus, the military system of the Sikh Empire is termed as a Franco-British system in the Indian subcontinent
19.
Hari Singh Nalwa
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Hari Singh Nalwa was Commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army, the army of the Sikh Empire. He is known for his role in the conquests of Kasur, Sialkot, Attock, Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar and he is also the founder of Haripur city in Pakistan, which is named after him. Hari Singh Nalwa was responsible for expanding the frontier of Sikh Empire to beyond the Indus River right up to the mouth of the Khyber Pass, in 1831, he opposed moves by Ranjit Singh to appoint Kharak Singh as his successor as Maharaja of the Sikh Empire. At the time of his death, the boundary of the empire was Jamrud. He served as governor of Kashmir, Peshawar and Hazara and he established a mint on behalf of the Sikh Empire to facilitate revenue collection in Kashmir and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa was born in Gujranwala, in the Majha region of Punjab to Gurdas Singh Uppal, after his father died in 1798, he was raised by his mother. In 1801, at the age of ten, he took Amrit Sanchar and was baptised as a Sikh, at the age of twelve, he began to manage his fathers estate and took up horse riding. In 1804, at the age of fourteen, his mother sent him to the court of Ranjit Singh to resolve a property dispute, Ranjit Singh decided the arbitration in his favour because of his background and aptitude. Hari Singh had explained that his father and grandfather had served under Maha Singh and Charat Singh, the Maharajas ancestors, Ranjit Singh gave him a position at the court as a personal attendant. During a hunt in 1804, a tiger attacked him and also killed his horse and his fellow hunters attempted to protect him but he refused their offers and killed the tiger by himself bare handedly by tearing the tiger apart from its mouth, thus earning the cognomen Baagh Maar. Whether he was by that time serving in the military is unknown but he was commissioned as Sardar, commanding 800 horses and footmen. This place had long been a thorn in the side of Ranjit Singhs power because of its proximity to his city of Lahore. It was captured in the fourth attempt and this attack was led by Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Jodh Singh Ramgarhia. During the campaign the Sardar showed remarkable bravery and dexterity, the Sardar was granted a Jagir in recognition of his services. Battle of Sialkot Ranjit Singh nominated Hari Singh Nalwa to take Sialkot from its ruler Jiwan Singh and this was his first battle under an independent command. The two armies were engaged for a couple of days, eventually seventeen year old Hari Singh carried the day, Battle of Attock The fort of Attock was a major replenishment point for all armies crossing the Indus. In the early 19th century, Afghan appointees of the Kingdom of Kabul held this fort, besides Hari Singh Nalwa, Hukam Singh Attariwala, Shyamu Singh, Khalsa Fateh Singh Ahluwalia and Behmam Singh Malliawala actively participated in this battle. This was the first victory of the Sikhs over the Durranis, with the conquest of Attock, the adjoining regions of Hazara-i-Karlugh and Gandhgarh became tributary to the Sikhs
20.
Durrani
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Durrani or Abdali is the name of a prominent Sarbani Pashtun tribal confederation in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Originally known by their ancient name Abdali & Madhyaal, which may derive from the more ancient Ebodalo and they have been called Durrani since the beginning of the Durrani Empire in 1747. The number of Durrani is estimated to be roughly 16% of the population of Afghanistan or 5 million individuals. Durrani are found throughout Afghanistan and Pakistan, although large concentrations are found in southern Afghanistan, they are found to a lesser extent in east, west. Many Durranis are found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab provinces of Pakistan, the Durrani Pashtuns of the Afghan capital Kabul are usually bilingual in Pashto and Dari Persian. The ruling Sadozai and Barakzai dynasties of Afghanistan were originally from the Durrani, the Pashtuns believe that they are descended from the common ancestor Qais Abdur Rashid. In the case of the Tareen, they believe they are descended from his first son, Sarban, his son Sharkhbun, and his son Tareen, Tareen had a number of sons, who correspond with the major divisions of the tribe. One was named Bor Tareen, later renamed Abdali, who is the founder of the Durrani tribe. Thus, the Abdali/Durrani are in effect descended from the elder Tareen lineage and they were known in the past as Abdalis, from approximately the 7th century until the mid-18th century when Ahmad Shah Durrani was chosen as the new Emir and the Durrani Empire was established. One of Ahmad Shahs first acts as Emir was to adopt the title padshah durr-i durran and he united the Pashtun tribes following a loya jirga in western Kandahar and changed his own name from Ahmad Shah Abdali to Ahmad Shah Durrani. Since that period, the kings of Afghanistan have been of Durrani extraction, the origin of the Abdali is probably the Hephthalites. The Zirak line begins with Sulaiman Zirak Khan, Zirak was father of Popalzai, Barakzai, and Alakozai. The Durranis were the most divided Pashtun tribe during the rule of the Ghilji, according to Hayat Khans history of Afghanistan from their progenitor Bor Tarin, otherwise known as Abdal, are descended their two main divisions the Zirak and the Panjpai. The term Abdal, however, gradually superseded that of Bor Tareen and came into prominence when Ahmad Shah Abdali Sadozai/Popalzai commonly known as Durrani. Since then, their organization has remained distinct and it is still used, though sparingly, for the Achakzai, who have become localised in Toba and are regarded as a separate political unit from the rest of the Tarin/Tareens. The Musahiban also branch from Durrani, Sadozai Abdali tribe is the tribe Ahmad Shah Abdali was from. The Durrani Tareen tribe is divided into two branches Panjpai and Zirak, Durrani tribes of the Zirak branch include Popalzai, Alikozai, Barakzai, Bamozai, Badozai, and Achakzai. The Panjpai branch are mainly found in the western Kandahar, Helmand and Farah area, and they include Alizai, Noorzai, Ishakzai or Sakzai, and Maku
21.
South Waziristan
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وزیرستان گلونہ South Waziristan is the southern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, that covers some 11,585 km². Waziristan comprises the area west and southwest of Peshawar between the Tochi River to the north and the Gomal River to the south, forming part of Pakistans Federally Administered Tribal Areas, the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa lies immediately to the east. The region was an independent tribal territory from 1893, remaining outside of British-ruled empire, Tribal raiding into British-ruled territory was a constant problem for the British, requiring frequent punitive expeditions between 1860 and 1945. Troops of the British Raj coined a name for this region Hells Door Knocker in recognition of the reputation of the local fighters. The region became part of Pakistan in 1947, Waziristan is divided into two agencies, North Waziristan and South Waziristan, with estimated populations in 1998 of 361,246 and 429,841 respectively. The two parts have quite distinct characteristics, though both tribes are subgroups of the Waziri tribe, after whom the region is named, and they have a reputation as warriors and are known for their frequent blood feuds. Traditionally, feuding local Waziri religious leaders have enlisted outsiders in the Pakistani government, the tribes are divided into sub-tribes governed by male village elders who meet in a tribal jirga. Socially and religiously, Waziristan is a conservative area. Women are carefully guarded, and every household must be headed by a male figure, Tribal cohesiveness is strong through so-called Collective Responsibility Acts in the Frontier Crimes Regulation. In terms of area South Waziristan is the largest agency in FATA and it has two headquarters, Tank is the winter headquarters of the Agency while Wana is its summer headquarters. It has been functioning since 1895, the Agency is mostly a mass of rugged and complex hills and ridges. There are no regular mountain alignments, the land rises gradually from south and east to north and west. The dominating range is the Preghal in the west along the border with Afghanistan and it is the highest peak which is 3,515 metres high. Zarmelan, Wana, Shakki, Zalai, Spin and Tiarza are the plains of the Agency. Direction of water courses, in general, is from west to south i. e. from the watersheds of Sulaiman Mountains to the Indus, there are two principal rivers in the Agency, Gomal of Luni and Tank Zam. Some important rivulets are Khaisora, Shaktu, Siplatoi, Toi khuala, Shuza, Shinkai, the rest are mountain streams which can become dangerous and impassable during heavy rains which frequently occur during the months of July and August. The Gomal River rises in two branches in the slopes of the western Sulaiman range in the Birmal District of Afghanistan not far from the source of the Tochi River. The Tank Zam is formed by the junction of the Tauda China, there is hardly significant mining to be mentioned
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Jirga
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A jirga is a traditional assembly of leaders that make decisions by consensus and according to the teachings of Pashtunwali. It predates modern-day written or fixed-laws and is conducted to settle disputes among the Pashtun people and its primary purpose has been to prevent tribal war. Most jirgas are conducted in Afghanistan but also among the Pashtun tribes in neighboring Pakistan, especially in Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The community council meaning is found in circumstances involving a dispute between two individuals, a jirga may be part of the dispute resolution mechanism in such cases. The disputants would usually begin by finding a mediator, choosing someone such as a religious leader. The mediator hears from the two sides and then forms a jirga of community elders, taking care to include supporters of both sides. The jirga then considers the case and, after discussing the matter, comes to a decision about how to handle it, the jirga holds the prestige of a court in the tribal areas of Pakistan. Although a political agent appointed by the government maintains law and order through the Frontier Crimes Regulation. The political agent maintains law and order in his tribal region with the help of jirgas, the jirga can award capital punishment, such as stoning to death in case of adultery, or expulsion from the community. The Sindh High Court imposed a ban on the holding of jirgas in April 2004 because of the sometimes inhumane sentences awarded to people, the ban, however, has been ignored. The tradition of jirga has also adopted by Muslims in the Kashmir valley of Indian-administered Kashmir. An all-female jirga Khwaindo jirga was held in Pakistan, and had 25 members and it was headed by Tabbassum Adnan which helped 11 women get justice as of 2013
23.
Pashtuns
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The Pashtuns /ˈpʌʃˌtʊnz/ or /ˈpæʃˌtuːnz/, historically known by the exonyms Afghans, and Pathan, are an ethnic group native to Afghanistan and North-Western Pakistan. They are generally classified as Eastern Iranian ethno-linguistically, who use Pashto language and follow Pashtunwali, the origin of Pashtuns is unclear but historians have come across references to various ancient peoples called Pakthas between the 2nd and the 1st millennium BC, who may be their early ancestors. Their history is mostly spread amongst various countries of South and Central Asia, as the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, Pashtuns have been the dominant ethno-linguistic group for over 300 years. The Barakzai dynasty played a role during the Great Game from the 19th century to the 20th century as they were caught between the imperialist designs of the British and Russian empires. There have been many notable Pashtun people throughout history, Ahmad Shah Durrani is regarded as the founder of the modern state of Afghanistan. Under Amanullah Khan, Afghanistan was able to pursue an independent foreign policy, some others include Malala Yousafzai, Shah Rukh Khan, Hamid Karzai, and Imran Khan. They are an important community in Pakistan, which has the largest Pashtun population, Pashtuns attained presidency there and high rankings in sports. They are the worlds largest segmentary lineage ethnic group, according to Ethnologue, the total population of the group is estimated to be around 50 million but an accurate count remains elusive due to the lack of an official census in Afghanistan since 1979. Estimates of the number of Pashtun tribes and clans range from about 350 to over 400, additional Pashtun communities are located in western and northern Afghanistan, the Gilgit–Baltistan and Kashmir regions and northwestern Punjab province of Pakistan. There are also sizeable Muslim communities in India, which are of largely Pashtun ancestry, throughout the Indian subcontinent, they are often referred to as Pathans. Smaller Pashtun communities are found in the countries of the Middle East, such as in the Khorasan Province of Iran, the Arabian Peninsula, Europe, important metropolitan centres of Pashtun culture include Peshawar, Quetta, Kandahar, Jalalabad, Kunduz, and Lashkar Gah. The cities of Kabul and Ghazni in Afghanistan are home to around 25% Pashtun population while Herat, with as high as 7 million by some estimates, the city of Karachi in Sindh, Pakistan has the largest concentration of urban Pashtuns in the world. In addition, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, and Lahore also have sizeable Pashtun populations, about 15% of Pakistans nearly 200 million population is Pashtun. In Afghanistan, they are the largest ethnic group and make up between 42-60% of the 32.5 million population. The exact figure remains uncertain in Afghanistan, which is affected by the 1.5 million or more Afghan refugees that remain in Pakistan. Another one million or more Afghans live in Iran, a cumulative population assessment suggests a total of around 49 million individuals all across the world. A prominent institution of the Pashtun people is the system of tribes. Despite this, many people identify themselves with various clans
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Kurram Agency
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Kurram Tribal Agency is located in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan. Geographically, it covers the Kurram Valley region which is a valley in the part of Pakistan. Most of the population is Pashtun and the religion is Islam. Major tribes living in Kurram Agency are Turi, Bangash, Orakzai, Zazai, Mangal, Ghilzai, until the year 2000, when the old divisions were abolished, the Kurram District used to be part of the Peshawar Division of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan. The name Kurram comes from the river Kurram, which flows along the valley, in the north it is surrounded by snow-covered or white mountains, the Safed Koh, locally known in Pashto as Speen Ghar, which also forms the natural border with Afghanistan. Kurram Agency is located in the FATA and its major tribes are Turi, Para-Chamkani, Bangash, Zazai, Alisherzai, Alizai, Mangal, Muqbal, the Kurram River drains the southern flanks of the Safed Koh mountain range, and enters the Indus plains north of Bannu. It flows west to east and crosses the Paktia Province Afghan-Pakistan border at about 80 km southwest of Jalalabad, the district has an area of 3,310 km2, the population according to the 1998 census was 448,310. It lies between the Miranzai Valley and it is inhabited by the Bangash and Mangal tribes. The Kurram Valley in ancient times offered the most direct route to Kabul, the route crossed a pass 3,439 m high, just over 20 km west of modern Parachinar and sadda, that was blocked by snow for several months of the year. The beauty and climate of the valley attracted some of the Mughal emperors of Delhi, according to the Gazetteer of Kurram, the richness of the land gradually weaned the Turks from their nomadic life. In the lower Kurram, where for climatic reasons candidates for settlements were fewer, the Chardi Turis seem to have been the first to abandon their nomadic life. As the numbers who went down to every year became less. Sangroba and Hadmela were left far behind and as the Turis receded the Watizai Zaimushts gradually pushed in, until all that was left was a settlement at, on the western side the Saragallas retained, and still largely retain their habits. Consequently the hills and the grounds passed from the Turizun to the Zaimushtzun. It was not until about 1848 that the Turis were brought directly under the control of Kabul, when a governor was appointed, the Turis, being Shiah Muslims, never liked the Afghan rule. The administration of the Kurram Valley was finally rendered to British authorities, at the request of the Turis themselves, technically it ranked, not as a British district, but as an agency or administered area. Two expeditions in the Kurram Valley also require mention, The Kurram expedition of 1856 under Brigadier-General Sir Neville Chamberlain, accordingly, in 1856 British forces numbering 4,896 troops traversed their country, and the tribe entered into engagements for future good conduct. The Kohat-Kurram expedition of 1897 under Colonel W. Hill, a force of 14,230 British troops traversed the country, and the tribesmen were severely punished
25.
Internally displaced person
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An internally displaced person is someone who is forced to flee his or her home but who remains within his or her countrys borders. They are often referred to as refugees, although they do not fall within the definitions of a refugee. At the end of 2014, it was estimated there were 38.2 million IDPs worldwide, the highest level since 1989, the first year for which global statistics on IDPs are available. The countries with the largest IDP populations were Syria, Colombia, Iraq, in this way, the document intentionally steers toward flexibility rather than legal precision as the words in particular indicate that the list of reasons for displacement is not exhaustive. However, as Erin Mooney has pointed out, global statistics on internal displacement generally count only IDPs uprooted by conflict, moreover, a recent study has recommended that the IDP concept should be defined even more narrowly, to be limited to persons displaced by violence. It is very difficult to get accurate figures for internally displaced persons because populations arent constant, IDPs may be returning home while others are fleeing, others may periodically return to IDP camps to take advantage of humanitarian aid. While the case of IDPs in large camps such as those in Darfur, western Sudan, are relatively well-reported, it is difficult to assess those IDPs who flee to larger towns. It is necessary in many instances to supplement official figures with additional information obtained from operational humanitarian organizations on the ground, thus, the 24.5 million figure must be treated as an estimate. Additionally, most official figures include those displaced by conflict or natural disasters. Development-induced IDPs often are not included in assessments and it has been estimated that between 70 and 80% of all IDPs are women and children. 50% of internally displaced people and refugees were thought to be in areas in 2010. A2013 study found that these protracted urban displacements had not been given due weight by international aid, the study argues that this protracted urban displacement needs a fundamental change in the approach to those who are displaced and their host societies. They note that re-framing responses to urban displacement will also involve human rights and development actors, an updated country by country breakdown can be found online. The problem of protecting and assisting IDPs is not a new issue, in international law it is the responsibility of the government concerned to provide assistance and protection for the IDPs in their country. It has been estimated that some 5 million IDPs in 11 countries are without any significant humanitarian assistance from their governments, unlike the case of refugees, there is no international humanitarian institution which has the overall responsibility of protecting and assisting the refugees as well as the internally displaced. A number of organizations have stepped into the breach in specific circumstances. guided by the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. The UNHCR has traditionally argued that it not have a general competence for IDPs even though at least since 1972 it had relief. However, in cases where there is a specific request by the UN Secretary General, in 2005 it was helping some 5.6 million IDPs, but only about 1.1 million in Africa
26.
Operation Zarb-e-Azb
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The operation has received widespread support from the Pakistani political, defence and civilian sectors. As a consequence, the security situation improved and terrorist attacks in Pakistan dropped to a six-year low since 2008. Zarb-e-Azb was followed by Operation Radd-ul-Fasaad which began in February 2017, Zarb-e-Azb means sharp and cutting strike. Azb also refers to the sword owned by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, for the first time, the Pakistani military implemented a military strategy called Seek, Destroy, Clear, Hold. The Pakistani military will seek the target, once found, it will be destroyed. The Seek and Destroy component is from the Vietnam War whereas the Clear, the Pakistani military combined the two doctrines as a single doctrine for the operation to be successful. Peace negotiations with the Taliban were announced by Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif after his election, the first session of talks, between committees appointed by the Pakistani Government and the Taliban, was held on 26 March 2014 at Khyber Pakhtunkhwa House in Islamabad. The Taliban did not name representatives from their ranks, instead nominating pro-Taliban religious figures to present their views, a month-long ceasefire was reached on 1 March 2014. Besides the meetings at Khyber Pakhtunkhwa House, negotiations also involved helicopter travel by government representatives to the areas under militant control near the Pakistan-Afghanistan border, the government had indicated that stronger military action would be implemented if the talks failed. Negotiations collapsed after the execution of 23 Pakistani Frontier Corps soldiers by the Taliban on 17 February 2014, the soldiers had been held by the insurgents since 2010, and on 17 April 2014 the TTP formally ended the ceasefire. Taliban infighting since March 2014 killed more than 90 militants, the strife, triggered by differences between the Mehsud group and another TTP faction, impeded the negotiations. The negotiations were irreversibly damaged by a terrorist attack on Karachi Airport for which the Taliban claimed responsibility, a Pakistani military official was quoted to have said, The army is ready for an operation. It now all depends on the government to make a decision, the operation began one week after a terrorist attack on Pakistans busiest airport. On 8 June 2014,10 militants from the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan and TTP attacked Jinnah International Airport, Karachi, killing 28 people including security personnel, in retaliation, the Pakistani military launched a series of air-strikes targeting terrorist hideouts in the areas bordering Afghanistan. At least 25 militants were killed on 10 June, the figure also included foreign militants killed. Two drone attacks on 12 June killed Uzbek, Afghan and local militants, on 15 June the Pakistani military intensified air-strikes and bombed eight foreign militant hideouts, killing as many as 140 militants in North Waziristan. Defence Minister Khawaja Asif said that the nation stood by its military, the operation will continue until it reaches its logical conclusion. Any group that challenges Pakistans constitution, attacks civilians, soldiers, the combat troops encircled militant bases in the towns of Mirali and Miranshah
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Pakistan Armed Forces
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The Pakistan Armed Forces are the military forces of Pakistan. They are the sixth largest in the world in terms of military personnel. The armed forces comprise three main service branches – Army, Navy, and Air Force – together with a number of paramilitary forces and the Strategic Plans Division Force. Chain of command of the military is organized under the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee alongside chiefs of staff of the army, navy, all of the branches work together during operations and joint missions under the Joint Staff Headquarters. Since the 1963 Sino-Pakistan Agreement, the military has had close relations with China, working jointly to develop the JF-17, the K-8. As of 2013, China was the second-largest foreign supplier of equipment to Pakistan. Both nations also cooperate on development of nuclear and space technology programs and their armies have a schedule for organizing joint military exercises. The military also maintains relations with the United States, which gave Pakistan major non-NATO ally status in 2004. Pakistan gets the bulk of its equipment from local domestic suppliers, China. The armed forces were formed in 1947 when Pakistan became independent from the British Empire, the need for border management led to the creation of paramilitary forces to deal with civil unrest in the North-West and security of border areas in Punjab and Sindh by paramilitary troops. The armed forces have a pool of volunteers so conscription has never been needed, though the Pakistani constitution. The Pakistan Armed Forces are the best-organized institution in Pakistan, and are respected in civil society. Since the founding of Pakistan, the military has played a key role in holding the state together, promoting a feeling of nationhood and providing a bastion of selfless service. In addition, the Pakistan Armed Forces are the largest contributors to United Nations peacekeeping efforts, other foreign deployments have consisted of Pakistani military personnel serving as military advisers in African and Arab countries. The Pakistan military has its roots in the British Indian Army, in which many British Indian Muslims served during World War II and those who did so included Ayub Khan, Haji Mohammad Siddiq Choudri, and Asghar Khan. In March 1956, the Pakistani military order of precedence of three services changed from Navy-Army-Air Force to Army-Navy-Air Force, between 1947 and 1971, Pakistan has fought three direct conventional wars against India, with the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 witnessing the seccession of East Pakistan as independent Bangladesh. Rising tensions with Afghanistan in the 1960s and a proxy war fought against the Soviet Union in the 1970s led to a sharp rise in the development of the Pakistan Armed Forces. In 1999, a period of intense border-skirmishing with India
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Durand Line
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The Durand Line is the 2, 430-kilometre international border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Afghanistan was considered by the British as an independent princely state at the time, although the British controlled its foreign affairs, the single-page agreement, dated 12 November 1893, contains seven short articles, including a commitment not to exercise interference beyond the Durand Line. A joint British-Afghan demarcation survey took place starting from 1894, covering some 800 miles of the border, established towards the close of the Great Game, the resulting line established Afghanistan as a buffer zone between British and Russian interests in the region. The line, as modified by the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919, was inherited by Pakistan. From a geopolitical and geostrategic perspective, it has described as one of the most dangerous borders in the world. Although it is recognised internationally as the border of Pakistan. The area in which the Durand Line runs has been inhabited by the indigenous Pashtuns since ancient times, the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned a people called Pactyans living in and around Arachosia as early as the 1st millennium BC. The Baloch tribes inhabit the southern end of the line, which runs in the Balochistan region that separates the ethnic Baloch people, arab Muslims conquered the area in the 7th century and introduced Islam to the Pashtuns. It is believed some of the early Arabs also settled among the Pashtuns in the Sulaiman Mountains. It is important to note that these Pashtuns were historically known as Afghans and are believed to be mentioned by name in Arabic chronicles as early as the 10th century. The Pashtun area fell within the Ghaznavid Empire in the 10th century followed by the Ghurids, Timurids, Mughals, Hotakis, in 1839, during the First Anglo-Afghan War, British-led Indian forces invaded Afghanistan and initiated a war with the Afghan rulers. Two years later, in 1842, the British were defeated, the British again invaded Afghanistan in 1878, during the Second Anglo-Afghan War, withdrawing a couple of years later after attaining some geopolitical objectives. During this war, the Treaty of Gandamak was signed, ceding control of various areas to the British Empire. On November 12,1893, the Durand Line Agreement was reached, the two parties later camped at Parachinar, a small town near Khost in Afghanistan, which is now part of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan, to delineate the frontier. From the British side, the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum, Political Agent Khyber Agency representing the British Viceroy and Governor General. The Afghan side was represented by Sahibzada Abdul Latif and a governor of Khost province in Afghanistan, Sardar Shireendil Khan. The original 1893 Durand Line Agreement was written in English, with translated copies in Dari and it also included the areas of Multan, Mianwali, the Bahawalpur, and Dera Ghazi Khan. These areas were part of the Durrani Empire from 1709 until the 1820s when the Sikh Empire followed by British invaded, the initial and primary demarcation, a joint Afghan-British survey and mapping effort, covered 800 miles and took place from 1894 to 1896
