1.
MediaWiki
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MediaWiki is free and open-source wiki software. Originally developed by Magnus Manske and improved by Lee Daniel Crocker, it runs on many websites, including Wikipedia, Wiktionary and it is written in the PHP programming language and stores the contents into a database. Like WordPress, which is based on a licensing and architecture. The first version of the software was deployed to serve the needs of the Wikipedia encyclopedia in 2002, Wikipedia and other Wikimedia projects continue to define a large part of the requirement set for MediaWiki. The software is optimized to handle large projects, which can have terabytes of content. Because Wikipedia is one of the worlds largest websites, achieving scalability through multiple layers of caching, the software has more than 900 configuration settings and more than 2,200 extensions available for enabling various features to be added or changed. On Wikipedia alone, more than 1000 automated and semi-automated bots and this was done to eliminate legal issues arising from the help pages being imported into wikis with licenses that are incompatible with the Creative Commons license. MediaWiki development has generally favored the use of media formats. MediaWiki has a volunteer community for development and maintenance. There is also a group of paid programmers who primarily develop projects for the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikimedia participates in the Google Summer of Code by facilitating the assignment of mentors to students wishing to work on MediaWiki core, as of early November 2012, there were about two hundred developers who had committed changes to the MediaWiki core or extensions within the past year. MediaWiki also has a bug tracker, phabricator. wikimedia. org. The site is used for feature and enhancement requests. When Wikipedia was first launched in January 2001, it ran on the wiki software UseModWiki. This software soon proved limiting, both in its functionality and its performance and this software was written in PHP and stored all its information in a MySQL database. It launched on the English Wikipedia in January 2002, and was deployed on all the Wikipedia language sites of that time. This software was referred to as the PHP script and as phase II, increasing usage soon caused load problems again, and soon afterward, another rewrite of the software began, done by Lee Daniel Crocker, which was first known as phase III. This new software was written in PHP with a MySQL backend, and kept the basic interface of the phase II software
2.
Software developer
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A software developer is a person concerned with facets of the software development process, including the research, design, programming, and testing of computer software. Other job titles which are used with similar meanings are programmer, software analyst. According to developer Eric Sink, the differences between system design, software development, and programming are more apparent, even more so that developers become systems architects, those who design the multi-leveled architecture or component interactions of a large software system. In a large company, there may be employees whose sole responsibility consists of one of the phases above. In smaller development environments, a few people or even an individual might handle the complete process. The word software was coined as a prank as early as 1953, before this time, computers were programmed either by customers, or the few commercial computer vendors of the time, such as UNIVAC and IBM. The first company founded to provide products and services was Computer Usage Company in 1955. The software industry expanded in the early 1960s, almost immediately after computers were first sold in mass-produced quantities, universities, government, and business customers created a demand for software. Many of these programs were written in-house by full-time staff programmers, some were distributed freely between users of a particular machine for no charge. Others were done on a basis, and other firms such as Computer Sciences Corporation started to grow. The computer/hardware makers started bundling operating systems, systems software and programming environments with their machines, new software was built for microcomputers, so other manufacturers including IBM, followed DECs example quickly, resulting in the IBM AS/400 amongst others. The industry expanded greatly with the rise of the computer in the mid-1970s. In the following years, it created a growing market for games, applications. DOS, Microsofts first operating system product, was the dominant operating system at the time, by 2014 the role of cloud developer had been defined, in this context, one definition of a developer in general was published, Developers make software for the world to use. The job of a developer is to crank out code -- fresh code for new products, code fixes for maintenance, code for business logic, bus factor Software Developer description from the US Department of Labor
3.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
4.
Repository (version control)
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In revision control systems, a repository is an on-disk data structure which stores metadata for a set of files and/or directory structure. Some of the metadata that a repository contains includes, among other things, a set of references to commit objects, called heads. The main purpose of a repository is to store a set of files and these differences in methodology have generally led to diverse uses of revision control by different groups, depending on their needs. Software repository Codebase Forge Comparison of source code hosting facilities
5.
C++
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C++ is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation and it was designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded, resource-constrained and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design highlights. C++ is a language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM, Microsoft, Intel. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization, with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC14882,2014. The C++ programming language was standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC14882,1998. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features, the C++17 standard is due in 2017, with the draft largely implemented by some compilers already, and C++20 is the next planned standard thereafter. Many other programming languages have influenced by C++, including C#, D, Java. In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, began work on C with Classes, the motivation for creating a new language originated from Stroustrups experience in programming for his Ph. D. thesis. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing, remembering his Ph. D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable, as well as C and Simulas influences, other languages also influenced C++, including ALGOL68, Ada, CLU and ML. Initially, Stroustrups C with Classes added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes, derived classes, strong typing, inlining, furthermore, it included the development of a standalone compiler for C++, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, the first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. In 1989, C++2.0 was released, followed by the second edition of The C++ Programming Language in 1991. New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static functions, const member functions. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published and this work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, after a minor C++14 update released in December 2014, various new additions are planned for 2017 and 2020. According to Stroustrup, the name signifies the nature of the changes from C. This name is credited to Rick Mascitti and was first used in December 1983, when Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit
6.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
7.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
8.
Computing platform
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Computing platform means in general sense, where any piece of software is executed. It may be the hardware or the system, even a web browser or other application. The term computing platform can refer to different abstraction levels, including a hardware architecture, an operating system. In total it can be said to be the stage on which programs can run. For example, an OS may be a platform that abstracts the underlying differences in hardware, platforms may also include, Hardware alone, in the case of small embedded systems. Embedded systems can access hardware directly, without an OS, this is referred to as running on bare metal, a browser in the case of web-based software. The browser itself runs on a platform, but this is not relevant to software running within the browser. An application, such as a spreadsheet or word processor, which hosts software written in a scripting language. This can be extended to writing fully-fledged applications with the Microsoft Office suite as a platform, software frameworks that provide ready-made functionality. Cloud computing and Platform as a Service, the social networking sites Twitter and facebook are also considered development platforms. A virtual machine such as the Java virtual machine, applications are compiled into a format similar to machine code, known as bytecode, which is then executed by the VM. A virtualized version of a system, including virtualized hardware, OS, software. These allow, for instance, a typical Windows program to run on what is physically a Mac, some architectures have multiple layers, with each layer acting as a platform to the one above it. In general, a component only has to be adapted to the layer immediately beneath it, however, the JVM, the layer beneath the application, does have to be built separately for each OS
9.
X86-64
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X86-64 is the 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set. It supports vastly larger amounts of memory and physical memory than is possible on its 32-bit predecessors. X86-64 also provides 64-bit general-purpose registers and numerous other enhancements and it is fully backward compatible with 16-bit and 32-bit x86 code. The original specification, created by AMD and released in 2000, has been implemented by AMD, Intel, the AMD K8 processor was the first to implement the architecture, this was the first significant addition to the x86 architecture designed by a company other than Intel. Intel was forced to suit and introduced a modified NetBurst family which was fully software-compatible with AMDs design. VIA Technologies introduced x86-64 in their VIA Isaiah architecture, with the VIA Nano, the x86-64 specification is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture, which is not compatible on the native instruction set level with the x86 architecture. AMD64 was created as an alternative to the radically different IA-64 architecture, the first AMD64-based processor, the Opteron, was released in April 2003. AMDs processors implementing the AMD64 architecture include Opteron, Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon 64 FX, Athlon II, Turion 64, Turion 64 X2, Sempron, Phenom, Phenom II, FX, Fusion and Ryzen. The primary defining characteristic of AMD64 is the availability of 64-bit general-purpose processor registers, 64-bit integer arithmetic and logical operations, the designers took the opportunity to make other improvements as well. Some of the most significant changes are described below, pushes and pops on the stack default to 8-byte strides, and pointers are 8 bytes wide. Additional registers In addition to increasing the size of the general-purpose registers, AMD64 still has fewer registers than many common RISC instruction sets or VLIW-like machines such as the IA-64. However, an AMD64 implementation may have far more internal registers than the number of architectural registers exposed by the instruction set, additional XMM registers Similarly, the number of 128-bit XMM registers is also increased from 8 to 16. Larger virtual address space The AMD64 architecture defines a 64-bit virtual address format and this allows up to 256 TB of virtual address space. The architecture definition allows this limit to be raised in future implementations to the full 64 bits and this is compared to just 4 GB for the x86. This means that very large files can be operated on by mapping the entire file into the address space, rather than having to map regions of the file into. Larger physical address space The original implementation of the AMD64 architecture implemented 40-bit physical addresses, current implementations of the AMD64 architecture extend this to 48-bit physical addresses and therefore can address up to 256 TB of RAM. The architecture permits extending this to 52 bits in the future, for comparison, 32-bit x86 processors are limited to 64 GB of RAM in Physical Address Extension mode, or 4 GB of RAM without PAE mode. Any implementation therefore allows the physical address limit as under long mode
10.
Source code editor
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A source code editor is a text editor program designed specifically for editing source code of computer programs by programmers. It may be an application or it may be built into an integrated development environment or web browser. Source code editors are the most fundamental programming tool, as the job of programmers is to write. Source code editors have features designed to simplify and speed up input of source code, such as syntax highlighting, indentation, autocomplete. These editors also provide a convenient way to run a compiler, interpreter, debugger, structure editors are a different form of source code editor, where instead of editing raw text, one manipulates the codes structure, generally the abstract syntax tree. For this reason, strict structure editors are not popular for source code editing, a source code editor can check syntax while code is being entered and immediately warn of syntax problems. A few source code editors compress source code, typically converting common keywords into single-byte tokens, removing unnecessary whitespace, such tokenizing editors later uncompress the source code when viewing it, possibly prettyprinting it with consistent capitalizing and spacing. A few source code editors do both, notable examples include vi vs. Emacs and Eclipse vs. NetBeans. These arguments have formed a significant part of culture and they often start whenever either editor is mentioned anywhere
11.
Software license
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A software license is a legal instrument governing the use or redistribution of software. Under United States copyright law all software is copyright protected, in code as also object code form. The only exception is software in the public domain, most distributed software can be categorized according to its license type. Two common categories for software under copyright law, and therefore with licenses which grant the licensee specific rights, are proprietary software and free, unlicensed software outside the copyright protection is either public domain software or software which is non-distributed, non-licensed and handled as internal business trade secret. Contrary to popular belief, distributed unlicensed software is copyright protected. Examples for this are unauthorized software leaks or software projects which are placed on public software repositories like GitHub without specified license. As voluntarily handing software into the domain is problematic in some international law domains, there are also licenses granting PD-like rights. Therefore, the owner of a copy of software is legally entitled to use that copy of software. Hence, if the end-user of software is the owner of the respective copy, as many proprietary licenses only enumerate the rights that the user already has under 17 U. S. C. §117, and yet proclaim to take away from the user. Proprietary software licenses often proclaim to give software publishers more control over the way their software is used by keeping ownership of each copy of software with the software publisher. The form of the relationship if it is a lease or a purchase, for example UMG v. Augusto or Vernor v. Autodesk. The ownership of goods, like software applications and video games, is challenged by licensed. The Swiss based company UsedSoft innovated the resale of business software and this feature of proprietary software licenses means that certain rights regarding the software are reserved by the software publisher. Therefore, it is typical of EULAs to include terms which define the uses of the software, the most significant effect of this form of licensing is that, if ownership of the software remains with the software publisher, then the end-user must accept the software license. In other words, without acceptance of the license, the end-user may not use the software at all, one example of such a proprietary software license is the license for Microsoft Windows. The most common licensing models are per single user or per user in the appropriate volume discount level, Licensing per concurrent/floating user also occurs, where all users in a network have access to the program, but only a specific number at the same time. Another license model is licensing per dongle which allows the owner of the dongle to use the program on any computer, Licensing per server, CPU or points, regardless the number of users, is common practice as well as site or company licenses
12.
GNU General Public License
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The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license
13.
Text editor
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A text editor is a type of program used for editing plain text files. Such programs are known as notepad software, following the Microsoft Notepad. Text editors are provided with operating systems and software development packages, there are important differences between plain text files created by a text editor and document files created by word processors such as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect. A plain text file uses a character encoding such as UTF-8 or ASCII to represent numbers, letters, the only non-printing characters in the file that can be used to format the text are newline, tab, and formfeed. Plain text files are displayed using a monospace font so horizontal alignment. Although they are viewed with formatting, documents using markup languages are stored in plain text files that contain a combination of human-readable text. For example, web pages are plain text with HTML tags to achieve formatting when rendered by a web browser, many web pages also contain embedded JavaScript that is interpreted by the browser. When both formats are available, the user must select with care, saving a plain text file in a word-processor format adds formatting information that can make the text unreadable by a program that expects plain text. Conversely, saving a document as plain text removes any formatting information. Before text editors existed, computer text was punched into cards with keypunch machines, physical boxes of these thin cardboard cards were then inserted into a card-reader. Magnetic tape and disk card-image files created from such card decks often had no characters at all. An alternative to cards was punched paper tape and it could be created by some teleprinters, which used special characters to indicate ends of records. The first text editors were line editors oriented to teleprinter- or typewriter-style terminals without displays, commands effected edits to a file at an imaginary insertion point called the cursor. Edits were verified by typing a command to print a small section of the file, in some line editors, the cursor could be moved by commands that specified the line number in the file, text strings for which to search, and eventually regular expressions. Line editors were major improvements over keypunching, some line editors could be used by keypunch, editing commands could be taken from a deck of cards and applied to a specified file. Some common line editors supported a mode in which change commands displayed the altered lines. When computer terminals with video screens became available, screen-based text editors became common, one of the earliest full-screen editors was O26, which was written for the operator console of the CDC6000 series computers in 1967. Another early full-screen editor was vi, written in the 1970s, it is still a standard editor on Unix and Linux operating systems
14.
Tab (GUI)
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It is an interface style most commonly associated with web browsers, web applications, text editors, and preference panes. GUI tabs are modeled after traditional card tabs inserted in paper files or card indexes, the WordVision DOS word processor for the IBM PC in 1982 was perhaps the first commercially available product with a tabbed interface. PC Magazine in 1994 wrote that it has served as a free R&D Balls for the software business—its bones picked over for a decade by programmers looking for so-called new ideas. The NeWS version of UniPresss Gosling Emacs text editor was another early product and it was used to develop an authoring tool for the Ben Shneidermans HyperTIES browser, in 1988. HyperTIES also supported pie menus for managing windows and browsing hypermedia documents with PostScript applets, HyperTIES was a hypermedia browser, a term first used by Ted Nelson in 1965. The first web browser came out later in 1990, and the term World Wide Web was not invented until 1990, in 1992 Borlands Quattro Pro popularized tabs for spreadsheets, Microsoft Word in 1993 used them to simplify submenus. In 1994, BookLink Technologies featured tabbed windows in its InternetWorks browser and that same year, the text editor UltraEdit also appeared with a modern multi-row tabbed interface. The tabbed interface approach was followed by the Internet Explorer shell NetCaptor in 1997. With the release of Internet Explorer 7 in 2006, all web browsers featured a tabbed interface. Users have quickly adopted the use of tabs in web browsing, a study of tabbed browsing behavior in June 2009 found that users switched tabs in 57% of tab sessions, and 36% of users used new tabs to open search engine results at least once during that period. Numerous special functions in association with browser tabs have emerged since then, one example is visual tabbed browsing in OmniWeb version 5, which displays preview images of pages in a drawer to the left or right of the main browser window. Another feature is the ability to re-order tabs and to all of the webpages opened in tab panes in a given window in a group or bookmark folder. There are minor usability issues such as whether a new tab opens in the end of the tab list or next to its parent, for example, Internet Explorer marks tab families with different colours. There is some debate about how the TDI fits in with the Microsoft Windows User Interface Guidelines, in many ways the Workbook window management model most closely resembles TDI. However this is a recent addition to the Windows User Interface Guidelines. Another advantage is that sets of related documents can be grouped within each of several windows, tabbed web browsers often allow users to save their browsing session and return to it later. Although the tabbed document interface does allow for multiple views under one window, one such problem is dealing with many tabs at once. When a window is tabbed to a number that exceeds the available area of the monitor
15.
C (programming language)
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C was originally developed by Dennis Ritchie between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs, and used to re-implement the Unix operating system. C has been standardized by the American National Standards Institute since 1989, C is an imperative procedural language. Therefore, C was useful for applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming, a standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a wide range of platforms. In C, all code is contained within subroutines, which are called functions. Function parameters are passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values, C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements. The C language also exhibits the characteristics, There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives, for, if/else, while, switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil, There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc. More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement, function return values can be ignored when not needed. Typing is static, but weakly enforced, all data has a type, C has no define keyword, instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no function keyword, instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list, user-defined and compound types are possible. Heterogeneous aggregate data types allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit, array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects, they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators, There is no array keyword, in use or definition, instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month. Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword and they are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers. Strings are not a data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters. Low-level access to memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
16.
Free software
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The right to study and modify software entails availability of the software source code to its users. This right is conditional on the person actually having a copy of the software. Richard Stallman used the existing term free software when he launched the GNU Project—a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system—and the Free Software Foundation. The FSFs Free Software Definition states that users of software are free because they do not need to ask for permission to use the software. Free software thus differs from proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides or iWork from Apple, which users cannot study, change, freeware, which is a category of freedom-restricting proprietary software that does not require payment for use. For computer programs that are covered by law, software freedom is achieved with a software license. Software that is not covered by law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain. Proprietary software, including freeware, use restrictive software licences or EULAs, Users are thus prevented from changing the software, and this results in the user relying on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support. This situation is called vendor lock-in, Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software. Other legal and technical aspects, such as patents and digital rights management may restrict users in exercising their rights. Free software may be developed collaboratively by volunteer computer programmers or by corporations, as part of a commercial, from the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the software freedoms associated with free software, which was typically public domain software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to exchange of software. As software was written in an interpreted language such as BASIC. Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code in computer magazines and books, in United States vs. IBM, filed January 17,1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive. While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be an amount of software produced primarily for sale. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the industry began using technical measures to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software as they saw fit. In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs, Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation was founded in October 1985
17.
SourceForge
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SourceForge is a Web-based service that offers software developers a centralized online location to control and manage free and open-source software projects. SourceForge was one of the first to offer this service free of charge to open source projects, since 2012 the website runs on Apache Allura software. As of March 2014, the SourceForge repository claimed to host more than 430,000 projects and had more than 3.7 million registered users, the domain sourceforge. net attracted at least 33 million visitors by August 2009 according to a Compete. com survey. Negative community reactions to the program led to review of the program, nonetheless. The program was cancelled by new owners BizX on February 9,2016, on May 17,2016 they announced that it would scan all projects for malware, SourceForge is a web-based source code repository. It acts as a location for free and open-source software projects. It was the first to offer service for free to open-source projects. Project developers have access to centralized storage and tools for managing projects, though it is best known for providing revision control systems such as CVS, SVN, Bazaar, Git and Mercurial. Major features include project wikis, metrics and analysis, access to a MySQL database, the vast number of users at SourceForge. net exposes prominent projects to a variety of developers and can create a positive feedback loop. As a projects activity rises, SourceForge. nets internal ranking system makes it visible to other developers through SourceForge directory. Given that many projects fail due to lack of developer support. SourceForges traditional revenue model is through advertising sales on their site. In 2006 SourceForge Inc. reported quarterly takings of US$6.5 million, in 2009 SourceForge reported a gross quarterly income of US$23 million through media and e-commerce streams. In 2011 a revenue of 20 million USD was reported for the value of the SourceForge, slashdot and freecode holdings. Since 2013 additional revenue generation schemes, such as models, were trialled. The result has in some cases been the appearance of malware bundled with SourceForge downloads, on February 9,2016, SourceForge announced they had eliminated their DevShare program practice of bundling installers with project downloads. The software running the SourceForge site was released as software in January 2000 and was later named SourceForge Alexandria. In September 2002 SourceForge was temporarily banned in China, the site was banned again in China, for about a month, in July 2008
18.
GitHub
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GitHub is a web-based Git or version control repository and Internet hosting service. It offers all of the version control and source code management functionality of Git as well as adding its own features. It provides access control and several features such as bug tracking, feature requests, task management. GitHub offers both plans for private and free repositories on the account which are commonly used to host open-source software projects. As of April 2016, GitHub reports having more than 14 million users and more than 85.5 million repositories, the trademark mascot of GitHub is Octocat, an anthropomorphized cat with cephalopod limbs. Development of the GitHub platform began on 1 October 2007, the site was launched in April 2008 by Tom Preston-Werner, Chris Wanstrath, and PJ Hyett after it had been made available for a few months prior as a beta release. Projects on GitHub can be accessed and manipulated using the standard Git command-line interface, GitHub also allows registered and non-registered users to browse public repositories on the site. Multiple desktop clients and Git plugins have also created by GitHub. The site provides social networking-like functions such as feeds, followers, wikis, a user must create an account in order to contribute content to the site, but public repositories can be browsed and downloaded by anyone. With a registered account, users are able to discuss, manage, create repositories, submit contributions to others repositories. The software that runs GitHub was written using Ruby on Rails and Erlang by GitHub, Inc. developers Chris Wanstrath, PJ Hyett, GitHub is mostly used for code. Emojis GitHub Pages, small websites can be hosted from public repositories on GitHub, nested task-lists within files Visualization of geospatial data 3D render files that can be previewed using a new integrated STL file viewer that displays the files on a 3D canvas. The viewer is powered by WebGL and Three. js, photoshops native PSD format can be previewed and compared to previous versions of the same file. GitHubs Terms of Service do not require public software projects hosted on GitHub to meet the Open Source Definition. For that reason, it is advisable for users and developers intending to use a piece of software found on GitHub to read the license in the repository to determine if it meets their needs. The Terms of Service state, By setting your repositories to be viewed publicly, you agree to allow others to view, GitHub also operates other services, a pastebin-style site called Gist that is for hosting code snippets, and a slide hosting service called Speaker Deck. Tom Preston-Werner presented the then-new Gist feature at a punk rock Ruby conference in 2008, Gist builds on the traditional simple concept of a pastebin by adding version control for code snippets, easy forking, and SSL encryption for private pastes. Because each gist has its own Git repository, multiple code snippets can be contained in a single paste, further, forked code can be pushed back to the original author in the form of a patch, so gists can become more like mini-projects
19.
Scintilla (software)
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Scintilla is a free open source library that provides a text editing component function, with an emphasis on advanced features for source code editing. SciTE, Geany, Notepad++, Programmers Notepad and Notepad2 are examples of text editors based on Scintilla. Scintilla supports many features to make editing easier in addition to syntax highlighting. The highlighting method allows the use of different fonts, colors, styles and background colors, the control supports error indicators, line numbering in the margin, as well as line markers such as code breakpoints. Other features such as folding and autocompletion can be added. The basic regular expression search implementation is rudimentary, but if compiled with C++11 support Scintilla can support the regular expression engine. Scintillas regular expression library can also be replaced or avoided with direct buffer access, currently, Scintilla does not support right-to-left or boustrophedon languages. Scinterm is a version of Scintilla for the curses Text User Interface and it is written by the developer of the Textadept editor. Scinterm uses UTF-8 characters to some of Scintillas graphically oriented features. ScintillaNET - a wrapper for use on the. NET Framework QScintilla - Qt port of Scintilla wxScintilla - wxWidgets-wrapper for Scintilla Delphi wrappers, tDScintilla - simple wrapper for all methods of Scintilla. TScintilla - Delphi Scintilla Interface Component, the full list is available online
20.
WxWidgets
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WxWidgets is a widget toolkit and tools library for creating graphical user interfaces for cross-platform applications. WxWidgets enables a programs GUI code to compile and run on computer platforms with minimal or no code changes. A wide choice of compilers and other tools to use with wxWidgets facilitates development of sophisticated applications, wxWidgets supports a comprehensive range of popular operating systems and graphical libraries, both proprietary and non-proprietary, and is widely deployed in prominent organizations. The project was started under the name wxWindows in 1992 by Julian Smart at the University of Edinburgh, the project was renamed wxWidgets in 2004 in response to a trademark claim by Microsoft UK. It is free and open software, distributed under the terms of the wxWidgets Licence. WxWidgets covers systems such as Microsoft Windows, macOS, iOS, Linux/Unix, OpenVMS, OS/2, a version for embedded systems is under development. WxWidgets is used across many sectors, most notably by Xerox, Advanced Micro Devices, Lockheed Martin, NASA. It is also used in the sector and education by, for example, Dartmouth Medical School, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Center for Biotechnology Information. WxWidgets is used in open source projects, and by individual developers. WxWidgets was started in 1992 by Julian Smart at the University of Edinburgh and he attained an honours degree in Computational science from the University of St Andrews in 1986, and is still a core developer. Major release versions were 2.4 on 6 January 2003,2.6 on 21 April 2005 and 2.8.0 on 14 December 2006, version 3.0 was released on 11 November 2013. WxWidgets has participated in the Google Summer of Code since 2006, the following table contains the release history of wxWidgets, showing all of its major release versions. This license is a software license approved by the FSF. It has been approved by the Open Source Initiative, wxWidgets is supported on the following platforms. The wxWidgets library is implemented in C++, with bindings available for many commonly used programming languages, wxWidgets is best described as a native mode toolkit as it provides a thin abstraction to a platforms native widgets, contrary to emulating the display of widgets using graphic primitives. Calling a native widget on the target results in a more native looking interface than toolkits such as Swing, as well as offering performance. The toolkit is also not restricted to GUI development, having an inter-process communication layer, socket networking functionality, and more. D
21.
MacOS
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Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS after Microsoft Windows. Launched in 2001 as Mac OS X, the series is the latest in the family of Macintosh operating systems, Mac OS X succeeded classic Mac OS, which was introduced in 1984, and the final release of which was Mac OS9 in 1999. An initial, early version of the system, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999, the first desktop version, Mac OS X10.0, followed in March 2001. In 2012, Apple rebranded Mac OS X to OS X. Releases were code named after big cats from the release up until OS X10.8 Mountain Lion. Beginning in 2013 with OS X10.9 Mavericks, releases have been named after landmarks in California, in 2016, Apple rebranded OS X to macOS, adopting the nomenclature that it uses for their other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. The latest version of macOS is macOS10.12 Sierra, macOS is based on technologies developed at NeXT between 1985 and 1997, when Apple acquired the company. The X in Mac OS X and OS X is pronounced ten, macOS shares its Unix-based core, named Darwin, and many of its frameworks with iOS, tvOS and watchOS. A heavily modified version of Mac OS X10.4 Tiger was used for the first-generation Apple TV, Apple also used to have a separate line of releases of Mac OS X designed for servers. Beginning with Mac OS X10.7 Lion, the functions were made available as a separate package on the Mac App Store. Releases of Mac OS X from 1999 to 2005 can run only on the PowerPC-based Macs from the time period, Mac OS X10.5 Leopard was released as a Universal binary, meaning the installer disc supported both Intel and PowerPC processors. In 2009, Apple released Mac OS X10.6 Snow Leopard, in 2011, Apple released Mac OS X10.7 Lion, which no longer supported 32-bit Intel processors and also did not include Rosetta. All versions of the system released since then run exclusively on 64-bit Intel CPUs, the heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 and its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language. This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, previous Macintosh operating systems were named using Arabic numerals, e. g. Mac OS8 and Mac OS9. The letter X in Mac OS Xs name refers to the number 10 and it is therefore correctly pronounced ten /ˈtɛn/ in this context. However, a common mispronunciation is X /ˈɛks/, consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API, the consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X10.0. Reviews were variable, with praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface
22.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
23.
Free and open-source software
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Free and open-source software is computer software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright, the benefits of using FOSS can include decreasing software costs, increasing security and stability, protecting privacy, and giving users more control over their own hardware. Free, open-source operating systems such as Linux and descendents of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones, Free software licenses and open-source licenses are used by many software packages. In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s to 1980s, it was common for users to have the source code for all programs they used. Software, including source code, was shared by individuals who used computers. Most companies had a model based on hardware sales, and provided or bundled software with hardware. Organizations of users and suppliers were formed to facilitate the exchange of software, see, for example, SHARE, by the late 1960s, the prevailing business model around software was changing. In United States vs. IBM, filed 17 January 1969, while some software might always be free, there would be a growing amount of software that was for sale only. Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, an article outlining the project and its goals was published in March 1985 titled the GNU Manifesto. The manifesto included significant explanation of the GNU philosophy, Free Software Definition, the Linux kernel, started by Linus Torvalds, was released as freely modifiable source code in 1991. Initially, Linux was not released under a free or open-source software license, however, with version 0.12 in February 1992, he relicensed the project under the GNU General Public License. Much like Unix, Torvalds kernel attracted the attention of volunteer programmers, freeBSD and NetBSD were released as free software when the USL v. BSDi lawsuit was settled out of court in 1993. OpenBSD forked from NetBSD in 1995, also in 1995, The Apache HTTP Server, commonly referred to as Apache, was released under the Apache License 1.0. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this code is today better known as Mozilla Firefox and Thunderbird. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the FSFs free software ideas, the new name they chose was open source, and quickly Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others signed on to the rebranding. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and this view perfectly summarizes the initial response to FOSS by some software corporations. IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market, there has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of free and open-source software
24.
Lifehacker
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Lifehacker is a weblog about life hacks and software which launched on January 31,2005. The site was launched by Gawker Media and is currently owned by Univision Communications. The blog posts cover a range of topics including, Microsoft Windows, Mac, Linux programs, iOS and Android, as well as general life tips. The staff updates the site about 18 times each weekday, with reduced updates on weekends, the Lifehacker motto is Tips, tricks, and downloads for getting things done. Gina Trapani founded Lifehacker and was the sites sole blogger until September 2005, other former associate editors include Wendy Boswell, Rick Broida, Jason Fitzpatrick, Kevin Purdy, and Jackson West. Former contributing editors include The How-To Geek, and Tamar Weinberg, Lifehackers frequent guest posts have included articles by Joe Anderson, Eszter Hargittai, Matt Haughey, Meg Hourihan, Jeff Jarvis. On January 16,2009, Trapani resigned as Lifehackers lead editor, on February 7,2011, Lifehacker revealed a redesigned site with a cleaner layout. Then, on April 15,2013, Lifehacker redesigned their site again to match the newly redesigned Gawker sites. On January 7,2013, Adam Pash moved on from Lifehacker to a new start-up, on January 1,2016, Whitson Gordon parted ways with Lifehacker to another popular technology website, How-To Geek, as their editor-in-chief replacing Lowell Heddings. In his announcement, Gordon confirmed that Alan Henry would take over as the interim editor pending interviewing processes, Alan Henry became the new editor-in-chief on February 1,2016. Lifehacker was one of six websites that was purchased by Univision Communications in their acquisition of Gawker Media in August 2016, Lifehacker staff ran the Ask Lifehacker podcast, which was discontinued in April 2014. Lifehacker launched in January 2005 with a sponsorship by Sony. The highly publicized ad campaign was rumored to have cost $75,000 for three months, since then, a variety of tech-oriented advertisers have appeared on the site. Wired presented Gina Trapani with a Rave Award in 2006 for Best Blog, in the 2007 Weblog Awards, Lifehacker was awarded Best Group Weblog. PC Magazine named Lifehacker in Our Favorite 100 Blogs in October 2007, US Mensa named Lifehacker as one of their top 50 sites in 2010. Lifehacker,88 Tech Tricks to Turbocharge Your Day, official website FAQ International Australia Japan
25.
User interface
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The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. Examples of this concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface makes it easy, efficient. This generally means that the needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output. Other terms for user interface are man–machine interface and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface, the user interface or human–machine interface is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see. In complex systems, the interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system, in the context of computing the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction. The engineering of the interfaces is enhanced by considering ergonomics. The corresponding disciplines are human factors engineering and usability engineering, which is part of systems engineering, tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of computer science, such as computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages. Nowadays, we use the graphical user interface for human–machine interface on computers. There is a difference between a user interface and an interface or a human–machine interface. A human-machine interface is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, an operator interface is the interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is accessed or controlled. The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users, for example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons and the other for library personnel. The user interface of a system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface. HMI is a modification of the original term MMI, in practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is commonly used for human–computer interaction
26.
Stack Overflow
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Stack Overflow is a privately held website, the flagship site of the Stack Exchange Network, created in 2008 by Jeff Atwood and Joel Spolsky. It was created to be an open alternative to earlier question. The name for the website was chosen by voting in April 2008 by readers of Coding Horror and it features questions and answers on a wide range of topics in computer programming. All user-generated content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribute-ShareAlike license, closing questions is a main differentiation from Yahoo. Answers and a way to prevent low quality questions, the mechanism was overhauled in 2013, questions edited after being put on hold now appear in a review queue. As of April 2014 Stack Overflow has over 4,000,000 registered users, and it exceeded 10,000,000 questions in late August 2015. Based on the type of tags assigned to questions, the top eight most discussed topics on the site are, Java, JavaScript, C#, PHP, Android, jQuery, Python, Stack Overflow also has a Jobs section to assist developers in finding their next opportunity. The website was created by Jeff Atwood and Joel Spolsky in 2008, on 31 July 2008, Jeff Atwood sent out invitations encouraging his subscribers to take part in the private beta of the new website, limiting its use to those willing to test out the new software. On 15 September 2008 it was announced the beta version was in session. The design of the Stack Overflow logo was decided by a voting process, on 3 May 2010 it was announced that Stack Overflow had raised $6 million in venture capital from a group of investors led by Union Square Ventures. Stack Overflow only accepts questions about programming that are focused on a specific problem. Questions of a broader nature–or those inviting answers that are inherently a matter of opinion– are usually rejected by the sites users, the sister site softwareengineering. stackexchange. com is intended to be a venue for broader queries, e. g. general questions about software development. The suspension is accompanied by temporarily setting the users reputation score at 1, a 2013 study has found that 77% of users only ask one question, 65% only answer one question, and only 8% of users answer more than 5 questions. As of 2011, 92% of the questions were answered, in a time of 11 minutes. Since 2013, the Stack Exchange network software automatically deletes questions that meet certain criteria, including having no answers in a certain amount of time. As of August 2012,443,000 of the 1. 3M registered users had answered at least one question, and of those, approximately 6,000 had earned a reputation score greater than 5000. Reputation can be gained fastest by answering questions related to tags with lower density, doing so promptly, being active during off-peak hours. In 2016,1.5 million posts were deleted, of which about 8% were deleted by moderators, Stack Overflow is written in C# using the ASP. NET MVC framework, and Microsoft SQL Server for the database and the Dapper object-relational mapper used for data access
27.
JavaScript
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JavaScript is a high-level, dynamic, untyped, and interpreted programming language. It has been standardized in the ECMAScript language specification, JavaScript is prototype-based with first-class functions, making it a multi-paradigm language, supporting object-oriented, imperative, and functional programming styles. JavaScript was influenced by programming languages such as Self and Scheme, JavaScript is also used in environments that are not Web-based, such as PDF documents, site-specific browsers, and desktop widgets. Newer and faster JavaScript virtual machines and platforms built upon them have increased the popularity of JavaScript for server-side Web applications. On the client side, developers have traditionally implemented JavaScript as an interpreted language, programmers also use JavaScript in video-game development, in crafting desktop and mobile applications, and in server-side network programming with run-time environments such as Node. js. In 1994, a company called Mosaic Communications was founded in Mountain View, California, however, it intentionally shared no code with NCSA Mosaic. The internal codename for the browser was Mozilla, which stood for Mosaic killer. The first version of the Web browser, Mosaic Netscape 0.9, was released in late 1994, within four months it had already taken three-quarters of the browser market and became the main browser for Internet in the 1990s. To avoid trademark problems with the NCSA, the browser was subsequently renamed Netscape Navigator in the same year. Netscape Communications realized that the Web needed to more dynamic. In 1995, the company recruited Brendan Eich with the goal of embedding the Scheme programming language into its Netscape Navigator, to defend the idea of JavaScript against competing proposals, the company needed a prototype. Eich wrote one in 10 days, in May 1995, there is a common misconception that JavaScript was influenced by an earlier Web page scripting language developed by Nombas named C--. Brendan Eich, however, had never heard of C-- before he created LiveScript, Nombas did pitch their embedded Web page scripting to Netscape, though Web page scripting was not a new concept, as shown by the ViolaWWW Web browser. Nombas later switched to offering JavaScript instead of C-- in their ScriptEase product and was part of the TC39 group that standardized ECMAScript, in December 1995, soon after releasing JavaScript for browsers, Netscape introduced an implementation of the language for server-side scripting with Netscape Enterprise Server. Since the mid-2000s, additional server-side JavaScript implementations have been introduced, Microsoft script technologies including VBScript and JScript were released in 1996. JScript, an implementation of Netscapes JavaScript, was part of Internet Explorer 3. JScript was also available for server-side scripting in Internet Information Server, JavaScript began to acquire a reputation for being one of the roadblocks to a cross-platform and standards-driven Web. Some developers took on the task of trying to make their sites work in both major browsers, but many could not afford the time
28.
Syntax highlighting
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Syntax highlighting is a feature of text editors that are used for programming, scripting, or markup languages, such as HTML. The feature displays text, especially source code, in different colors and this feature facilitates writing in a structured language such as a programming language or a markup language as both structures and syntax errors are visually distinct. Highlighting does not affect the meaning of the text itself, it is intended only for human readers, syntax highlighting is a form of secondary notation, since the highlights are not part of the text meaning, but serve to reinforce it. Some editors also integrate syntax highlighting with other features, such as spell checking or code folding, syntax highlighting is one strategy to improve the readability and context of the text, especially for code that spans several pages. The reader can easily ignore large sections of comments or code, syntax highlighting also helps programmers find errors in their program. For example, most editors highlight string literals in a different color, consequently, spotting a missing delimiter is much easier because of the contrasting color of the text. Brace matching is another important feature with many popular editors and this makes it simple to see if a brace has been left out or locate the match of the brace the cursor is on by highlighting the pair in a different color. Additionally, data gathered from an eye-tracker during the study suggested that syntax highlighting enables programmers to pay attention to standard syntactic components such as keywords. There are several syntax highlighting libraries or engines that can be used in other applications and this automatic language detection presents potential problems. For example, a user may want to edit a document containing, more than one language, a language that is not recognized, in these cases, it is not clear what language to use, and a document may not be highlighted or be highlighted incorrectly. Most editors with syntax highlighting allow different colors and text styles to be given to dozens of different lexical sub-elements of syntax and these include keywords, comments, control-flow statements, variables, and other elements. Programmers often heavily customize their settings in an attempt to show as much information as possible without making the code difficult to read. Below is a comparison of a snippet of C code, Below is another snippet of syntax highlighted C++ code, In the C++ example, the editor has recognized the keywords auto, const, int, and for. The comment at the beginning is also highlighted in a manner to distinguish it from working code. The ideas of syntax highlighting overlap significantly with those of syntax-directed editors, one of the first such editor for code was Wilfred Hansens 1969 code editor, Emily. It provided advanced language-independent code completion facilities, and unlike modern editors with syntax highlighting, in 1985 Ben Shneiderman suggested color coding of text strings to suggest meaning. The Live Parsing Editor written for the VM operating system for the computerization of the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985 was one of the first to use color syntax highlighting. Its live parsing capability allowed user-supplied parsers to be added to the editor, for text, programs, data file, some text editors and code formatting tools perform syntax highlighting using pattern matching heuristics rather than implementing a parser for each possible language
29.
Code folding
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A folding editor is a text editor which supports text folding or code folding, a mechanism allowing the user to hide and reveal blocks of text—usually named. Typically this is done to allow the user to better picture the overall structure of a document or program, folding is provided by many modern text editors, and syntax-based or semantics-based folding is now a component of many software development environments. One of the earliest folding editors was STET, a written for the VM/CMS operating system in 1977 by Mike Cowlishaw. STET is an editor which folds files on the basis of blocks of lines. A folding editor appeared in the occam IDE circa 1983, which was called the Inmos Transputer Development System, the f editor probably is the most intact legacy from this work. The Macintosh computer historically had a number of source code editors that folded portions of code via disclosure triangles, the UserLand Software product Frontier is a scripting environment that has this capability. A number of text editors provide folding capability and those that do include, Code folding Outliner Structure editor What is a folding editor. By the author of the fe editor, description of the folding editor used in occam
30.
Autocomplete
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Autocomplete, or word completion, is a feature in which an application predicts the rest of a word a user is typing. In graphical user interfaces, users can press the tab key to accept a suggestion or the down arrow key to accept one of several. Autocomplete speeds up human-computer interactions when it predicts the word a user intends to enter after only a few characters have been typed into a text input field. It works best in domains with a number of possible words. Many autocomplete algorithms learn new words after the user has written them a few times, and can suggest alternatives based on the learned habits of the individual user. The need to speed is noted by the fact that people who use speech generating devices generally produce speech at a rate that is less than 10% as fast as people who use oral speech. But the function is very useful for anybody who writes text. Autocomplete or word completion works so that when the writer writes the first letter or letters of a word, if the word he intends to write is included in the list he can select it, for example by using the number keys. If the word that the user wants is not predicted, the writer must enter the letter of the word. At this time, the choice is altered so that the words provided begin with the same letters as those that have been selected. When the word that the user wants appears it is selected, in another form of word prediction, words most likely to follow the just written one are predicted, based on recent word pairs used. Word prediction uses language modeling, where within a set vocabulary the words are most likely to occur are calculated. Along with language modeling, basic word prediction on AAC devices is often coupled with a recency model, Word prediction software often also allows the user to enter their own words into the word prediction dictionaries either directly, or by learning words that have been written. There are standalone tools that add functionality to existing applications. These programs monitor user keystrokes and suggests a list of words based on first typed letter, letMeType, freeware, is no longer developed, the author has published the source code and allows anybody to continue development. Typingaid, also freeware, is actively developed, Intellicomplete, both a freeware and payware version, works only in certain programs which hook into the intellicomplete server program. Many Autocomplete programs can also be used to create a Shorthand list and this can also quietly fix simple typing errors, such as turning teh into the. Several Autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, the main advantage of context completion is the ability to predict anticipated words more precisely and even with no initial letters
31.
Programming language
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A programming language is a formal computer language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms. From the early 1800s, programs were used to direct the behavior of such as Jacquard looms. Thousands of different programming languages have created, mainly in the computer field. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form while other languages use forms of program specification such as the declarative form. The description of a language is usually split into the two components of syntax and semantics. Some languages are defined by a document while other languages have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common. A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm, some, but not all, authors restrict the term programming language to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. For example, PostScript programs are created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract. It is generally accepted that a specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized. In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer, consequently, abstractions Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. Expressive power The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing, all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined, XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete XML dialect. Moreover, LaTeX, which is used for structuring documents. The term computer language is used interchangeably with programming language
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Markup language
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A markup language is a system for annotating a document in a way that is syntactically distinguishable from the text. The idea and terminology evolved from the marking up of manuscripts, i. e. the revision instructions by editors. In digital media this blue pencil instruction text was replaced by tags, examples include typesetting instructions such as those found in troff, TeX and LaTeX, or structural markers such as XML tags. Markup instructs the software displays the text to carry out appropriate actions. Some markup languages, such as the widely used HTML, have pre-defined presentation semantics—meaning that their specification prescribes how to present the structured data, others, such as XML, do not have them and are general purpose. Such markup is usually hidden from users, even authors or editors. Procedural markup Markup is embedded in text and provides instructions for programs that are to process the text, well-known examples include troff, TeX, and PostScript. It is expected that the processor will run through the text from beginning to end, Text with such markup is often edited with the markup visible and directly manipulated by the author. Popular procedural-markup systems usually include programming constructs, so macros or subroutines can be defined and invoked by name, descriptive markup Markup is used to label parts of the document rather than to provide specific instructions as to how they should be processed. Well-known examples include LaTeX, HTML, and XML, the objective is to decouple the inherent structure of the document from any particular treatment or rendition of it. Such markup is often described as semantic, an example of descriptive markup would be HTMLs <cite> tag, which is used to label a citation. Descriptive markup—sometimes called logical markup or conceptual markup—encourages authors to write in a way that describes the material conceptually, there is considerable blurring of the lines between the types of markup. In modern word-processing systems, presentational markup is often saved in descriptive-markup-oriented systems such as XML, the programming constructs in procedural-markup systems such as TeX may be used to create higher-level markup systems that are more descriptive, such as LaTeX. In recent years, a number of small and largely unstandardized markup languages have developed to allow authors to create formatted text via web browsers, for use in wikis. These are sometimes called lightweight markup languages, Markdown or the markup language used by Wikipedia are examples of such wiki markup. It is computer jargon used in coding proof, Markup was also commonly applied by editors, proofreaders, publishers, and graphic designers, and indeed by document authors. The first well-known public presentation of markup languages in computer processing was made by William W. Tunnicliffe at a conference in 1967. It can be seen as a response to the emergence of such as RUNOFF that each used their own control notations
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ActionScript
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ActionScript is an object-oriented programming language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. It is a derivation of HyperTalk, the language for HyperCard. It is now a dialect of ECMAScript, though it originally arose as a sibling, ActionScript is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash Player platform, used on Web pages in the form of embedded SWF files. ActionScript 3 is also used with Adobe AIR system for the development of desktop, the language itself is open-source in that its specification is offered free of charge and both an open source compiler and open source virtual machine are available. ActionScript is also used with Scaleform GFx for the development of 3D video game user interfaces, ActionScript was initially designed for controlling simple 2D vector animations made in Adobe Flash. Initially focused on animation, early versions of Flash content offered few interactivity features, later versions added functionality allowing for the creation of Web-based games and rich Internet applications with streaming media. Today, ActionScript is suitable for development through Adobe AIR, use in some database applications. Flash MX2004 introduced ActionScript 2.0, a language more suited to the development of Flash applications. It is often possible to time by scripting something rather than animating it. Since the arrival of the Flash Player 9 alpha a newer version of ActionScript has been released and this version of the language is intended to be compiled and run on a version of the ActionScript Virtual Machine that has been itself completely re-written from the ground up. Because of this, code written in ActionScript 3.0 is generally targeted for Flash Player 9 and higher, at the same time, ActionScript 3.0 executes up to 10 times faster than legacy ActionScript code due to the Just-In-Time compiler enhancements. Flash libraries can be used with the XML capabilities of the browser to render content in the browser. This technology is known as Asynchronous Flash and XML, much like AJAX, Adobe offers its Flex product line to meet the demand for Rich Internet Applications built on the Flash runtime, with behaviors and programming done in ActionScript. ActionScript 3.0 forms the foundation of the Flex 2 API, ActionScript started as an object-oriented language for Macromedias Flash authoring tool, now developed by Adobe Systems as Adobe Flash. The first three versions of the Flash authoring tool provided limited interactivity features, early Flash developers could attach a simple command, called an action, to a button or a frame. The set of actions was basic navigation controls, with such as play, stop, getURL. With the release of Flash 4 in 1999, this set of actions became a small scripting language. New capabilities introduced for Flash 4 included variables, expressions, operators, if statements, although referred to internally as ActionScript, the Flash 4 user manual and marketing documents continued to use the term actions to describe this set of commands
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Ada (programming language)
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Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages. It has built-in language support for design-by-contract, extremely strong typing, explicit concurrency, offering tasks, synchronous message passing, protected objects, Ada improves code safety and maintainability by using the compiler to find errors in favor of runtime errors. Ada is a standard, the current version is defined by ISO/IEC8652,2012. Ada was named after Ada Lovelace, who has credited with being the first computer programmer. Ada was originally targeted at embedded and real-time systems, the Ada 95 revision, designed by S. Tucker Taft of Intermetrics between 1992 and 1995, improved support for systems, numerical, financial, and object-oriented programming. Features of Ada include, strong typing, modularity mechanisms, run-time checking, parallel processing, exception handling, Ada 95 added support for object-oriented programming, including dynamic dispatch. The syntax of Ada minimizes choices of ways to perform basic operations, Ada uses the basic arithmetical operators +, -, *, and /, but avoids using other symbols. Code blocks are delimited by words such as declare, begin, and end, in the case of conditional blocks this avoids a dangling else that could pair with the wrong nested if-expression in other languages like C or Java. Ada is designed for development of large software systems. Ada packages can be compiled separately, Ada package specifications can also be compiled separately without the implementation to check for consistency. This makes it possible to detect problems early during the design phase, for example, the syntax requires explicitly named closing of blocks to prevent errors due to mismatched end tokens. The adherence to strong typing allows detection of common software errors either during compile-time. As concurrency is part of the specification, the compiler can in some cases detect potential deadlocks. Compilers also commonly check for misspelled identifiers, visibility of packages, redundant declarations, etc. and can provide warnings and useful suggestions on how to fix the error. Ada also supports run-time checks to protect against access to unallocated memory, buffer overflow errors, range violations, off-by-one errors, array access errors and these checks can be disabled in the interest of runtime efficiency, but can often be compiled efficiently. It also includes facilities to help program verification, for these reasons, Ada is widely used in critical systems, where any anomaly might lead to very serious consequences, e. g. accidental death, injury or severe financial loss. Examples of systems where Ada is used include avionics, ATC, railways, banking, military, adas dynamic memory management is high-level and type-safe. Ada does not have generic or untyped pointers, nor does it implicitly declare any pointer type, instead, all dynamic memory allocation and deallocation must take place through explicitly declared access types
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Assembly language
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Each assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture. In contrast, most high-level programming languages are generally portable across multiple architectures, Assembly language may also be called symbolic machine code. Assembly language is converted into machine code by a utility program referred to as an assembler. The conversion process is referred to as assembly, or assembling the source code, Assembly time is the computational step where an assembler is run. Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine instruction or opcode, typically also each architectural register, flag, depending on the architecture, these elements may also be combined for specific instructions or addressing modes using offsets or other data as well as fixed addresses. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate development, to control the assembly process. A macro assembler includes a facility so that assembly language text can be represented by a name. A cross assembler is an assembler that is run on a computer or operating system of a different type from the system on which the code is to run. Cross-assembling facilitates the development of programs for systems that do not have the resources to support software development, a microassembler is a program that helps prepare a microprogram, called firmware, to control the low level operation of a computer. A meta-assembler is a used in some circles for a program that accepts the syntactic and semantic description of an assembly language. An assembler program creates object code by translating combinations of mnemonics and syntax for operations and this representation typically includes an operation code as well as other control bits and data. The assembler also calculates constant expressions and resolves symbolic names for memory locations, the use of symbolic references is a key feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manual address updates after program modifications. Most assemblers also include facilities for performing textual substitution – e. g. to generate common short sequences of instructions as inline. Some assemblers may also be able to some simple types of instruction set-specific optimizations. One concrete example of this may be the ubiquitous x86 assemblers from various vendors, most of them are able to perform jump-instruction replacements in any number of passes, on request. Like early programming languages such as Fortran, Algol, Cobol and Lisp, assemblers have been available since the 1950s, however, assemblers came first as they are far simpler to write than compilers for high-level languages. There may be several assemblers with different syntax for a particular CPU or instruction set architecture, despite different appearances, different syntactic forms generally generate the same numeric machine code, see further below. A single assembler may also have different modes in order to support variations in syntactic forms as well as their exact semantic interpretations, there are two types of assemblers based on how many passes through the source are needed to produce the executable program
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AutoIt
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AutoIt /ɔːtoʊ ɪt/ is a freeware automation language for Microsoft Windows. In this form, AutoIt is a general-purpose, third-generation programming language with a data model. Currently AutoIt is compatibile also with Windows 2008, Windows 8, Windows 2012, Windows 10, an AutoIt automation script can be converted into a compressed, stand-alone executable which can be run on computers that do not have the AutoIt interpreter installed. A wide range of libraries are also included as standard or are available from the website to add specialized functionality. AutoIt is also distributed with an IDE based on the free SciTE editor, the compiler and help text are fully integrated and provide a de facto standard environment for developers using AutoIt. Scripting language with BASIC-like structure for Windows Desktop Environment, add-on libraries and modules for specific applications. On-line support forum for AutoIt users and developers, run console applications and access the standard streams. Include files in the file to be extracted when run. Create GUI interfaces, including message and input boxes, play sounds, pause, resume, stop, seek, get the current position of the sound and get the length of the sound. Automate sending user input and keystrokes to applications, as well as to individual controls within an application, scripts can be compiled into standalone executables. 64-bit code support from version 3.2.10.0, works with Windows Vistas User Account Control. Object oriented design through a library, AutoIt is typically used to produce utility software for Microsoft Windows and to automate routine tasks, such as systems management, monitoring, maintenance, or software installation. Following the terms of the GPL, some of the code from version 3.1 was used to create a fork by the AutoHotkey project, AutoHotkey Macro Express Automator Keyboard Maestro KiXtart iMacros thinBasic Visual Basic Winbatch Expect Official website
