1.
October 1 (film)
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October 1 is a 2014 Nigerian dark psychological thriller film written by Tunde Babalola, produced and directed by Kunle Afolayan. The film received sponsorships from the Lagos State Government, Toyota Nigeria, Elizade Motors, Guinness and it was shot in Lagos and Ondo State for a period of over forty days using RED cameras, after four months of preproduction. Golden Effects also partnered with Haute Couture to provide primordial costumes used in the film, the premiere also provided tours of sets, and also displayed the props and costumes used in the film. The film opens with images of a lady being raped by a seemingly unknown man. Inspector Danladi Waziri is summoned by the British colonial military to present a draft of his findings on the series of killings that has occurred in Akote. The film flashes back, as Inspector Waziri narrates his story on his observations and experience from his arrival in the town of Akote, on arriving the village square, Danladi notices the villagers celebrating a horse-rider, who is later noted by Afonja to be Prince Aderopo. He just returned from the city, as the first university graduate in the community, Danladi observes physical and circumstantial similarities in the deceased virgins, and deduces it must be serial killing. Danladi and Afonja continue in their investigations, the officers interrogate Agbekoya, Agbekoya denies any knowledge of the events that led to the killings and is subsequently freed by the inspector Waziri due to a perceived language barrier between them. One of the assigned to protect the prince deserts his post to spend some time with his lover. The next day, the body of the lover of the guard who fled his post is discovered. Danladi orders the arrest of Baba Ifa, which Afonja outrightly refuses to carry out, he is suspended from his job and replaced by his deputy. Corporal Omolodun, however, is killed by the serial killer after trailing him along the bush-path, following the discovery of another body. The girls father, a farmer Okafor, along with his tribesmen, capture a travelling Northerner, the accused man is taken into custody by the police, but still maintains his innocence. Danladi informs his superiors that he will be closing the case, as he is about to transfer the Northerner away from Akote, Okafor throws a machete at him, piercing his heart. Even with his breath, the man insists he didnt kill the girl. Okafor, who repeatedly affirms his actions as doing what a man would do, is taken into custody. At night, the officers gather to celebrate the Inspectors impending departure following the victory over the killer. Dandali is persuaded into drinking against his will, on his way out he hears someone whistle a tune he was earlier told by the Northerner to be from the killer
2.
September
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September is the ninth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the third month to have the length of 30 days. It is also the month with the longest name, September in the Northern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent of March in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern hemisphere, the beginning of the autumn is on 1 September. In the Southern hemisphere, the beginning of the spring is on 1 September. September marks the beginning of the ecclesiastical year in the Eastern Orthodox Church. It is the start of the year in many countries, in which children go back to school after the summer break. September was originally the seventh of ten months on the oldest known Roman calendar, after the calendar reform that added January and February to the beginning of the year, September became the ninth month, but retained its name. It had 29 days until the Julian reform, which added a day, ancient Roman observances for September include Ludi Romani, originally celebrated from September 12 to September 14, later extended to September 5 to September 19. In the last 1st century BC, a day was added in honor of the deified Julius Caesar on 4 September. Ludi Triumphales was held from September 18–22, the Septimontium was celebrated in September, and on December 11 on later calendars. These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar, in 1752, the British Empire adopted the Gregorian calendar. In the British Empire that year, September 2 was immediately followed by September 14, September was called harvest month in Charlemagnes calendar. September corresponds partly to the Fructidor and partly to the Vendémiaire of the first French republic, on Usenet, it is said that September 1993 never ended. September is called Herbstmonat, harvest month, in Switzerland, the Anglo-Saxons called the month Gerstmonath, barley month, that crop being then usually harvested. The September equinox takes place in this month, and certain observances are organized around it and it is the Autumn equinox in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Vernal Equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. The dates can vary from 21 September to 24 September, September is mostly in the sixth month of the astrological calendar, which begins at the end of March/Mars/Aries. The birth flowers for September are the forget-me-not, morning glory, the zodiac signs for the month of September are Virgo and Libra whose end and start are related to equinox date. This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance, emergency Number Day Enkutatash falls on this day if it is not a leap year. National Day of Catalonia National Hot Cross Bun Day Nayrouz Patriot Day Remember Freedom Day Teachers Day September 12 Day of Conception Day of the Programmer, Enkutatash falls on this day if it is a leap year
3.
October
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October is the tenth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars and the sixth month to have the length of 31 days. The eighth month in the old Roman calendar, October retained its name after January and February were inserted into the calendar that had originally created by the Romans. In Ancient Rome, one of three Mundus patet would take place on October 5, Meditrinalia October 11, Augustalia on October 12, October Horse on October 15 and these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar. Among the Anglo-Saxons, it was known as Winterfylleth, because at full moon winter was supposed to begin. This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance, October 19, Amavasya In Catholic tradition, October is the Month of the Holy Rosary. Neil Gaiman wrote a story personifying the month, titled October in the Chair, ray Bradbury published a collection of short stories titled The October Country in 1955. Octobers birthstones are the tourmaline and opal and its birth flower is the calendula. The zodiac signs for this month are Libra and Scorpio
4.
November
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November is the eleventh and penultimate month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars and the fourth and last month to have the length of 30 days. November was the month of the ancient Roman calendar. November retained its name when January and February were added to the Roman calendar, November is a month of late-spring in the Southern Hemisphere and late-autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. Therefore, November in the Southern Hemisphere is the equivalent of May in the Northern Hemisphere. In Ancient Rome, Ludi Plebeii was held from November 4–17, Epulum Jovis was held on November 13 and these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar. November was referred to as Blōtmōnaþ by the Anglo-Saxons, brumaire and Frimaire were the months on which November fell in the French Republican Calendar. The Orionids, which occur in late October, sometimes last into November, the Western zodiac signs for the month of November are Scorpio and Sagittarius. Novembers birthstones are the topaz which symbolizes friendship and the citrine and its birth flower is the chrysanthemum. This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance, November 18, Amavasya In Catholic tradition, November is the Month of the Holy Souls in Purgatory
5.
October 7
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October 7 is the 280th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 85 days remaining until the end of the year and this date is slightly more likely to fall on a Wednesday, Friday or Sunday than on Monday or Tuesday, and slightly less likely to occur on a Thursday or Saturday. 3761 BC – The epoch reference date epoch of the modern Hebrew calendar,1403 – Battle of Modon, Genoese fleet under Jean Le Maingre is defeated by the Republic of Venice at Modon in the Peloponnese. 1406 – French troops comprising 1,000 men at arms landed on Jersey,1477 – Uppsala University is inaugurated after receiving its corporate rights from Pope Sixtus IV in February the same year. 1513 – Battle of La Motta, Spanish troops under Ramón de Cardona defeat the Venetians,1542 – Explorer Cabrillo discovers Santa Catalina Island off of the California coast. 1571 – The Battle of Lepanto is fought, and the Holy League annihilates the Turkish fleet,1582 – Because of the implementation of the Gregorian calendar, this day is skipped in Italy, Poland, Portugal and Spain. 1691 – The English royal charter for the Province of Massachusetts Bay is issued,1763 – King George III of the United Kingdom issues the Royal Proclamation of 1763, closing aboriginal lands in North America north and west of the Alleghenies to white settlements. 1777 – American Revolutionary War, The Americans defeat the British in the Second Battle of Saratoga,1780 – American Revolutionary War, Battle of Kings Mountain, American Patriot militia defeat Loyalist irregulars led by British major Patrick Ferguson in South Carolina. 1800 – French corsair Robert Surcouf, commander of the 18-gun ship La Confiance,1840 – Willem II becomes King of the Netherlands. 1868 – Cornell University holds opening day ceremonies, initial student enrollment is 412,1870 – Franco-Prussian War, Siege of Paris, Léon Gambetta flees Paris in a hot-air balloon. 1879 – Germany and Austria-Hungary sign the Twofold Covenant and create the Dual Alliance,1912 – The Helsinki Stock Exchange sees its first transaction. 1916 – Georgia Tech defeats Cumberland University 222–0 in the most lopsided college football game in American history,1918 – The Regency Council of the Kingdom of Poland declares independence from the German Empire and forms the Republic of Poland. 1919 – KLM, the carrier of the Netherlands, is founded. It is the oldest airline operating under its original name. 1924 – Andreas Michalakopoulos becomes Prime Minister of Greece for a period of time. 1929 – Photius II becomes Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople,1933 – Air France is inaugurated, after being formed by a merger of 5 French airlines. 1940 – World War II, The McCollum memo proposes bringing the United States into the war in Europe by provoking the Japanese to attack the United States. 1942 – World War II, The October Matanikau action on Guadalcanal begins as United States Marine Corps forces attack Imperial Japanese Army units along the Matanikau River,1944 – World War II, During an uprising at Birkenau concentration camp, Jewish prisoners burn down Crematorium IV
6.
Leap year
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A leap year is a calendar year containing one additional day added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year. By inserting an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected, a year that is not a leap year is called a common year. For example, in the Gregorian calendar, each year has 366 days instead of the usual 365. In the Bahai Calendar, a day is added when needed to ensure that the following year begins on the vernal equinox. For example, Christmas Day fell on a Tuesday in 2001, Wednesday in 2002, the length of a day is also occasionally changed by the insertion of leap seconds into Coordinated Universal Time, owing to the variability of Earths rotational period. Unlike leap days, leap seconds are not introduced on a regular schedule, in the Gregorian calendar, the standard calendar in most of the world, most years that are multiples of 4 are leap years. In each leap year, the month of February has 29 days instead of 28, adding an extra day to the calendar every four years compensates for the fact that a period of 365 days is shorter than a tropical year by almost 6 hours. Some exceptions to this rule are required since the duration of a tropical year is slightly less than 365.25 days. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 were not leap years, over a period of four centuries, the accumulated error of adding a leap day every four years amounts to about three extra days. The Gregorian calendar therefore removes three leap days every 400 years, which is the length of its leap cycle and this is done by removing February 29 in the three century years that cannot be exactly divided by 400. The years 1600,2000 and 2400 are leap years, while 1700,1800,1900,2100,2200 and 2300 are common years, by this rule, the average number of days per year is 365 + 1⁄4 − 1⁄100 + 1⁄400 =365.2425. The rule can be applied to years before the Gregorian reform, the Gregorian calendar was designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter remains close to the vernal equinox. The Accuracy section of the Gregorian calendar article discusses how well the Gregorian calendar achieves this design goal, the following pseudocode determines whether a year is a leap year or a common year in the Gregorian calendar. The year variable being tested is the representing the number of the year in the Gregorian calendar. Care should be taken in translating mathematical integer divisibility into specific programming languages, if then else if then else if then else February 29 is a date that usually occurs every four years, and is called leap day. This day is added to the calendar in leap years as a corrective measure, the Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a calendar and named many of its days after the syzygies of the moon, the new moon. The Nonae or nones was not the first quarter moon but was exactly one nundina or Roman market week of nine days before the ides and this is what we would call a period of eight days
7.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
8.
331 BC
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Year 331 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Potitus and Marcellus, the denomination 331 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Alexander departs from Egypt and leads his forces towards Phoenicia and he leaves Cleomenes of Naucratis as the ruling nomarch to control Egypt. October 1 – Alexander of Macedonia is victorious in the Battle of Gaugamela over the Persian King Darius III, Darius turns his chariot and flees, although his subordinates fight on. Alexander pursues the defeated Persian forces to Arbela, but Darius escapes with his Bactrian cavalry, Alexander encounters for the first time war elephants, he captures 15 Persian elephants after the battle in Darius camp. Alexander becomes the master of the Persian Empire, ending the Achaemenid dynasty, babylon and Susa open their gates to him. In the capital, Susa, Alexander gains access to huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents, while Alexander is fighting in Asia, Agis III of Sparta, profiting from the Macedonian kings absence from Greece, leads some of the Greek cities in a revolt. With Persian money and 8,000 Greek mercenaries, he holds Crete against Macedonian forces, alexanders regent Antipater leads the Macedonians to victory over King Agis III in the Battle of Megalopolis. Alexander of Epirus takes Heraclea from the Lucanians, and Terina, tarentum turn against Alexander of Epirus when they realize that he intends to create a kingdom of his own in southern Italy. Alexander is defeated and killed in the Battle of Pandosia on the banks of the Acheron, the Gallic tribe of the Senones and the Romans conclude a peace and enter upon a period of friendly relations which lasts the rest of the century. Alexander I of Epirus, Aeacid dynasty king of Epirus Vahe, legendary king of Armenia and last of the Hyke dynasty
9.
Alexander the Great
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Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of twenty and he was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of historys most successful military commanders. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16, after Philips assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his fathers Panhellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia, in 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of battles, most notably the battles of Issus. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety, at that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River. He sought to reach the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea and invaded India in 326 BC and he eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexanders surviving generals, Alexanders legacy includes the cultural diffusion which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt, Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and he is often ranked among the most influential people in human history. He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his wife, Olympias. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his wife for some time. Several legends surround Alexanders birth and childhood, sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wifes womb with a seal engraved with a lions image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of dreams, that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb. On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and it was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his own instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception
10.
Darius III
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Darius III, originally named Artashata and called Codomannus by the Greeks, was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC. Artashata adopted Darius as a dynastic name and his empire was unstable, with large portions governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexanders control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius, before Alexander reached him, however, Darius was killed by the satrap Bessus, who was also his cousin. Artashata was the son of Arsames, son of Ostanes, and Sisygambis and he had distinguished himself in a combat of champions in a war against the Cadusii and was serving at the time as a royal courier. However, prior to being appointed as a courier, he had served as a satrap of Armenia. He may have been promoted from his satrapy to the service after the ascension of Arses. In 336 BC, he took the throne at the age of 43 after the death of Artaxerxes III, however, a cuneiform tablet suggests that Artaxerxes died from natural causes. Artashata took the regnal name Darius III, and quickly demonstrated his independence from his possible assassin benefactor, Bagoas then tried to poison Darius as well, when he learned that even Darius couldnt be controlled, but Darius was warned and forced Bagoas to drink the poison himself. Compared to his ancestors and his heirs who had since perished, Darius had a distinct lack of experience ruling an empire. Darius was a ruler of entirely average stamp, without the striking talents and he sent an advance force into Asia Minor under the command of his generals Parmenion and Attalus to liberate the Greeks living under Persian control. In the spring of 334 BC, Philips heir, Alexander and this invasion, which marked the beginning of the Wars of Alexander the Great, was followed almost immediately by the victory of Alexander over the Persians at Battle of the Granicus. In the previous invasion of Asia Minor by the Spartan king Agesilaus, Darius attempted to employ the same strategy, with the Spartans rebelling against the Macedonians, but the Spartans were defeated at Megalopolis. Darius did not actually take the field against Alexander’s army until a year and his forces outnumbered Alexanders soldiers by at least a 2 to 1 ratio, but Darius was still outflanked, defeated, and forced to flee. On the way, he left behind his chariot, his bow, at the Battle of Issus, Darius III even caught Alexander by surprise and failed to defeat Alexanders forces. Darius fled so far so fast that Alexander was able to capture Darius’s headquarters, Darius petitioned to Alexander through letters several times to get his family back, but Alexander refused to do so unless Darius would acknowledge him as the new emperor of Persia. Circumstances were more in Darius’s favor at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, despite all these beneficial factors, he still fled the battle before any victor had been decided and deserted his experienced commanders as well as one of the largest armies ever assembled. Many Persian soldiers lost their lives that day, so many in fact that after the battle the casualties of the enemy ensured that Darius would never raise a imperial army. Darius then fled to Ecbatana and attempted to raise an army, while Alexander took possession of Babylon, Susa
11.
Battle of Gaugamela
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The Battle of Gaugamela, also called the Battle of Arbela, was the decisive battle of Alexander the Greats invasion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. In 331 BC Alexanders army of the Hellenic League met the Persian army of Darius III near Gaugamela, even though heavily outnumbered, Alexander emerged victorious due to his armys superior tactics and his deft employment of light infantry. It was a victory for the Hellenic League and led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire. In November 333 BC Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus, resulting in the capture of his wife, his mother, Darius had retreated to Babylon, where he regrouped the remaining army from the previous battle. The victory at Issus had given Alexander control of southern Asia Minor, following a victory at the Siege of Tyre, which lasted from January to July, Alexander controlled the Levant. After his victory at Gaza Persian troop counts were low and the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaces, Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts, Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus write that Darius sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. It demanded that he withdraw from Asia and release his prisoners, according to Curtius and Justin he offered a ransom for his prisoners, but Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, a second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander a marriage with his daughter Stateira II and all the territory west of the Halys River, Justin is less specific, not mentioning a specific daughter and speaking of a portion of Darius kingdom. Diodorus Siculus likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship, Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one favorable to his own interests. Darius started to prepare for another battle after the failure of the second negotiation attempt, even so, he made a third and final effort to negotiate after Alexanders departure from Egypt. Darius third offer was more generous. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander deliberated this offer with his friends, Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty. Alexander reportedly replied, So should I, if I were Parmenion, Alexander again refused the offer of Darius, insisting that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to him in battle to decide who was to be the sole king of Asia. The descriptions given by historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin give a figure of 30,000
12.
Pope Damasus I
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Pope St. Damasus I was Pope of the Catholic Church from October 366 to his death in 384. He spoke out against major heresies in the church and encouraged production of the Vulgate Bible and he has been made a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, and his feast day is December 11. Pope St. Damasus I was born around 305, around or inside the city of Rome, following the death of Pope Liberius, he succeeded to the Papacy amidst factional violence. Damasus faced accusations of murder and adultery with a woman in his early years as Pope. The neutrality of these claims has come into question with some suggesting that the accusations were motivated by the conflict with the supporters of Arianism. As well as various letters and other pieces Damasus was the author of Latin verse which modern scholars find lame. Alan Cameron describes his epitaph for a girl called Projecta as a tissue of tags and clichés shakily strung together. Damasus has been described as the first society Pope, and was apparently a member of a group of Iberian Christians, largely related to each other, Damasus parents were Antonius, who became a priest at the Church of St. Lawrence in Rome, and Laurentia. He began his career as a deacon in his father’s church. This later became the basilica of Saint Lawrence outside the Walls in Rome, during Damasus early years, Constantine I rose to rule the Western Roman Empire. As emperor, he issued the Edict of Milan, which granted freedom to Christians in all parts of the Roman Empire. This led to the establishment of Christian religious supremacy in Constantinople, Damasus was most likely in his twenties at the time. When Pope Liberius was banished by Emperor Constantius II to Berea in 354, Damasus was archdeacon of the Roman church and followed Liberius into exile, during the period before Liberius return, Damasus had a great share in the government of the church. At the same time, 4th-century emperors expected each new pope-elect to be presented to them for approval, which sometimes led to state domination of the Churchs internal affairs. On the death of Liberius on 24 September 366, one faction supported Ursinus, the upper-class partisans of Felix supported the election of Damasus, but the opposing supporters of Liberius, the deacons and laity, supported Ursinus. The two were elected simultaneously in an atmosphere of rioting, J. N. D. Kelly states that Damasus hired a gang of thugs that stormed the Julian Basilica, carrying out a three-day massacre of the Ursinians. Supporters already clashed at the beginning of October, there was further violence when he returned, which continued after Ursinus was exiled again. Church historians such as St. Jerome and Rufinus, championed Damasus, at a synod in 378, Ursinus was condemned and Damasus exonerated and declared the true pope
13.
Edgar the Peaceful
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Edgar I, known as Edgar the Peaceful or the Peaceable, was King of England from 959 to 975. He was the son of King Edmund I and his Queen. Edgar was the son of Edmund I and Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury, upon the death of King Edmund in 946, Edgars uncle, Eadred, ruled until 955. Eadred was succeeded by his nephew, Eadwig, the son of Edmund, Eadwig was not a popular king, and his reign was marked by conflict with nobles and the Church, primarily St Dunstan and Archbishop Oda. In 957, the thanes of Mercia and Northumbria changed their allegiance to Edgar, a conclave of nobles declared Edgar as king of the territory north of the Thames. Edgar became King of England upon Eadwigs death in October 959, Dunstan remained Edgars advisor throughout his reign. While Edgar may not have been a particularly peaceable man, his reign was peaceful, the Kingdom of England was well established, and Edgar consolidated the political unity achieved by his predecessors. By the end of his reign, England was sufficiently unified in that it was unlikely to back to a state of division among rival kingships. Blackstone mentions that King Edgar standardised measure throughout the realm, the Monastic Reform Movement that introduced the Benedictine Rule to Englands monastic communities peaked during the era of Dunstan, Æthelwold, and Oswald. In 963, Edgar allegedly killed Earl Æthelwald, his rival in love, near present-day Longparish, the event was commemorated by the Dead Mans Plack, erected in 1825. Edgar was crowned at Bath and anointed with his wife Ælfthryth, Edgars coronation did not happen until 973, in an imperial ceremony planned not as the initiation, but as the culmination of his reign. This service, devised by Dunstan himself and celebrated with a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the symbolic coronation was an important step, other kings of Britain came and gave their allegiance to Edgar shortly afterwards at Chester. Six kings in Britain, including the King of Scots and the King of Strathclyde, pledged their faith that they would be the kings liege-men on sea, later chroniclers made the kings into eight, all plying the oars of Edgars state barge on the River Dee. Such embellishments may not be factual, and what happened is unclear. Edgar died on 8 July 975 at Winchester, Hampshire and he left behind Edward, who was probably his illegitimate son by Æthelflæd, and Æthelred, the younger, the child of his wife Ælfthryth. Edgar also had an illegitimate daughter by Wulfthryth, who later became abbess of Wilton. She was joined there by her daughter, Edith of Wilton, both women were later regarded as saints. Some see Edgars death as the beginning of the end of Anglo-Saxon England, E was extremely small both in stature and bulk
14.
Pope John XIII
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Pope John XIII can also refer to Pope John XIII of Alexandria. Pope John XIII was Pope from 1 October 965 to his death in 972 and his pontificate was caught up in the continuing conflict between the Emperor, Otto I, and the Roman nobility. Born in Rome, probably sometime during the 930s, John was the son of Giovanni and it has been conjectured that his father was the Roman noble Giovanni Crescentius, a member of the Crescentii family who had married into the family of Theophylact I, Count of Tusculum. If so, his father had previously been a duke, and possibly even appointed consul, consequently, John was probably the brother of Crescentius the Elder, as well as Stephania, lady of Palestrina and Marozia, who married Gregory I, Count of Tusculum. After leaving the schola, he took a part in papal administration, serving in the Chancery of Apostolic Briefs under popes John XII. He also served as Librarian of the Holy Apostolic See in 961, at some point he was appointed as the bishop of Narni, as which he participated in the Synod of Rome which deposed Pope John XII, as well as the Synod of Rome which saw his restoration. After the death of Leo VIII, the Roman nobility asked the Emperor, when this was not possible, Bishop John Crescentius was suggested as a compromise candidate by Otto’s envoys, the bishops Otger of Spiers and Liutprand of Cremona. Elected unanimously, John was consecrated on Sunday,1 October 965, John immediately took on the task of curbing the power of the Roman nobility. He gave members of the Crescentii family important positions to shore up his support, while he also sought closer ties with the emperor. However, with the back in Germany, various local powers decided to take advantage of his absence to intrigue against John XIII. ”The leaders of the Roman militia captured the pope on December 16,965. However, fearing John’s presence there would inspire resistance from his followers, word eventually reached Otto of all these disturbances, who entered Italy in late summer of 966 at the head of an enormous army. In the meantime, John had managed to escape from Campagna, in thanks for Pandulf’s aid, John converted Capua into a Metropolitan see, and consecrated as its first archbishop Pandulf’s brother John, on August 14,966. In Rome, the pope’s supporters rose up, and Rofred and Stephen were killed by John Crescentius, Pope John left Capua, and crossed into Sabina, where he was met by his brother-in-law, Benedict, who also offered John his support. With Rome effectively back in his hands, John returned and was welcomed back into the city on November 14,966, although he was initially lenient towards the rebels, the arrival of Otto saw a change in approach. The emperor banished to Germany the two men appointed consul, the twelve principal leaders were hanged. Other plotters were executed or blinded. A bag of feathers was placed upon his head and two more at his thighs, in gratitude for the emperor’s intervention, John lauded him by declaring him to be the liberator and restorer of the Church, the illustrious guest, and three times blessed emperor. In 969, he met Gerbert dAurillac, the future Pope Sylvester II, after John XIIIs restoration, he worked with the Emperor on ecclesiastical improvements
15.
1553
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Year 1553 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. May – The first Royal Charter is granted to St Albans in England, june 26 – Christs Hospital and King Edwards School, Witley, England, are created by Royal Charter. July 9 – Battle of Sievershausen, Prince-elector Maurice of Saxony defeats the Catholic forces of Margrave Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. July 10 – Four days after the death of her cousin King Edward VI of England, July 18 – The Lord Mayor of London proclaims Mary I the rightful Queen, Lady Jane Grey voluntarily abdicates. July 19 – Queen Mary I of England begins her reign, august 3 – Queen Mary I of England arrives in London from East Anglia. August 22 – John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, a supporter of Lady Jane Grey, is executed. August – English explorer Richard Chancellor enters the White Sea and reaches Arkhangelsk, going on to the court of Ivan IV of Russia, September – Anglican bishops in England are arrested and Roman Catholic bishops are restored. October 6, Şehzade Mustafa, oldest son of Suleiman the Magnificent is executed in Konya by order of his father, September 23 – The Sadians consolidate their power in Morocco by defeating the last of their enemies. October 27 – Genevas governing council burns Michael Servetus at the stake as a heretic, december 25 – Battle of Tucapel, Mapuche rebels under Lautaro defeat the Spanish conquistadors and execute Pedro de Valdivia, the first Royal Governor of Chile. Tonbridge School founded by Sir Andrew Judde under letters patent of Edward VI of England, publication in London of The xiii Bukes of Eneados of the famose Poete Virgill, the first published complete translation of any major work of classical antiquity into one of the English languages. In Ming dynasty China, The addition of a new section of the Outer City fortifications is completed in southern Beijing, bringing the size of Beijing to 18 square miles. Shanghai is fortified for the first time, July 1 – Peter Street, English carpenter July 15 – Archduke Ernest of Austria September 26 – Nicolò Contarini, Doge of Venice October 8 – Jacques Auguste de Thou, French historian October 18
16.
Mary I of England
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Mary I was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet Bloody Mary and she was the only child of Henry VIII by his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI succeeded their father in 1547, when Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because of religious differences. On his death their first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, was proclaimed queen, Mary assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was ultimately beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England, in 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556. Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after her half-brothers short-lived Protestant reign, during her five-year reign, she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions. After her death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry, Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London. She was the child of King Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Her mother had many miscarriages, before Marys birth, four previous pregnancies had resulted in a stillborn daughter and she was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth. Her godparents included her great-aunt the Countess of Devon, Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey, Henry VIIIs cousin once removed, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, stood sponsor for Marys confirmation, which was held immediately after the baptism. The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin Frances Brandon, in 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Marys governess. Sir John Hussey, later Lord Hussey, was her chamberlain from 1530, in July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals. By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin and she studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek. Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani, also, as the miniature portrait of her shows, Mary had, like both her parents, a very fair complexion, pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair. She was also ruddy cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father, despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. By the time Mary was nine years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, in 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border of Wales to preside, presumably in name only, over the Council of Wales and the Marches. She was given her own based at Ludlow Castle and many of the royal prerogatives normally reserved for the Prince of Wales. Vives and others called her the Princess of Wales, although she was never technically invested with the title and she appears to have spent three years in the Welsh Marches, making regular visits to her fathers court, before returning permanently to the home counties around London in mid-1528
17.
1588
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As of the start of 1588, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February – The Sinhalese abandon the siege of Colombo, capital of Portuguese Ceylon, april 4 – Christian IV becomes king of Denmark–Norway upon the death of his father Frederick II. May 12 – Day of the Barricades in Paris, Henry I, Duke of Guise seizes the city, may 28 – The Spanish Armada, with 130 ships and 30,000 men, begins to set sail from the Tagus estuary heading for the English Channel. July – King Henry III of France capitulates to the Duke of Guise, july 31 – The first engagement between the English and Spanish fleets, off Plymouth, results in a victory for the English under command of Lord Howard of Effingham and Sir Francis Drake. August 2 – The English fleet defeats the Spanish fleet, off the Isle of Portland, august 6 – Battle of Gravelines, The Spanish Armada is defeated by the English naval force off the coast of Gravelines in the Spanish Netherlands. August 7 – The English fleet defeats the Spanish fleet off the coast of Flanders, august 8–August 9 – The Spanish are unable to reach the coast of Flanders to meet up with the army of the Duke of Parma. The Duke of Medina Sidonia decides to return to Spain, august 12 – The fleeing Spanish fleet sails past the Firth of Forth, and the English call off their pursuit. Much of the Spanish fleet is destroyed by storms as it sails for home around Scotland and Ireland, october 7 – The first biography of Nicolaus Copernicus is completed by Bernardino Baldi. December 23 – Henry III of France strikes his ultra-Catholic enemies, having the Duke of Guise and his brother, Louis II, Cardinal of Guise, killed, and holding the Cardinal de Bourbon a prisoner. As a result, large parts of France reject Henry III as their king, forcing him to side with Henry of Navarre William Morgans Welsh translation of the Bible is published. The Armada Portrait of Elizabeth I of England is created to celebrate the English defeat of the Spanish Armada and to assert the strength of Elizabeth herself
