1.
Loran-C
–
Loran-C was a hyperbolic radio navigation system which allowed a receiver to determine its position by listening to low frequency radio signals transmitted by fixed land-based radio beacons. Loran-C combined two different techniques to provide a signal that was both long-range and highly accurate, traits that had formerly been at odds. The downside was the expense of the equipment needed to interpret the signals, Loran-C became one of the most common and widely used navigation systems for large areas of North America, Europe, Japan and the entire Atlantic and Pacific areas. The Soviet Union operated a nearly identical system, CHAYKA, the introduction of civilian satellite navigation in the 1990s led to a very rapid drop-off in Loran-C use. Discussions about the future of Loran-C began in the 1990s, and several dates were announced. In 2010 the US and Canadian systems were shut down, along with shared Loran-C/CHAYKA stations with Russia, several other chains remained active, and some had been upgraded for continued use. At the end of 2015, navigation chains in most of Europe were turned off, the original LORAN was proposed by Alfred Lee Loomis at a meeting of the Microwave Committee. The Microwave Committee, by this time organized into what would become the Radiation Laboratory, took up development as Project 3. During the initial meetings a member of the UK liaison team, Taffy Bowen, mentioned that he was aware the British were also working on a similar concept, but had no information on its performance. The development team, led by Loomis, made progress on the transmitter design. Extensive signal-strength measurements were made by mounting a conventional radio receiver in a station wagon, however, the custom receiver design and its associated cathode ray tube displays proved to be a bigger problem. In spite of efforts to design around the problem, instability in the display prevented accurate timing measurements. They met with the Gee team in 1941, and immediately adopted this solution and they also found that Project 3 and Gee called for almost identical systems, with similar performance, range and accuracy. But Gee had already completed basic development and was entering into initial production, in response, the Project 3 team told the Army Air Force to adopt Gee, and realigned their own efforts to provide long-range navigation on the oceans. Rapid development followed, and a system covering the western Atlantic was operational in 1943, additional stations followed, covering the European side, and then a massive expansion in the Pacific. By the end of the war there were 72 operational LORAN stations, in 1958 the operation of the LORAN system was handed over to the US Coast Guard, which renamed the system Loran-A, the lower-case name being introduced at that time. There are two ways to implement the timing measurements needed for a navigation system, pulse timing systems like Gee and LORAN. The former requires sharp pulses of signal, and their accuracy is limited to how rapidly the pulses can be turned on and off, which is, in turn
Loran-C
–
A LORAN-C receiver for use on merchant ships
Loran-C
–
LORAN Station Malone,
Malone, Florida Great Lakes chain (GRI 8970)/Southeast U.S. chain (GRI 7980)
Loran-C
–
This nautical chart of
New York Harbor includes LORAN-A TD lines. Note that the printed lines do not extend into inland waterway areas.
Loran-C
–
Cesium atomic clocks
2.
Norwegian language
–
Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
Norwegian language
–
Norwegian ambulances changed their markings in 2005. This is the old appearance, with the Norwegian ambulanse, "Ambulance."
Norwegian language
–
Old West Norse dialect
3.
Norway
–
The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
Norway
–
The
helmet found at Gjermundbu near
Haugsbygd,
Buskerud, is the only
Viking Age helmet that has been found.
Norway
–
Flag
Norway
–
The
Gokstad ship at the
Viking Ship Museum in
Oslo, Norway
Norway
–
The
Battle of the Sound between an allied Dano-Norwegian–
Dutch fleet and the Swedish navy, 8 November 1658 (29 October
O.S.)
4.
Island
–
An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge, examples are Singapore and its causeway, and the various Dutch delta islands, such as IJsselmonde. There are two types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it
Island
–
Atafu atoll in Tokelau
Island
–
São Miguel Island, in
Azores archipelago, is also referred as "The Green Island".
Island
–
A small
Fijian island
Island
–
The
British Isles are a large group of islands. The main islands include
Great Britain and
Ireland.
5.
Jan Mayen
–
Jan Mayen is a Norwegian volcanic island situated in the North Arctic Ocean. It is 55 km long and 373 km2 in area, partly covered by glaciers and it has two parts, larger northeast Nord-Jan and smaller Sør-Jan, linked by a 2.5 km wide isthmus. It lies 600 km northeast of Iceland,500 km east of central Greenland and 1,000 km west of the North Cape, the island is mountainous, the highest summit being the Beerenberg volcano in the north. The isthmus is the location of the two largest lakes of the island, Sørlaguna, and Nordlaguna, a third lake is called Ullerenglaguna. Jan Mayen was formed by the Jan Mayen hotspot, although administered separately, Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ. Jan Mayen Island has one exploitable natural resource, gravel, from the site at Trongskaret, other than this, economic activity is limited to providing services for employees of Norways radio communications and meteorological stations located on the island. Jan Mayen has one unpaved airstrip, Jan Mayensfield, which is about 1,585 m long, the 124.1 km coast has no ports or harbours, only offshore anchorages. There are important fishing resources, and the existence of Jan Mayen establishes a large Exclusive Economic Zone around it, a dispute between Norway and Denmark regarding the fishing exclusion zone between Jan Mayen and Greenland was settled in 1988 granting Denmark the greater area of sovereignty. Significant deposits of petroleum and natural gas are suspected by geologists to lie below Jan Mayens surrounding seafloors, Jan Mayen Island is an integral part of the Kingdom of Norway. Since 1995, Jan Mayen has been administered by the County Governor of the northern Norwegian county of Nordland to which it is closest. However, some authority over Jan Mayen has been assigned to the commander of the Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation. The only inhabitants on the island are personnel working for the Norwegian Armed Forces, eighteen people spend the winter on the island, but the population may double during the summer, when heavy maintenance is performed. Personnel serve either six months or one year, and are exchanged twice a year in April, the main purpose of the military personnel is to operate a Loran-C base. The support crew, including mechanics, cooks, and a nurse, are among the military personnel, both the LORAN transmitter and the meteorological station are located a few kilometres away from the settlement Olonkinbyen, where all personnel live. Transport to the island is provided by C-130 Hercules military transport planes operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force that land at Jan Mayensfields gravel runway, the planes fly in from Bodø Main Air Station eight times a year. Since the airport does not have any instrument landing capabilities, good visibility is required, for heavy goods, freight ships visit during the summer, but since there are no harbours, the ships must anchor. The island has no population, but is assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ. It uses the Internet country code top-level domain. no and data code JN, Jan Mayen has telephone and internet connection over satellite, using Norwegian telephone numbers
Jan Mayen
–
NASA satellite image of Jan Mayen, Beerenberg covered with snow
Jan Mayen
–
Olonkinbyen in August
Jan Mayen
–
Snow-covered
Beerenberg beyond coastal hills
Jan Mayen
–
Jan Mayen on a map from 1720
6.
Gennady Olonkin
–
Gennady Nikitich Olonkin was a Russian-Norwegian polar explorer and radio operator. Olonkin was the only son among twelve children of a Norwegian mother, from 1918 to 1925, he was a radio operator and mechanic on the polar ship Maud, led by Roald Amundsen. In 1926 he was honored as a Knight of the Order of St. Olav, Olonkin acquired Norwegian citizenship and worked at the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. He served on Jan Mayen in the years 1928–1929, 1930–1931, 1933–1934, from 1958 he worked in conjunction with an expansion of a LORAN station on Jan Mayen. Gennadij Olonkin was married and had one son and two daughters, cape Olonkin and Olonkinbyen at Jan Mayen have been named in his honor. Gendij Olonkin at Norsk Polarhistorie Norwegian Polar Institute Place names at Svalbard and Jan Mayen
Gennady Olonkin
–
Gennadij Olonkin, third from left
Gennady Olonkin
–
Maud in (1918)
Gennady Olonkin
–
Olonkinbyen on
Jan Mayen in August
7.
Norwegian Armed Forces
–
The Norwegian Armed Forces is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Norway. It consists of four branches, the Norwegian Army, the Royal Norwegian Navy, which includes the Coast Guard, the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the armed forces number 23,000 personnel, including civilian employees, and have a full-mobilisation combat strength of 83,000. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence, led by Ine Marie Eriksen Søreide, the formal commander-in-chief is King Harald V, however, the de facto commander-in-chief is Chief of Defence Haakon Bruun-Hanssen. His staff is located at Akershus Fortress in Oslo, while the Norwegian Joint Headquarters, the main naval base is Haakonsvern in Bergen, the main army camps are in Bardu, Målselv and Rena, and the main air station is Ørland. An organised military was first assembled in Norway in the 9th century and was focused around naval warfare. The army was created in 1628 as part of Denmark–Norway, followed by two centuries of regular wars, a Norwegian military was established in 1814, but the military did not see combat until the German occupation of Norway in 1940. Norway abandoned its position as a country in 1949 to become a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. The Cold War saw a large build-up of air stations and military bases, since the 2000s, the military has transformed from a focus on defence from an invasion to a mobile force for international missions. Among European NATO members, the expenditure of US$7.2 billion is the highest per capita. The Chief of Defence heads the armed forces, and is the military adviser to the Minister of Defence. It is headed by a general or admiral. DEFSTNOR assigns priorities, manages resources, provides force generation and support activities, each of the four branches of defence is headed by a two-star general/admiral who are subordinate to DEFSTNOR. National Joint Headquarters located at Reitan, close to Bodø has operational control of Norwegian armed forces worldwide 24/7 and it is headed by the Supreme Commander Norwegian Forces - a three-star general or admiral. Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation at Kolsås outside Oslo is responsible for engineering, procurement, investment, supply, information and it is also responsible for maintenance, repair and storage of material. Norway employs a form of mandatory military service for men and women. While 63,841 men and women were called in for the examination of persons liable for service in 2012,9265 were conscripted. In 2015 conscription was extended to women making Norway the first NATO member, there is a right of conscientious objection. The press statements read, that serves as a means to “fight climate change”
Norwegian Armed Forces
–
Norwegian soldier during a field exercise
Norwegian Armed Forces
8.
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
–
The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, also known as MET Norway, is Norways national institute which provides weather forecasts. Its three main offices are located in Oslo, Bergen and Tromsø, MET Norway has around 500 employees and some 650 part-time observers around the country. The institute was founded in 1866 with the help of Norwegian astronomer and he is credited with founding meteorological research in Norway. The institute represents Norway in international organizations like the World Meteorological Organization, the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, the Institute is also partner to a number of international research and monitoring projects including EMEP, MyOcean, MyWave and the North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System. Marine forecasts of sea state parameters are issued both commercially to oil companies and more generally for the public, the institute also provides data for the free online service yr. no, launched in 2007, which provides weather forecasts for some 7 million places in the world. The institute is responsible for maintaining, quality checking, archiving and updating the network consisting of automated weather stations, radiosondes. The marine observations of wave height and other oceanographic parameters gathered by petroleum platforms in Norwegian waters are also archived by the institute, the institute produces operational weather forecasts using different numerical weather prediction models including the Unified Model and HIRLAM. The forecasts are subject to modifications introduced by human forecasters before being issued, the institute also runs a suite of operational ocean models ranging in resolution from 20 km to less than 1 km. The model suite currently comprises both the Princeton Ocean Model as well as the more recent Regional Ocean Modeling System, Henrik Mohn Aksel Steen Hans Theodor Hesselberg Ragnar Fjørtoft Kaare Langlo Arne Grammeltvedt Anton Eliassen yr. no Official website Information about yr. no
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
–
Norwegian Meteorological Institute in Oslo
9.
Electrical generator
–
In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was built in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids, the reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable manual generators. Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two categories, dynamos and alternators. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets, a generator using permanent magnets is sometimes called a magneto. Armature, The power-producing component of an electrical machine, in a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented. They operated on electrostatic principles, by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, the charge was generated using either of two mechanisms, electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current and their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators. The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–1832 by Michael Faraday, the principle later called Faradays law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk and it produced a small DC voltage. This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field and this counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction. Another disadvantage was that the voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a feature of all subsequent generator designs
Electrical generator
–
U.S.
NRC image of a modern steam turbine generator (STG).
Electrical generator
–
Early
Ganz Generator in
Zwevegem,
West Flanders,
Belgium
Electrical generator
–
The
Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle.
Electrical generator
–
This large belt-driven high-current
dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts. Dynamos are no longer used due to the size and complexity of the
commutator needed for high power applications.
10.
Precipitation
–
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
Precipitation
–
A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation
Precipitation
–
Long-term mean precipitation by month
Precipitation
–
Late-summer
rainstorm in
Denmark
Precipitation
–
Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming
11.
.sj
–
. sj is the Internet country code top-level domain reserved for the designation Svalbard and Jan Mayen. The domain name registry is Norid, but. sj is not open for registration. sj was designated on 21 August 1997, both were placed under the. no registry Norid, which is also the sponsor. Norwegian policy states that. no is sufficient for those connected to both Svalbard and Jan Mayen, and therefore the domain is not open to registration. It is Norwegian policy not to commercialize domain resources, so there are no plans to sell. sj, should the domain later come into use, it will be under regulation of the Norwegian Post and Telecommunications Authority and follow the same policy as. no. There are two second-level domains reserved for the two areas, svalbard. no and jan-mayen. no, but other web addresses are also used, Svalbard and Jan Mayen are two integrated territories of Norway with special status. Jan Mayen is a nearly unpopulated volcanic island in the Atlantic Ocean and is an integrated part of Norway. During the establishment of the ISO3166 codes, it was proposed that Svalbard have its own code, following the ISO codes. sj was allocated on 21 August 1997, at the same time. bv was allocated. In June 2015, Norwegian computer scientist Håkon Wium Lie and the Socialist Left Party proposed using the. sj domain, along with. bv, the proposal aims at protecting both the Norwegian authorities and foreign dissidents from surveillance. Management of. sj lies with the Trondheim-based Norid, which is also the name registry for. no. Norid is a company owned by Uninett, which is again owned by the Norwegian Ministry of Education. The policy for use of. sj is regulated by the Regulation Concerning Domain Names Under Norwegian Country Code Top-level Domains and this regulation also regulates Norways other two ccTLDs. bv and. no. Should. sj later come unto use, the rules and procedures currently regarding. no would be used for. sj. The domain remains reserved for future use. Sale of the two unused ccTLDs has not been an item to consider for policymakers, as commercialization of the resources is in direct contradiction to Norwegian policy. no eller aldri
.sj
–
.sj
12.
Jan Mayen Microcontinent
–
The Jan Mayen Microcontinent is a fragment of continental crust within the oceanic part of the western Eurasian Plate lying northeast of Iceland. At the onset of separation between the Greenland and Eurasian plates 55 million years ago, it formed part of the margin of the Greenland Plate. Propagation of a new spreading center from the Reykjanes Ridge separated this microcontinent from the Greenland Plate, for a short period it formed a microplate, until the Aegir Ridge became inactive, after which it formed part of the Eurasian Plate. The island of Jan Mayen is a younger feature, formed of volcanic rock. The microcontinent extends about 500 km southwards from the Jan Mayen fracture zone, the Jan Mayen Ridge separates the Norwegian Sea from the Greenland Sea. This interpretation has been confirmed using wide-angle seismic reflection and refraction data, the microcontinent consists of the prominent bathymetric high, the Jan Mayen Ridge and several subsidiary ridges and intervening basins towards the south and west. Investigations using seismic reflection and refraction data have identified two passive margin sequences on the two sides of the microcontinent, faults mapped on seismic reflection data are roughly N-S trending in the northern part becoming SW-NE trending to the south. The crustal thickness reaches a maximum of 16 km on the side of the main ridge. At the time of the initial break-up along the North Atlantic margin, towards the end of the Eocene period, at about the time marked by chron 17 a new spreading centre began to propagate northeastwards from the Reykjanes Ridge, forming the Kolbeinsey Ridge. During the period both the Kolbeinsey and Aegir ridges were active, the microcontinent underwent a 30°–50° anti-clockwise rotation. This was caused by the propagation of the Kolbeinsey Ridge. An alternative but challenged model involves no rotation but the development of several short-lived fracture zones cutting through the microcontinent, with both ridges active the microcontinent was also temporarily a microplate. The Kolbeinsey Ridge reached the Jan Mayen Fracture Zone and therefore linked up to the Mohns Ridge, at this time activity on the Aegir Ridge died away and the microcontinent became part of the Eurasian Plate. The northern end of the microcontinent was affected by renewed displacement on the Jan Mayen Fracture Zone. The volcanic island of Jan Mayen only formed in the Pleistocene, possibly related to a hotspot, known as the Jan Mayen hotspot, the area around the microcontinent has recently become open for licensing for hydrocarbon exploration
Jan Mayen Microcontinent
–
Location of the Jan Mayen Microcontinent between the active Kolbeinsey Ridge, the inactive
Aegir Ridge and the Jan Mayen
Fracture zone
13.
Svalbard and Jan Mayen
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Svalbard and Jan Mayen is a statistical designation defined by ISO 3166-1 of two parts of Norway under separate jurisdictions—Svalbard and Jan Mayen. While the two are combined for the purposes of the International Organization for Standardization category, they are not administratively related and this has further resulted in the country code top-level domain. sj being issued for Svalbard and Jan Mayen, and ISO 3166-2, SJ. The United Nations Statistics Division also uses this code, but has named it Svalbard, Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean under the full sovereignty of Norway, but is subject to the special status granted by the Svalbard Treaty. Jan Mayen is an island in the Arctic Ocean, it has no permanent population and is administrated by the County Governor of Nordland. Svalbard and Jan Mayen have in common that they are the integrated parts of Norway not allocated to counties. While a separate ISO code for Svalbard was proposed by the United Nations, Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic about midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole. The group of range from 74° to 81° north latitude. The area is 61,022 square kilometres and there were 2,572 residents in 2009, spitsbergen is the largest island, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty, and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway, the archipelago is administrated by the Governor of Svalbard, which is subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police. Unlike the rest of Norway, Svalbard is an economic zone and a demilitarized zone. Jan Mayen is an island in the Arctic Ocean located at the border of the Norwegian Sea. The single island covers an area of 377 square kilometres and is dominated by the 2, the islands only population is a combined military and meteorological outpost that operates a LORAN-C transmitter at Olonkinbyen. The Norwegian Meteorological Institute annexed the island for Norway in 1922, on 27 February 1930, the island was made de jure a part of the Kingdom of Norway. Since 1994, the island has been administrated by the County Governor of Nordland, neither Svalbard nor Jan Mayen have their own flag or coat of arms, and the flag of Norway is used for both of them, both alone and as a group. An attempt to change the ISO code to just Svalbard has previously failed because of opposition from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, however, for statistics use within population and trade, Svalbard and Jan Mayen essentially means just Svalbard. ISO 3166-2, SJ is the entry for Svalbard and Jan Mayen in ISO 3166-2, by virtue of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code SJ, Svalbard and Jan Mayen were grouped together and allocated the Internet country code top-level domain. sj. Norid, who administrated the Norways. no ccTLD, was given the responsibility for the. sj. Policy prohibits any registration with either of the domains, as connected to Svalbard can use the. no domain
Svalbard and Jan Mayen
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Both Svalbard and Jan Mayen consist almost entirely of Arctic wilderness, such as at
Bellsund in Svalbard
14.
Beerenberg
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Beerenberg is a 2,277 m stratovolcano which forms the northeastern end of the Norwegian island of Jan Mayen. It is the worlds northernmost subaerial active volcano, the volcano is topped by a mostly ice-filled crater about 1 km wide, with numerous peaks along its rim including the highest summit, Haakon VII Toppen, on its western side. The upper slopes of the volcano are largely ice-covered, with several major glaciers including five which reach the sea. The longest of the glaciers is the Weyprecht Glacier, which flows from the summit crater via a breach through the portion of the crater rim. Beerenberg is composed primarily of basaltic lava flows with minor amounts of tephra, numerous cinder cones have been formed along flank fissures. Its most recent eruptions took place in 1985 and 1970 both of which were flank eruptions from fissures on the northeast side of the mountain, other eruptions with historical records occurred in 1732,1818, and 1851. Its name means Bear Mountain in Dutch, and it takes its name from the polar bears seen there by Dutch whalers in the early 17th century
Beerenberg
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Beerenberg, July 2011
Beerenberg
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Soviet topographic map of Jan Mayen
15.
Engelskbukta (Jan Mayen)
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Engelskbukta is a broad, open bay mid-way up the west coast of the island of Jan Mayen. It lies between Kapp Rudsen and Kvalrossen, comprising Kvalrossbukta and Tømmerbukta, presumably this is where the English resorted to in 1616, when they sent their first whaling ships to the island. The Dutch also called it Noordbaai, the bay was the location of one of the two main Dutch whaling stations in the 17th century. In 1632 two Basque ships landed and plundered the station, causing the Dutch to send a party of seven men in 1633-34. Early Dutch and English Voyages to Spitsbergen in the Seventeenth Century, norwegian Polar Institute Place Names of Svalbard Database
Engelskbukta (Jan Mayen)
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Topographic map of Jan Mayen
16.
Hoepstockbukta
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Hoepstockbukta is a small cove on the western coast of the island of Jan Mayen and is named after Mathijs Jansz. Hoepstock, a Rotterdam whaler, who was the first to use the bay in 1616, the cove is shown on Joan Blaeus 1662 map of the island. Dansk-Norsk Hvalfangst 1615-1660, En Studie over Danmark-Norges Stilling i Europæisk Merkantil Expansion, norwegian Polar Institute Place Names of Svalbard Database
Hoepstockbukta
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Topographic map of Jan Mayen
17.
Nansenflua
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Nansenflua is an undersea rock in the northern part of Rekvedbukta off the southeastern coast of Jan Mayen in the Arctic Ocean. The shoal is named after the ship HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen, which sank after striking the previously uncharted rock in November 1940, Nansenflua is the only obstruction in Rekvedbukta. The name Nansenflua was introduced in charts published by the Norwegian Polar Institute in 1955 and it follows a convention based on two then in force Orders in Council, dated 28 April 1933 and 31 May 1957, of using the Nynorsk grammatical form. The suffix -a in the definite form was chosen, as no local dialect existed on Jan Mayen. The last part of the name, flu, means rock awash, the geographical location is given by Orvin as 70°57′N 08°28′W, with an exactitude of 1. The rock, located two meters under the surface, has a top area and vertical sides of about twenty meters. It is located one nautical mile from Eggøykalven and 1.7 nautical miles west-southwest of the peninsula Eggøya. In anything but completely calm weather conditions, Nansenflua is visible by waves being broken against it, the rock is part of the remains of a crater. The ship returned in November of the year to disrupt German plans to re-establish a weather station on the island. Entering the bay of Rekvedbukta on 8 November 1940 in calm weather, the whole crew of 66 entered the lifeboats. The boats reached the shore during darkness, and by the morning the ship had sunk. Four days later the crew was rescued by the naval trawler HNoMS Honningsvåg. The wreck of Fridtjof Nansen, which had a length of 72.8 m and a displacement of 1,275 short tons, is probably still located near the rock
Nansenflua
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On 8 November 1940
HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen ran aground on Nansenflua and sank.
18.
List of states with limited recognition
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A number of polities have declared independence and sought diplomatic recognition from the international community as de jure sovereign states, but have not been universally recognized as such. These entities often have de facto control of their territory, a number of such entities have existed in the past. There are two traditional doctrines that provide indicia of how a de jure sovereign state comes into being, according to declarative theory, an entitys statehood is independent of its recognition by other states. By contrast, the constitutive theory defines a state as a person of international law if it is recognised as such by other states that are already a member of the international community. Proto-states often reference either or both doctrines in order to legitimise their claims to statehood, there are, for example, entities which meet the declarative criteria, but whose statehood is not recognised by any other states. Non-recognition is often a result of conflicts with other countries that claim those entities as integral parts of their territory, in other cases, two or more partially recognised entities may claim the same territorial area, with each of them de facto in control of a portion of it. Entities that are recognised by only a minority of the worlds states usually reference the declarative doctrine to legitimise their claims, the international community can judge this military presence too intrusive, reducing the entity to a puppet state where effective sovereignty is retained by the foreign power. Historical cases in this sense can be seen in Japanese-led Manchukuo or the German-created Slovak Republic and Independent State of Croatia before, in the 1996 case Loizidou vs. Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights judged Turkey for having exercised authority in the territory of Northern Cyprus. Historically this has happened in the case of the Holy See, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta is currently in this position. See list of governments in exile for unrecognised governments without control over the territory claimed, some states are slow to establish relations with new states and thus do not recognise them, despite having no dispute and sometimes favorable relations. These are excluded from the list, there are 193 United Nations member states. The Holy See and the State of Palestine have observer status in the United Nations. Some states maintain informal relations with states that do not officially recognise them, the Republic of China is one such state, as it maintains unofficial relations with many other states through its Economic and Cultural Offices, which allow regular consular services. This allows the ROC to have economic relations even with states that do not formally recognise it, a total of 56 states, including Germany, Italy, the United States, and the United Kingdom, maintain some form of unofficial mission in the ROC. The Sovereign Military Order of Malta is a sovereign entity and is not included. It has established full diplomatic relations with 105 sovereign states as a subject of international law. Five more states maintain neither and do not recognise its passports, Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, uncontacted peoples who either live in societies that cannot be defined as states or whose statuses as such are not definitively known. Entities considered to be micronations are not included, even though micronations generally claim to be sovereign and independent, it is often up to debate whether a micronation truly controls its claimed territory
List of states with limited recognition
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Women in
Somaliland, wearing the colors of the Somaliland flag.
19.
Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
Amsterdam
Amsterdam
Amsterdam
Amsterdam
20.
Andorra la Vella
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Andorra la Vella is the capital of the Principality of Andorra, and is located high in the east Pyrenees between France and Spain. It is also the name of the parish that surrounds the capital, as of 2015, the city has a population of 22,886, and the urban area, which includes Escaldes-Engordany plus satellite villages, has over 40,000 inhabitants. The principal industry is tourism, although the country also earns income from being a tax haven. Furniture and brandies are local products, being at an elevation of 1,023 metres, it is the highest capital city in Europe and a popular ski resort. The site of Andorra la Vella has been settled prior to the Christian era—notably by the Andosin tribe from the late Neolithic. The state is one of the Marca Hispanica created and protected by Charlemagne in the century as a buffer from the Moorish settlers in the Iberian Peninsula. The settlement of Andorra la Vella has been the city of Andorra since 1278 when the French. Andorra la Vellas old town—the Barri Antic—includes streets and buildings dating from this time and its most notable building is the Casa de la Vall—constructed in the early sixteenth century—which has been the states parliamentary house since 1702. Andorra la Vella was, during this period, the capital of an isolated and feudal state. Well into the century, the area around Andorra la Vella remained largely forgotten, indeed the state was not part of the Treaty of Versailles. After political turmoil in the 1930s and a coup by Boris Skossyreff. In 1993, the countrys first constitution formalised this parliamentary democracy with executive, legislative, during this period, Andorra also developed as a tax haven, resulting in the construction of modern banking offices in Andorra La Vella. The city also developed its facilities, to the extent that Andorra la Vella was Andorras applicant city for the XXI Olympic Winter Games. However, Andorra la Vella was not selected by the IOC as a candidate city and it also hosted both the 1991 and 2005 Games of the Small States of Europe. It adjoins the area of Escaldes-Engordany. The city is at 1,023 metres above sea level, Andorra la Vella has an oceanic climate, with mild summers and chilly to cold, snowy winters. The average annual precipitation is 812.3 mm, temperatures are lowered by the altitude compared with lowland areas. The parish of Andorra la Vella is divided into the villages of Andorra la Vella itself, La Margineda, Andorra la Vella has direct access to air transportation with commercial helicopter flights from Andorra la Vella Heliport, located in the city centre
Andorra la Vella
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View of Andorra la Vella and a small part of
Escaldes-Engordany
Andorra la Vella
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Sant Andreu Church
Andorra la Vella
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Sant Esteve Church
21.
Bern
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The city of Bern or Berne is the de facto capital of Switzerland, referred to by the Swiss as their Bundesstadt, or federal city. With a population of 141,762, Bern is the fourth-most populous city in Switzerland, the Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000, Bern is also the capital of the canton of Bern, the second-most populous of Switzerlands cantons. The official language in Bern is German, but the language is an Alemannic Swiss German dialect. In 1983, the old town in the centre of Bern became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bern is ranked among the top ten cities for the best quality of life. The etymology of the name Bern is uncertain and it has long been considered likely that the city was named after the Italian city of Verona, which at the time was known as Bern in Middle High German. As a result of the find of the Bern zinc tablet in the 1980s, it is now common to assume that the city was named after a pre-existing toponym of Celtic origin. The bear was the animal of the seal and coat of arms of Bern from at least the 1220s. The earliest reference to the keeping of bears in the Bärengraben dates to the 1440s. No archaeological evidence that indicates a settlement on the site of city centre prior to the 12th century has been found so far. In antiquity, a Celtic oppidum stood on the Engehalbinsel north of Bern, fortified since the second century BC, during the Roman era, a Gallo-Roman vicus was on the same site. The Bern zinc tablet has the name Brenodor, in the Early Middle Ages, a settlement in Bümpliz, now a city district of Bern, was some 4 km from the medieval city. The medieval city is a foundation of the Zähringer ruling family, according to 14th-century historiography, Bern was founded in 1191 by Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen. In 1218, after Berthold died without an heir, Bern was made an imperial city by the Goldene Handfeste of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. In 1353, Bern joined the Swiss Confederacy, becoming one of the eight cantons of the period of 1353 to 1481. The city grew out towards the west of the boundaries of the peninsula formed by the river Aare, the Zytglogge tower marked the western boundary of the city from 1191 until 1256, when the Käfigturm took over this role until 1345. It was, in turn, succeeded by the Christoffelturm until 1622, during the time of the Thirty Years War, two new fortifications – the so-called big and small Schanze – were built to protect the whole area of the peninsula
Bern
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The construction of the Untertor-bridge in Bern, Tschachtlanchronik, late 15th century
Bern
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Aerial view of the
Old City
Bern
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Bern in 1638
Bern
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View of Bern from the
ISS. The Old City is in the lower, right hand side.
