1.
Richard Stallman
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Richard Matthew Stallman, often known by his initials, rms, is an American software freedom activist and programmer. He campaigns for software to be distributed in a such that its users receive the freedoms to use, study, distribute. Software that ensures these freedoms is termed free software, Stallman launched the GNU Project, founded the Free Software Foundation, developed the GNU Compiler Collection and GNU Emacs, and wrote the GNU General Public License. Stallman launched the GNU Project in September 1983 to create a Unix-like computer operating system composed entirely of free software, with this, he also launched the free software movement. In October 1985 he founded the Free Software Foundation, in 1989 he co-founded the League for Programming Freedom. This has included software license agreements, non-disclosure agreements, activation keys, dongles, copy restriction, proprietary formats, as of 2016, he has received fifteen honorary doctorates and professorships. Stallman was born to Alice Lippman, a teacher, and Daniel Stallman. He was interested in computers at an age, when Stallman was a pre-teen at a summer camp. From 1967 to 1969, Stallman attended a Columbia University Saturday program for school students. Stallman was also a laboratory assistant in the biology department at Rockefeller University. Although he was interested in mathematics and physics, his professor at Rockefeller thought he showed promise as a biologist. His first experience with computers was at the IBM New York Scientific Center when he was in high school. He was hired for the summer in 1970, following his year of high school. He completed the task after a couple of weeks and spent the rest of the writing a text editor in APL. As a first-year student at Harvard University in fall 1970, Stallman was known for his performance in Math 55. He was happy, For the first time in my life, Stallman graduated from Harvard magna cum laude earning a bachelors degree in Physics in 1974. Stallman considered staying on at Harvard, but instead he decided to enroll as a student at MIT. He pursued a doctorate in physics for one year, but left that program to focus on his programming at the MIT AI Laboratory
2.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
3.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
4.
Free software
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The right to study and modify software entails availability of the software source code to its users. This right is conditional on the person actually having a copy of the software. Richard Stallman used the existing term free software when he launched the GNU Project—a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system—and the Free Software Foundation. The FSFs Free Software Definition states that users of software are free because they do not need to ask for permission to use the software. Free software thus differs from proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides or iWork from Apple, which users cannot study, change, freeware, which is a category of freedom-restricting proprietary software that does not require payment for use. For computer programs that are covered by law, software freedom is achieved with a software license. Software that is not covered by law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain. Proprietary software, including freeware, use restrictive software licences or EULAs, Users are thus prevented from changing the software, and this results in the user relying on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support. This situation is called vendor lock-in, Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software. Other legal and technical aspects, such as patents and digital rights management may restrict users in exercising their rights. Free software may be developed collaboratively by volunteer computer programmers or by corporations, as part of a commercial, from the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the software freedoms associated with free software, which was typically public domain software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to exchange of software. As software was written in an interpreted language such as BASIC. Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code in computer magazines and books, in United States vs. IBM, filed January 17,1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive. While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be an amount of software produced primarily for sale. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the industry began using technical measures to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software as they saw fit. In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs, Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation was founded in October 1985
5.
Joi Ito
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Joichi Joi Ito is a Japanese activist, entrepreneur, venture capitalist, Director of the MIT Media Lab and Professor of the Practice of Media Arts and Sciences at MIT. Ito has received recognition for his role as a focused on Internet and technology companies and has founded, among other companies, PSINet Japan, Digital Garage. Ito is the chairman of the board of PureTech Health, Ito was born in Kyoto, Japan. Company founder Stanford R. Ovshinsky was impressed with Ito, whom he thought of almost as his son. Ovshinsky helped Ito develop his interests in technology and social movements, Ito and his sister Mizuko Ito, who is called Mimi, spent summers in Japan with their grandmother who taught them traditional Japanese culture. At 14, he returned to Japan when his mother was promoted to president of Energy Conversion Devices Japan and he studied at the Nishimachi International School and for high school, the American School in Japan in Tokyo. Ito also learned street language, street smarts, and computers, One of few Japanese using modems before deregulation of networking reached Japan in 1985, Ito had found The Source and the original MUD by his teens. Ito returned to the United States to attend Tufts University near Boston as a science major. Finding his course work too rigid and believing that learning computer science in school was stupid, Ovshinsky encouraged him to return to school. Ito is one of Timothy Learys godsons—a close non-traditional family-like relationship, Itos sister is Mizuko Ito, a cultural anthropologist studying media technology use, and the musician Cornelius is his second cousin. Ito currently lives in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with his wife Mizuka Ito, Ito became a disk jockey working in nightclubs in Chicago such as The Limelight and The Smart Bar and to work with Metasystems Design Group to start a virtual community in Tokyo. Later, Ito ran a nightclub in Roppongi, Japan called XY Relax with help from Joe Shanahan of Metro Chicago/Smart Bar and he helped bring industrial music from Chicago and later the rave scene, including importing Anarchic Adjustment to Japan. Ito was the Chairman of Creative Commons from December 2006 until 2012 and he is on the board of Digital Garage, Culture Convenience Club, Tucows, and EPIC, and is on the advisory boards of Creative Commons and WITNESS. He is the founder and CEO of the capital firm Neoteny Co. Ltd. In October 2004, he was named to the board of ICANN for a term starting December 2004. In August 2005, he joined the board of the Mozilla Foundation and he served on the board of the Open Source Initiative from March 2005 until April 2007. He currently serves as a Board Emeritus for OSI and he was a founding board member of Expression College for Digital Arts as well as the Zero One Art and Technology Network. In 1999, he served as the Associate to Mr. Mount on the film The Indian Runner, Ito also served as a Board Member of Energy Conversion Devices from 1995 to 2000
6.
Trademark
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The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, for the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. A trademark identifies the owner of a particular product or service. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy, the owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action, the United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks. A trademark may be designated by the symbols, ™ ℠ ® A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these categories, such as those based on colour, smell. Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nations trademark law, the term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, in other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use, certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark. Different goods and services have been classified by the International Classification of Goods, in trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have used for a long time include Löwenbräu. The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266, the first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France the first comprehensive system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the Manufacture. In Britain, the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it an offense to imitate anothers trade mark with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud. In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark, in the United States, Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870
7.
Flagship
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A flagship is a vessel used by the commanding officer of a group of naval ships, characteristically a flag officer entitled by custom to fly a distinguishing flag. Used more loosely, it is the ship in a fleet of vessels, typically the first, largest, fastest, most heavily armed. In common naval use, the flagship is fundamentally a temporary designation. Historically, only larger ships could accommodate such requirements, the term was also used by commercial fleets, when the distinction between a nations navy and merchant fleet was not clear. In the age of sailing ships, the flagship was typically a first-rate, non-first rates could serve as flagships, however, the USS Constitution, a frigate, served as flagship for parts of the United States Navy during the early 19th century. In the 20th century, ships became large enough that the types, cruisers and up, could accommodate a commander. Some larger ships may have a flag bridge for use by the admiral. Because its primary function is to coordinate a fleet, a flagship is not necessarily more heavily armed or armored than other ships, during World War II admirals often preferred a faster ship over the largest one. Modern flagships are designed primarily for command and control rather than for fighting, as with many other naval terms, flagship has crossed over into general usage, where it means the most important or leading member of a group, as in the flagship station of a broadcast network. Is used as both a noun and adjective describing the most prominent or highly touted product, brand, location, derivations include the flagship brand or flagship product of a manufacturing company, flagship store of a retail chain, or flagship service of a hospitality or transportation concern. The term flagship may have applications, Auto companies may have a flagship in the form of their leading or highest-priced car. Electronics companies may have a series of products considered to be their flagship, for example, the Samsung Galaxy S series consists of several flagship smartphones that are released on a yearly basis. In rail transport, a service is either the fastest or most luxurious. Often it is also a train or service. In some cases, special service or a class above first class may be available in the service while it is not offered in normal services. Flagship services are used to present the company in advertising or abroad. Most states in the United States provide public university education through one or more university systems, the phrase flagship institution or flagship university may be applied to an individual school or campus within each state system. These schools are often land-grant, sea-grant, or space-grant research universities, the use of the term is seen by some as elitist and boastful
8.
Jon Hall (programmer)
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Jon maddog Hall is the Executive Director of Linux International, a non-profit organization of computer professionals who wish to support and promote Linux-based operating systems. The nickname maddog was given to him by his students at Hartford State Technical College and he now prefers to be called by this name. According to Hall, his nickname came from a time when I had less control over my temper and he has worked for Western Electric Corporation, Aetna Life and Casualty, Bell Laboratories, Digital Equipment Corporation, VA Linux Systems, and SGI. He was the CTO and ambassador of the now defunct computer appliance company Koolu and it was also in this general timeframe that Hall, who lives in New Hampshire, started the Greater New Hampshire Linux Users Group. Hall has UNIX as his New Hampshire vanity license plate, Hall serves or has served on the boards of several companies, and several non-profit organizations, including the USENIX Association. Hall has spoken about Linux and free software at the technology conference Campus Party many times since 2007, most recently in June 2014 in Mexico and in November 2014 in El Salvador. At the UK Linux and Open Source Awards 2006, Hall was honoured with a Lifetime Recognition Award for his services to the open source community. Hall holds a Master of Science in Computer Science from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, in September 2015 maddog joined the Board of The Linux Professional Institute, as Chairman of the Board. Hall has used his experience and name recognition to promote a variety of causes, in 2013, Hall came on board as an advocate for the 64-bit porting project being run by the Linaro group. The objective is to port a collection of Linux open-source libraries to the 64-bit ARM architecture, Maddog telling an experience that led to his nickname Jon Maddog Hall, Free and Open Source Software in the developing world at FrOSCon 2010
9.
Free software movement
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Although drawing on traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s hacker culture and academia, Richard Stallman formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project. Stallman later established the Free Software Foundation in 1985 to support the movement, the philosophy of the movement is that the use of computers should not lead to people being prevented from cooperating with each other. Stallman notes that this action will promote rather than hinder the progression of technology and this effort can go instead into advancing the state of the art. Members of the free software movement believe that all users of software should have the freedoms listed in The Free Software Definition, while social change may occur as an unintended by-product of technological change, advocates of new technologies often have promoted them as instruments of positive social change. This quote by San Jose State professor Joel West explains much of the philosophy, if it is assumed that social change is not only affected, but in some points of view, directed by the advancement of technology, is it ethical to hold these technologies from certain people. If not to make a change, this movement is in place to raise awareness about the effects that take place because of the physical things around us. A computer, for instance, allows us so many more freedoms than we have without a computer, the debate over the morality of both sides to the free software movement is a difficult topic to compromise respective opposition. Within the free movement, the FLOSS Manuals foundation specialises on the goal of providing such documentation. Members of the free software movement advocate that works which serve a practical purpose should also be free, the core work of the free software movement focused on software development. The free software movement also rejects proprietary software, refusing to install software that does not give them the freedoms of free software, some supporters of the free software movement take up public speaking, or host a stall at software-related conferences to raise awareness of software freedom. The ideas sparked by the GNU associates are an attempt to promote an environment that understands the benefits of having a local community. A lot of lobbying work has been done against software patents, other lobbying focusses directly on use of free software by government agencies and government-funded projects. The Venezuelan government implemented a free software law in January 2006, decree No.3,390 mandated all government agencies to migrate to free software over a two-year period. Congressmen Edgar David Villanueva and Jacques Rodrich Ackerman have been instrumental in introducing free software in Peru, the incident invited the attention of got Microsoft Inc, Peru, whose general manager wrote a letter to Villanueva. His response received worldwide attention and is seen as a piece of argumentation favouring use of free software in governments. In the United States, there have been efforts to pass legislation at the state level encouraging use of software by state government agencies. Like many social movements, the free movement has ongoing internal conflict between the many FOSS organizations and their personalities. For instance there is disagreement about the amount of compromises and pragmatism needed versus the need for strict adherence to values, after this Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens founded the Open Source Initiative, to promote the term open source software as an alternative term for free software
10.
Guido van Rossum
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Guido van Rossum is a Dutch programmer who is best known as the author of the Python programming language. In the Python community, Van Rossum is known as a Benevolent Dictator For Life, meaning that he continues to oversee the Python development process and he was employed by Google from 2005 until 7 December 2012, where he spent half his time developing the Python language. In January 2013, Van Rossum started working for Dropbox, Van Rossum was born and raised in the Netherlands, where he received a masters degree in mathematics and computer science from the University of Amsterdam in 1982. Guido van Rossum is the brother of Just van Rossum, a designer and programmer. Just van Rossum designed the typeface that is used in the Python Powered logo, Guido lives in Belmont, California with his wife, Kim Knapp, and their son, Orlijn. While working at the Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Guido van Rossum wrote and he also created the early Grail web browser which was written in Python and engaged in discussions about the HTML standard. About the origin of Python, Van Rossum wrote in 1996, Over six years ago, in December 1989, would be closed, but I had a home computer, and not much else on my hands. I decided to write an interpreter for the new scripting language I had been thinking about lately, I chose Python as a working title for the project, being in a slightly irreverent mood. In 2000 he further wrote, Pythons predecessor, ABC, was inspired by SETL – Lambert Meertens spent a year with the SETL group at NYU before coming up with the final ABC design. As of November 2011, it was the 3rd most popular language on the GitHub social coding website, according to a programming language popularity survey it is consistently amongst the top 10 most mentioned languages in job postings. Furthermore, Python is consistently in the top 10 most popular languages according to the TIOBE Programming Community Index, while working for Google, Van Rossum developed Mondrian, a web-based code review system written in Python and used within the company. He named the software after the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian and he named another related software project after Gerrit Rietveld, a Dutch designer. In December 2012, Van Rossum joined the cloud storage company Dropbox. At the 2002 FOSDEM conference in Brussels, Van Rossum received the 2001 Award for the Advancement of Free Software from the Free Software Foundation for his work on Python, Van Rossum received a NLUUG Award in May 2003. In 2006, Van Rossum was recognized as a Distinguished Engineer by the Association for Computing Machinery
11.
Hacker culture
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The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities in a spirit of playfulness, however, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves, but the manner in which it is done and whether it is something exciting and meaningful. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology s Tech Model Railroad Club, Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program, What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could and they also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in an exciting way than anyone believed possible. I bet you didnt believe this could be done, as documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general publics usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them crackers instead. The word hacker derives from the word of a lusty laborer who harvested fields by dogged. Although the idea of hacking has existed long before the term hacker—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, in fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word hacker, some common nicknames among this culture include crackers who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include phreak—which refers to a type of skilled crackers and warez d00dz—which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software, within all hackers are tiers of hackers such as the samurai who are hackers that hire themselves out for legal electronic locksmith work. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. Over time, the hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology. Many of the values and tenets of the free and open software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race and you can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better, Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Hack value is the used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that often feel intuitively about a problem or solution
12.
Simon Phipps (programmer)
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Simon Phipps is a computer scientist and web and open source advocate. Phipps was instrumental in IBMs involvement in the Java programming language and he left IBM for Sun Microsystems in 2000, taking leadership of Suns open source programme from Danese Cooper. Under Phipps, most of Suns core software was released open source licenses, including Solaris. Phipps was not hired into Oracle as part of the acquisition of Sun Microsystems, following Sun, he spent a year as Chief Strategy Officer of identity startup ForgeRock before becoming an independent consultant. In 2015 he joined Wipro Technologies as director of their open source advisory practice, Phipps was President of the Open Source Initiative until 2015 when he stepped down in preparation for the end of his Board term in 2016. He is currently a member of the Open Rights Group. He has served on a number of boards for other projects, including as CEO of the MariaDB Foundation, the GNOME Foundation, OpenSolaris, OpenJDK. He appeared as a guest on episodes 39,113 and 337 of FLOSS Weekly and as a regular co-host, simon Phipps personal blog Meshed Insights Business Information
