1.
War of Attrition
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The War of Attrition involved fighting between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, PLO and their allies from 1967 to 1970. Following the 1967 Six-Day War, no diplomatic efforts tried to resolve the issues at the heart of the Arab–Israeli conflict. In September 1967, the Arab states formulated the three nos policy, barring peace, recognition or negotiations with Israel and these initially took the form of limited artillery duels and small-scale incursions into Sinai, but by 1969 the Egyptian Army judged itself prepared for larger-scale operations. On March 8,1969, Nasser proclaimed the launch of the War of Attrition, characterized by large-scale shelling along the Suez Canal, extensive aerial warfare. Hostilities continued until August 1970 and ended with a ceasefire, the remaining the same as when the war began. Israels victory in the Six-Day War left the entirety of the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula up to the bank of the Suez Canal under Israeli control. Egypt was determined to regain Sinai, and also sought to mitigate the severity of its defeat, sporadic clashes were taking place along the cease-fire line, and Egyptian missile boats sank the Israeli destroyer INS Eilat on October 21 of the same year. Israel responded with aerial bombardments, airborne raids on Egyptian military positions, the international community and both countries attempted to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. Fearing the escalation of the conflict into an East vs, in August 1970, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt agreed to an in place ceasefire under the terms proposed by the Rogers Plan. The plan contained restrictions on missile deployment by both sides, and required the cessation of raids as a precondition for peace and these plans would materialize three years later in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Ultimately, Israel would return Sinai to Egypt after the two signed a peace treaty. Various military historians have commented on the war with differing opinions, chaim Herzog notes that Israel withstood the battle and adapted itself to a hitherto alien type of warfare. Zeev Schiff notes that though Israel suffered losses, she was able to preserve her military accomplishments of 1967. The Egyptian Air Force and Air Defense Forces performed poorly, Egyptian pilots were rigid, slow to react and unwilling to improvise. According to U. S. intelligence estimates, Egypt lost 109 aircraft, most in air-to-air combat and it took a salvo of 6 to 10 SA-2 Egyptian anti-aircraft missiles to obtain a better than fifty percent chance of a hit. An Israeli armored infantry company attacks the Egyptian force, the Israeli company drives off the Egyptians but loses 1 dead and 13 wounded. However, another claims that an Israeli attack on Port Fuad was repulsed. July 2,1967, The Israeli Air Force bombs Egyptian artillery positions that had supported the commandos at Ras Al-Ish, july 4,1967, Egyptian Air Force jets strike several Israeli targets in Sinai
2.
Operation Rooster 53
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Operation Rooster 53 was an Israeli military operation during the War of Attrition to capture an Egyptian P-12 radar system. Often referred to as merely Operation Rooster, it was carried out on December 26 and 27,1969, participating forces including the Nahal Brigades 50th battalion, the elite paratrooper reconnaissance unit Sayeret Tzanhanim, and the Israeli Air Force. The War of Attrition raged along the Suez Canal, as Egypt attempted to recapture the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt had received a considerable amount of military equipment, including tanks, radar systems and weapons, from the Soviet Union. During the Six Day War, Israel had captured some of these shipments of equipment, as newer systems arrived in Egypt, Israel had an effort underway to learn how to deal with these. Reconnaissance missions showed that a P-12 radar system had placed on the beach of Ras Gharib. An attempt to destroy it with a strike was cancelled. Planning of the mission started on December 24 and it received approval from the IDF chain of command and training began on radar systems which had been captured during the Six Day War. Sikorsky CH-53 helicopters were chosen to carry the radar to Israeli territory, the mission was launched at 9 p. m. on December 26. A-4 Skyhawks and F-4 Phantoms began attacking Egyptian forces along the bank of the Suez canal. Hidden by the noise of the jets, three Aérospatiale Super Frelons, carrying Israeli paratroopers, made their way west towards their target. Making their approach carefully in order not to be spotted beforehand, by 2 a. m. on December 27, when the paratroops had taken apart the radar station and prepared the various parts for the CH-53s, the two helicopters were called in from across the Red Sea. One CH-53 carried the caravan and the radar antenna, while the other took the heavier. The two helicopters made their way back across the Red Sea to Israeli controlled territory, Operation “Rooster”— Israel Captures Egyptian Radar In War of Attrition in Jewish Virtual Library
3.
Suez Crisis
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The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale
4.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
5.
Cyprus
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Cyprus, officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean and the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is located south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Palestine, north of Egypt, the earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia. Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC, Cyprus was placed under British administration based on Cyprus Convention in 1878 and formally annexed by Britain in 1914. While Turkish Cypriots made up 18% of the population, the partition of Cyprus and creation of a Turkish state in the north became a policy of Turkish Cypriot leaders, following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. On 15 July 1974, a coup détat was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta in an attempt at enosis and these events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute. The Cyprus Republic has de jure sovereignty over the island of Cyprus, as well as its territorial sea and exclusive economic area, another nearly 4% of the islands area is covered by the UN buffer zone. The international community considers the part of the island as territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under law, amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union. Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean, on 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone. The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek
6.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
7.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
8.
Dan Tolkowsky
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Aluf Dan Tolkowsky is a retired Israeli military officer who served as commander of the Israeli Air Force from 1953 to 1958. Tolkowsky was born in Tel Aviv in 1921 and was educated at the Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium, in 1936 he joined the Haganah. In 1938 he went to London to study at Imperial College London, in 1942 Tolkowsky volunteered for the Royal Air Force. He was part of a group of Palestinian-Jewish RAF pilots sent to train at a school in Southern Rhodesia. He earned his wings in 1943, being the first in his group to complete the course and he saw action over the Mediterranean area, Germany, and France. At the end of World War II, he served as a transport pilot and he was discharged from the RAF in June 1946 with the rank of Flight Lieutenant. After his discharge, Tolkowsky moved to Britain and worked as a mechanical engineer, in December 1947 he began helping to secretly purchase aircraft for Sherut Avir, the Haganahs air arm and forerunner of the Israeli Air Force. In 1948, a few days before the Israeli Declaration of Independence and he served in the Israeli Air Force during the Israeli War of Independence, participating in bombing attacks on the Egyptian front. He was initially discharged from the IAF, but was recruited back in 1951 and he first served as Inspector-General, and then as Chief of Staff to the Commander. He was appointed Commander of the IAF in May 1953 and served until July 1958, during his time as commander, the IAF received its first fighter jets and took part in the Suez Crisis. He was seconded to the Israeli Ministry of Defense in 1958-1959 and he holds the rank of Major-General in the Israel Defense Forces. In 1959 Tolkowsky joined the Discount Bank Investment Corporation, originally an arm of the Bank and he was appointed as Managing Director in 1965 and Vice-Chairman in 1980. Beginning in 1962, DBIC was the first financial institution in Israel to invest in local hi-tech industry, Tolkowsky helped Uzia Galil start the technology holding company Elron Electronic Industries in 1962. Tolkowsky also held a series of government posts. In 1963 he joined the National Council for Research and Development and he served as Chairman of the Subcommittee on Radiation and Radioisotopes of the Israel Atomic Energy Commission. In 1970 he headed a commission of inquiry that investigated an accident at Lod Airport, from 1978-1980 he was a member of the Israel Securities Authority plenum. In 1997 he served on the Ciechanover Commission, which investigated a failed Mossad assassination attempt against Hamas leader Khaled Mashal in Jordan and he also was a member of a committee examining the organizational structure of higher education institutions. He is married to Miriam and has a daughter and two sons, Roni, David, and Gideon, jews from Palestine are sent to the RAF pilot course in Rhodesia, IAF Official Site
9.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
10.
Israeli Air Force
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The Israeli Air Force operates as the aerial warfare branch of the Israel Defense Forces. It was founded on May 28,1948, shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence, as of May 2012 Aluf Amir Eshel serves as the Air Force Commander. The Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, using commandeered or donated civilian aircraft and obsolete, eventually, more aircraft were procured, including Boeing B-17s, Bristol Beaufighters, de Havilland Mosquitoes and P-51D Mustangs. The Israeli Air Force played an important part in Operation Kadesh, on June 5,1967, the first day of the Six-Day War, the Israeli Air Force executed Operation Focus, crippling the opposing Arab air forces and attaining air supremacy for the remainder of the war. Shortly after the end of the Six-Day War, Egypt initiated the War of Attrition, on October 7,1973, the IAF conducted Operation Tagar against Egyptian air bases of the Egyptian Air Defence Force. Although initially successful, with 10 bases hit, the urgency of the fighting on the Golan heights forced the operations suspension, since that war most of Israels military aircraft have been obtained from the United States. Among these are the F-4 Phantom II, A-4 Skyhawk, F-15 Eagle, the Israeli Air Force has also operated a number of domestically produced types such as the IAI Nesher, and later, the more advanced IAI Kfir. On June 7,1981, eight IAF F-16A fighters covered by six F-15A jets carried out Operation Opera to destroy the Iraqi nuclear facilities at Osiraq, on June 9,1982, the Israeli Air Force carried out Operation Mole Cricket 19, crippling the Syrian air defence array. The IAF continued to mount attacks on Hezbollah and PLO positions in south Lebanon, on October 1,1985, In response to a PLO terrorist attack which murdered three Israeli civilians in Cyprus, the Israeli air force carried out Operation Wooden Leg. The strike involved the bombing of PLO Headquarters in Tunis, by F-15 Eagles, in 1991, the IAF carried out Operation Solomon which brought Ethiopian Jews to Israel. In 1993 and 1996, the IAF participated in Operation Accountability and Operation Grapes of Wrath and it took part in many missions since, including during the 2006 Lebanon War, Operation Cast Lead, Operation Pillar of Cloud and Operation Protective Edge. On September 6,2007, the Israeli Air Force successfully bombed an alleged Syrian nuclear reactor in Operation Orchard, squadron markings usually go on the tail fin. Forerunners of the Israeli Air Force were the Palestine Flying Service established by the Irgun in 1937, and Sherut Avir, the Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, shortly after Israel declared statehood and found itself under attack. The force consisted of a hodge-podge of commandeered or donated civilian aircraft converted to military use, a variety of obsolete and surplus ex-World War II combat-aircraft were quickly sourced by various means to supplement this fleet. Creativity and resourcefulness were the foundations of early Israeli military success in the air, Israels new fighter-arm first went into action on May 29,1948, assisting efforts to halt the Egyptian advance from Gaza northwards. Four newly arrived Avia S-199s, flown by Lou Lenart, Modi Alon, Ezer Weizman and Eddie Cohen, although damage to the enemy was minimal, two aircraft were lost and Cohen killed, nevertheless the attack achieved its goal and stopped the Egyptians. After un-assembled planes were strafed on the ground on May 30th at Ekron airfield the fighters were moved to makeshift strip located around the current Herzliya Airport. The Israeli Air Force scored its first aerial victories on June 3 when Modi Alon, flying Avia D.112, the first dogfight against enemy fighters took place a few days later, on June 8, when Gideon Lichtaman shot down an Egyptian Spitfire
11.
Gloster Meteor
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The Gloster Meteor was the first British jet fighter and the Allies only operational jet aircraft during the Second World War. The Meteors development was heavily reliant on its ground-breaking turbojet engines, pioneered by Sir Frank Whittle and his company, development of the aircraft began in 1940, although work on the engines had been under way since 1936. The Meteor first flew in 1943 and commenced operations on 27 July 1944 with No.616 Squadron RAF, nicknamed the Meatbox, the Meteor was not a sophisticated aircraft in its aerodynamics, but proved to be a successful combat fighter. Glosters 1946 civil Meteor F.4 demonstrator G-AIDC was the first civilian-registered jet aircraft in the world, several major variants of the Meteor incorporated technological advances during the 1940s and 1950s. Thousands of Meteors were built to fly with the RAF and other air forces, the Meteor saw limited action in the Second World War. Meteors of the Royal Australian Air Force fought in the Korean War, several other operators such as Argentina, Egypt and Israel flew Meteors in later regional conflicts. Specialised variants of the Meteor were developed for use in aerial reconnaissance. The Meteor was also used for research and development purposes and to several aviation records. On 7 November 1945, the first official air speed record by a jet aircraft was set by a Meteor F.3 of 606 miles per hour, in 1946, this record was broken when a Meteor F.4 reached a speed of 616 mph. Other performance-related records were broken in categories including flight time endurance, rate of climb, on 20 September 1945, a heavily modified Meteor I, powered by two Rolls-Royce Trent turbine engines driving propellers, became the first turboprop aircraft to fly. On 10 February 1954, a specially adapted Meteor F.8, the Meteor Prone Pilot, as of 2013, two Meteors, WL419 and WA638, remain in active service with the Martin-Baker company as ejection seat testbeds. Two further aircraft in the UK remain airworthy, as another in Australia. Securing funding was a persistently worrying issue throughout the development of the engine. On 28 April 1939, Whittle made a visit to the premises of the Gloster Aircraft Company, Power Jets and Gloster quickly formed a mutual understanding around mid-1939. The success of the smaller E. 28/39 proved the viability of jet propulsion, due to the limited thrust available from early jet engines, it was decided that subsequent production aircraft would be powered by a pair of turbojet engines.2 and axial engine designs. In August 1940, Carter presented Glosters initial proposals for a jet fighter with a nosewheel undercarriage. On 7 February 1941, Gloster received an order for twelve prototypes under Specification F9/40, test locations and other key project information was similarly obscured. Gloster continued development work on the Meteor and the order was overturned in favour of the construction of six F9/40 prototypes alongside three E. 1/44 prototypes
12.
Ilyushin Il-14
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The Ilyushin Il-14 was a Soviet twin-engine commercial and military personnel and cargo transport aircraft that first flew in 1950, and entered service in 1954. Il-14 was also manufactured in East Germany by VVB Flugzeugbau, in Czechoslovakia as the Avia 14, the Ilyushin Il-14 was typically replaced by the Antonov An-24 and Yakovlev Yak-40. The Il-14 was developed as a replacement for the widespread Douglas DC-3 and its Soviet built version, a development of the earlier Ilyushin Il-12, the Il-14 was intended for use in both military and civil applications. The Il-12 had major problems with poor engine-out behaviour, also, it had less payload capability than was originally planned. The development into the Il-14 was a vast improvement over the Il-12, with a new wing and it was powered by two 1,400 kW Shvetsov ASh-82T-7 radial piston engines. These changes greatly improved performance in engine-out conditions. Total production of the Il-14 was 1,345 aircraft,1,065 in Moscow from 1956 to 1958, licensed production of 80 in East Germany by VEB Flugzeugwerke Dresden from 1956 to 1959 and 203 in Czechoslovakia by Avia, Prague, from 1956 to 1960. It was rugged and reliable, and thus was used in rural areas with poor quality airfields. The type was used by the East German aircraft industry as a test aircraft for the horizontal stabilizer of the Baade 152. Il-14, Twin-engined passenger, cargo transport aircraft, il-14FK / 14FKM, Aerial photography version. Il-14LIK-1 / LIK-2, Navigation aid calibration version, Il-14M, Stretched Il-14P, fitted with a lengthened fuselage, 14-36 seat. Il-14PS / S, VIP versions, based on Il-14P, Avia 14, Ilyushin Il-14Ms built by Avia under licence in Czechoslovakia. Avia 14S, VIP transport aircraft with six seats and a six-seat couch. Avia 14 Super, 1960-model with a cabin for 32,36, or 42 passengers. VEB 14P, Ilyushin Il-14Ps built by VVB Flugzeugbau under licence in East Germany, VEB 14T, VEB 14Ps converted to military transports. The Il-14 operated in the Soviet Union until the 1980s and early 90s, however, the unlicensed Chinese built Y-6 remained in the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force as a trainer until the late 1980s. There are no current military operators of the Ilyushin Il-14,26 were supplied to the Afghan Air Force from 1955 onwards. By 1979, the force was reduced to 10, equipping a single squadron,11 have been operated by the Albanian Air Force from 1957
13.
Operation Kadesh
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The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale
14.
Operation Musketeer (1956)
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Operation Musketeer was the Anglo-French plan for the invasion of the Suez canal zone to capture the Suez Canal during the Suez Crisis in 1956. Israel, which invaded the Sinai peninsula, had the objectives of opening the Straits of Tiran. The Anglo-French military operation was planned for early September. Headed by British Army General Charles Keightley, it was conducted in November 1956 in close coordination with the Israeli armored thrust into the Sinai, egypts government, led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, was seeking political control over the canal, an effort resisted by the Europeans. Furthermore, a bombardment of a densely populated area would have involved tens of thousands of civilian casualties. The naval bombardment of Port Said was rendered less effective by the decision to only use 4. 5-inch guns instead of large caliber guns, the final land order of battle involved the Royal Marine Commando Brigade, the 16th Parachute Brigade, and the 3rd Infantry Division. To bring these formations to war establishment, the army reserve. Most of the latter were sent to units in home stations to replace regulars posted to the Musketeer force, lieutenant General Sir Hugh Stockwell was appointed to command the landing force. A French parachute brigade joined 16th Parachute Brigade as it returned to Cyprus, the Commando Brigade completed refresher training in shore landings from helicopters, in association with the Mediterranean fleet, which was preparing to support the amphibious operation. Over the summer the Royal Air Force selected a range of targets whose loss would cripple Egyptian resistance, details of the secret plan for Israeli forces to invade the Sinai desert were revealed to the Chiefs of the Defence staff in October. On 29 October Israeli armour, preceded by parachute drops on two key passes, thrust south into the Sinai, routing local Egyptian forces within five days. Affecting to be alarmed by the threat of fighting along the Suez Canal, the UK and France issued an ultimatum on 30 October to the Israelis. When, as expected, no response was given, Operation Musketeer was launched, the 3rd Division, minus the Guards Brigade, embarked on 1 November. The 45th Commando and 16th Parachute Brigade landed by sea and air on 5 November, although landing forces quickly established control over major canal facilities, the Egyptians were able to sink obstacles in the canal, rendering it unusable. The Anglo-French air offensive suppressed Egyptian airfields not already attacked by the Israelis, the 3rd Battalion Parachute group captured El Cap airfield by airborne assault. The remaining units, held initially for deep airborne targets. The Commando Brigade captured all its objectives, the French parachutists took Port Fuad, opposite Port Said. Elements of the 16th Parachute Brigade led by Brigadier M. A. H, Butler and a contingent of the Royal Tank Regiment set off south along the canal bank on 6 November to capture Ismailia
15.
Abdel Hakim Amer
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Mohamed Abdel Hakim Amer was an Egyptian general and political leader. Amer was born in Astal, Samallot, in the Al Minya Governorate on 11 December 1919, after finishing grade school, he attended the Cairo Military Academy and graduated in 1938. He was commissioned into the Egyptian Army in 1939, Amer served in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, took part in the 1952 Revolution and commanded the Egyptian Army in the Suez Crisis, the North Yemen Civil War and the Six-Day War. Amer played a role in the military coup that overthrew King Farouk in 1952. The following year, Amer was made Egypts Chief-of-Staff, bypassing four military ranks, in 1956, Amer was appointed commander-in-chief of the joint military command established by Egypt and Syria. He also led Egyptian forces against both Israeli and allied British-French forces during the 1956 Suez war, after the fighting ended, Amer accused Nasser of provoking an unnecessary war and then blaming the military for the result. As Nassers representative in Syria, Amer was detained by rebels during the 1961 Syrian coup détat, in March 1964, Amer was made first vice-president to Nasser and deputy supreme commander, with the power to rule for 60 days if the president was incapacitated. Amers distinguished career came to an end after Egypts crushing defeat by Israel in the Six-Day War of June 1967. Many historians have stated that much the Egyptian militarys failures in the 1967 war can be laid at the feet of Amer, when Amer heard of the fall of Abu Ageila to Israel, he panicked and ordered all units in the Sinai to retreat. This order effectively meant the defeat of Egypt, shortly after the Six Day War ended, he was relieved of all his duties and forced into early retirement. In August that year, Amer, along with over 50 Egyptian military officers and he was kept under house arrest at his villa in Giza. After surviving and being taken home the day, he managed to evade his guards. Later, Cairo radio announced his burial in his village of Astal. Amer chose the option and received a full military burial. Anwar Al Sadat, who later became President of Egypt, expressed his opinion if he was in Amers position. In September 2012, Amers family filed a case to investigate his death and they claimed that he was murdered. Abdel Hakim Amer was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union on 13 May 1964, malaysia, Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm
16.
Ramat David Airbase
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Ramat David Israeli Air Force Base is one of three principal airbases of the Israeli Air Force, located southeast of Haifa, close to kibbutz Ramat David and Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley. It was originally built as a Royal Air Force station in 1942 under the British Mandate when it was known as RAF Ramat David and it is reported to be the most likely location for a new International airport to complement Ben Gurion Airport. Roald Dahl, in his World War II autobiography Going Solo, at the time it was a hastily prepared grass airstrip rolled out in a cornfield by the residents of the nearby Kibbutz. RAF Ramat David was a Royal Air Force station in the British Mandate of Palestine between 1942 and 1948, located approximately 4 km south of Ramat Yishay,80 km north-northeast of Tel Aviv. On 22 May, the Royal Egyptian Air Force attacked the base, in a series of three attacks, several aircraft were destroyed or damaged, a hangar was destroyed, and four airmen were killed. Five Egyptian fighter planes were shot down, on 26 May 1948 the base was handed over to the newly created Israel Defense Forces. Ramat David currently houses 3 F-16 C/D squadrons, including 117 First Jet squadron, formed on 7 June 1953, in 2010, the airbase was the second-largest unit in the IDF with over 1,100 soldiers
17.
Yoash Tzidon
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Yoash Matti Tzidon was an Israeli former Air Force commander and politician. Born Yoash Chatto in Focşani, Romania in 1926, Tzidon made aliyah to Mandatory Palestine in 1941 and he attended the Hebrew Navy school at the Technion, and later at the Aerial Warfare School in France. Between 1944 and 1948 he was a member of the Palmach, in addition to assisting illegal Jewish immigrants in their attempts to run the British blockade of Palestine, Tzidon took part in sabotage operations against British ships in Cyprus. During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War he was an involved in convoys to Jerusalem. He later served as a pilot in the Israeli Air Force, before becoming a test pilot, flight trainer, squadron commander. He later became head of the Weapons Systems and Planning in the Air Force and he joined the Movement for Greater Israel, and later the Tzomet party. He was elected to the Knesset in 1988 on the Tzomet list and he lost his seat in the 1992 elections. Operation Tarnegol Yoash Tzidon on the Knesset website
18.
Stall (fluid mechanics)
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In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when the angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may vary depending on the fluid, foil. Stalls in fixed-wing flight are often experienced as a reduction in lift as the pilot increases the wings angle of attack. A stall does not mean that the engine have stopped working, vectored thrust in manned and unmanned aircraft is used to surpass the stall limit, thereby giving rise to post-stall technology. Because stalls are most commonly discussed in connection with aviation, this article discusses stalls as they relate mainly to aircraft, the principles of stall discussed here translate to foils in other fluids as well. A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack increases beyond a point such that lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is called the angle of attack. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus angle-of-attack curve at which the lift coefficient occurs. Flow separation begins to occur at angles of attack while attached flow over the wing is still dominant. As angle of attack increases, the regions on the top of the wing increase in size. At the critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that additional increases in angle of attack produce less lift, a fixed-wing aircraft during a stall may experience buffeting or a change in attitude. Most aircraft are designed to have a stall with characteristics that will warn the pilot. For example, an aircraft that does not buffet before the stall may have an alarm or a stick shaker installed to simulate the feel of a buffet by vibrating the stick fore. The buffet margin is, for a set of conditions, the amount of ‘g’. The critical angle of attack in steady straight and level flight can be attained only at low airspeed, attempts to increase the angle of attack at higher airspeeds can cause a high-speed stall or may merely cause the aircraft to climb. Any yaw of the aircraft as it enters the stall regime can result in autorotation, as air no longer flows smoothly over the wings during a stall, aileron control of roll becomes less effective, whilst simultaneously the tendency for the ailerons to generate adverse yaw increases. This characteristic increases the lift from the wing and increases the likelihood of the aircraft entering into a spin
19.
Tracer ammunition
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Tracer ammunition are bullets or cannon caliber projectiles that are built with a small pyrotechnic charge in their base. Ignited by the powder, the pyrotechnic composition burns very brightly, making the projectile trajectory visible to the naked eye during daylight. This enables the shooter to make aiming corrections without observing the impact of the rounds fired, tracer fire can also be used to signal to other shooters where to concentrate their fire during battle. When used, tracers are usually loaded as every fifth round in machine gun belts, platoon and squad leaders will load some tracer rounds in their magazine or even use solely tracers to mark targets for their soldiers to fire on. Tracers are also placed two or three rounds from the bottom of magazines to alert the shooter that his weapon is almost empty. Unfortunately, this practice would similarly alert an astute enemy that his foe was nearly out of ammunition, more often, however, the entire magazine was loaded four-to-one, on both fixed offensive and flexible defensive guns, to help mitigate the difficulties of aerial gunnery. The United States relied heavily on tracer ammunition for the defensive Browning M2 and this proved true of fixed forward firing guns as well. Tracer rounds can also have an incendiary effect, and can ignite flammable substances on contact. Before the development of tracers, gunners relied on seeing their bullet impacts to adjust their aim, in the early 20th century, ammunition designers developed spotlight bullets, which would create a flash or smoke puff on impact to increase their visibility. However, these projectiles were deemed in violation of the Hague Conventions prohibition of exploding bullets and this strategy was also useless when firing at aircraft, as there was nothing for the projectiles to impact on if they missed the target. Designers also developed bullets that would trail white smoke, however, these designs required an excessive amount of mass loss to generate a satisfactory trail. The loss of mass en route to the severely affected the bullets ballistics. The United Kingdom was the first to develop and introduce a tracer round, the United States introduced a. 30-06 tracer in 1917. Prior to adopting red bullet tips for tracers, American tracers were identified by blackened cartridge cases, tracers proved useful as a countermeasure against Zeppelins used by Germany during World War I. The airships were used for reconnaissance, surveillance and bombing operations, normal bullets merely had the effect of causing a slow leak, but tracers could ignite the hydrogen gasbags, and bring down the airship quickly. In World War II US naval and marine aircrew were issued tracer rounds with their arms for emergency signaling use as well as defense. A tracer projectile is constructed with a base filled with a pyrotechnic flare material, made of a mixture of a very finely ground metallic fuel, oxidizer. Metallic fuels include magnesium, aluminum, and occasionally zirconium, the oxidizer is a salt molecule which contains oxygen combined with a specific atom responsible for the desired color output
20.
Spin (aerodynamics)
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A spin is a special category of stall resulting in autorotation about the vertical axis and a shallow, rotating, downward path. Spins can be entered intentionally or unintentionally, from any flight attitude if the aircraft has sufficient yaw while at the stall point, either situation causes the aircraft to autorotate toward the stalled wing due to its higher drag and loss of lift. Spins are characterized by high angle of attack, an airspeed below the stall on at least one wing, recovery may require a specific and counterintuitive set of actions in order to avoid a crash. A spin differs from a dive in which neither wing is stalled. A spiral dive is not a type of spin because neither wing is stalled, in the early years of flight, a spin was frequently referred to as a tailspin. A method used to control a spin before it develops is a maneuver called the falling leaf. Many types of airplane will only spin if the pilot simultaneously yaws, under these circumstances, one wing will stall, or stall more deeply than the other. The wing that stalls first will drop, increasing its angle of attack, at least one wing must be stalled for a spin to occur. The other wing will rise, decreasing its angle of attack, the difference in lift between the two wings causes the aircraft to roll, and the difference in drag causes the aircraft to continue yawing. One common scenario that can lead to a spin is a skidding uncoordinated turn toward the runway during the landing sequence. A pilot who is overshooting the turn to final approach may be tempted to apply more rudder to increase the rate of turn, the result is twofold, the nose of the airplane drops below the horizon and the bank angle increases due to rudder roll. Reacting to these changes, the pilot then begins to pull the elevator control aft while applying opposite aileron to decrease bank angle. Taken to its extreme, this can result in a turn with sufficient angle of attack to cause the aircraft to stall. This is called a stall, and is very dangerous if it happens at low altitude where the pilot has little time to recover. In order to avoid this scenario, pilots are taught the importance of always making coordinated turns and they may simply choose to make the final turn earlier and shallower to prevent an overshoot of the runway center line and provide a larger margin of safety. Certificated, light, single-engine airplanes must meet criteria regarding stall. Spins are often entered intentionally for training, flight testing, or aerobatics, in aircraft that are capable of recovering from a spin, the spin has four phases. Some aircraft are difficult or impossible to recover from a spin, at low altitude spin recovery may also be impossible before impacting terrain, making low and slow aircraft especially vulnerable to spin related accidents
21.
Israeli Navy
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The Israeli Navy is the naval warfare service arm of the Israel Defense Forces, operating primarily in the Mediterranean Sea theater as well as the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea theater. The current commander in chief of the Israeli Navy is Aluf Eli Sharvit, the Israeli Navy is believed to be responsible for maintaining Israels offshore nuclear second strike capability. The Academy trained cadets from all over Europe, Palestine and South Africa, in September 1937, the training ship Sarah I visited Haifa and Tel Aviv as part of a Mediterranean tour. In 1938, encouraged by the Jewish Agency, Dr. Shlomo Bardin founded the Marine High School in Bosmat,1943 witnessed the founding of the Palyam, the naval branch of the Palmach, whose training was undertaken at the maritime school. The Jewish merchant marine was also raised, operating the SS Tel-Aviv, in 1942, eleven hundred Haganah volunteers joined the Royal Navy, mostly in technical roles. A few reached sea service and combat service, two of them served with the Fleet Air Arm, one of whom was Edmond Wilhelm Brillant and the other Zvi Avidror. Royal Navy volunteers, meanwhile, rejoined the Haganah and these were to become the Navys first ships and saw service in the 1948 Israeli War of Independence. At the outset of the 1948 war and with the founding of the IDF and these ships were refurbished by a newly formed naval repair facility with the assistance of two private shipbuilding and repair companies. In October 1948, a submarine chaser was purchased from the United States, Palyam members who had led the clandestine and immigration effort, but had no sea background in navigation or leading a ship into a battle. The captains of clandestine and immigration ships were Italian, while Palyam personnel were commanding the ship under instructions from the Haganah, ike Aharonowitch, captain of the Exodus and a Jew, was the exception rather than the rule. Merchant Marine captains and chief engineers, possessing navigation skills but lacking combat skills, Jewish volunteers from the U. S. Navy and Royal Navy, such as Commander Paul Shulman of the U. S. Navy, and Commanders Solomon and Allen Burk of the Royal Navy. These, however, were discriminated against and their experience wasted by a navy command that was based on the Palmach. This resulted in odd situations where unskilled officers from the Palyam were in command of far more experienced naval officers. During the war, the served on coastal patrol duties and bombarded Arab targets on land, including Egyptian coastal installations in. The Israeli Navy also engaged the Egyptian Navy at sea during Operation Yoav, and the Egyptian Navys flagship, to make matters worse, Palyam personnel often resisted efforts to instil order, discipline and rank in the newly formed service. Mess rooms were initially shared by both officers and enlisted men, ships possessed a captain with nautical skills, but also a commanding officer regarded as political. This would cause a great deal of debate between veterans of the Palyam, Royal Navy volunteers from the Haganah and U. S. Navy Machal volunteers about what form the Navy should take. Commander Allen Burk is reputed to have said, out of despair, RN Captain Ashe Lincoln, who was Jewish, advised PM Ben-Gurion to purchase corvettes, frigates, destroyers, torpedo-boats, and patrol boats to build up the Israeli Navy power
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
Ian Allan Publishing
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Ian Allan Publishing is a UK publisher, established in 1942, which specialised in transport books. It was founded by Ian Allan, the result was his first book, ABC of Southern Locomotives. This proved to be a success, leading to the emerging of trainspotting as a national hobby, the company has grown from a small producer of books for train enthusiasts and spotters to a large transport publisher. The headquarters is at the end of Shepperton railway station in Surrey. At the end of 2016, the announced that they were withdrawing from railway publishing. Crécy Publishing acquired these titles, including the Oxford and abc imprints, Ian Allan Publishing has acquired several companies and imprints. Midland Publishing was acquired in 1999, the Midland imprint provides a range of specialist, highly illustrated titles, covering military aviation subjects from World War II to the present day. In civil aviation, comprehensive works of reference are published frequently, Classic Publications, a publisher of aviation titles, was added in 2002, bringing another imprint widely considered important in the World War II aviation market. Ian Allan Publishings trade representation is provided by Amalgamated Book Services for its own imprints, in addition to the above Ian Allan also owns the imprint Lewis Masonic. Lewis Masonic produces the ritual used by UGLE lodges and chapters. Despite the title, the magazine covers products of all manufacturers, Railways Illustrated, a monthly publication targeting enthusiasts. Modern Railways, previously Trains illustrated combined with Locomotive and Carriage & Wagon Review, modern Locomotives Illustrated, previously Locomotives Illustrated Railway World Buses formerly Buses Illustrated Buses Focus is a spin-off from Buses magazine. Bus and Coach Preservation was first published in 2001 under the Ian Allan banner following a merger of two previous titles and this now bi-monthly journal covers the world of historic transport. It has been established for over 20 years, Aircraft Illustrated was first published in 1968. It covered up to date news and features on civil aviation, airliners, in 2009 the magazine changed its focus to classic aircraft exclusively and was renamed Classic Aircraft. Combat Aircraft provides in-depth coverage of the men and the machines at the forefront of the undertaken in today’s combat zones. Model Railway Constructor A history of the company and of its publications down to 1967 appeared in the November 1967 edition of their pmagazine Railway World and those magazines still in print were acquired by Key Publishing in March 2012. Through the Lewis Masonic imprint, the company publishes the quarterly masonic magazine The Square
24.
Suez Canal
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The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
25.
Suez Canal Authority
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Suez Canal Authority is a state owned authority which owns, operates and maintains the Suez Canal. It was set up by Egypt to replace the Suez Canal Company in the 1950s which resulted in the Suez Crisis, after the UN intervened, Egypt agreed to pay millions of dollars to shareholders of the nationalized Suez Canal Company. SCA is an independent authority having legal personality, SCA was established by the nationalization act signed on 26 July 1956 by the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. The act at the same time nationalized the Suez Canal Company and transferred all its assets, the head office is located in Ismaïlia. In Port Said the administration building of the earlier Suez Canal Company is used and its Board of Directors comprises 14 persons, including the Chairman & Managing Director. SCA issues the Rules of Navigation, fixes the tolls for the use of the canal, the tolls are expressed in XDR and collected in USD, GBP, EUR and other currencies. In 2008, the revenue in tolls was 5,381.9 million USD for the passage of a total of 21,415 vessels - resulting in an average toll of 251,314.5 USD per vessel. SCA is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the Suez Canal, for the safety of the traffic, SCA is responsible for the computerized traffic management supported by radar, for the 14 pilot stations and their pilots. Since 1996, SCA operates the Maritime Training and Simulation Center for its pilots, SCA operates some 60 ships and boats, such as tugs, dredgers, cranes, and smaller boats. Suez Canal Authority official website Port Said Port Authority Egyptian Maritime Data Bank, a service of the Egyptian government
26.
Suez Governorate
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Suez Governorate is one of the governorates of Egypt. It is located in the part of the country and is coterminous with the city of Suez. It is situated north of the Gulf of Suez, according to population estimates from 2015 all 622,859 residents of the governorate live in urban areas. With an urbanization rate of 100% the Suez Governorate is one of the most urbanized in the country, along with Cairo, natural resources in the Suez Governorate include limestone, clay, coal, petroleum, marble, and lime. The chief exports of Suez are papayas, ein El-Sokhna, a well known recreational and medical destination. Moses springs Judaic Hill at El-Khoor In 1975, the Suez Public Free Zone was established and it is divided between two main locations, Port Tewfik and Adabeya. Suez Canal Suez crisis Official website Ministry of Trade and Industry Free Zones site
27.
Ismailia Governorate
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Ismailia Governorate is one of the Canal Zone governorates of Egypt. Located in the part of the country, its capital is the city of Ismailia. It was named after Ismail Pasha, who as Ottoman Viceroy of Egypt and it is located between the other two Canal governorates, Port Said Governorate, in the Northern part of Egypt and Suez Governorate. According to population estimates from 2015 the majority of residents in the live in rural areas. Out of an estimated 1,178,641 people residing in the governorate,643,778 people live in areas as opposed to only 534,863 in urban areas. Instead this festival has been celebrating its annual events in Ismailia Governorate and it is sponsored by the Ministry of Culture, Ismailia Governorate, The National Cinema Center and other sponsors. The Ismailia Governorate is on the banks of the Suez Canal and its Ismailia Canal extends from the Nile River near Cairo, to the Suez Canal at the city of Ismailia, the Ismailia Canal was built to provide fresh water to workers during the building of the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal Authority headquarters is located in Ismailia, from 1967 to 1970, Ismailia became a war zone and was damaged in the conflict with Israel. There are several official fishing landing sites in Ismailia, one is at Lake Timsah and the other at Bitter Lake. After a successful SIP from 1992-1997, the United Nations expanded the project to include the entire Governorate of Ismailia calling it SGIP and its goal is to work with local partners to improve the communities in Ismailia
28.
Port Said Governorate
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Port Said Governorate is one of the Canal Zone governorates of Egypt. It is located in the part of the country, on the Mediterranean Sea at the northern gate of the Suez Canal. Its capital is the city of Port Said, it is the home of the Suez Canal Authority headquarters and it is urban with 98. 2% of the area populated. Port Said Governorate also includes Port Fuad, in 2015 a huge natural gas reserve was discovered and was described as the largest ever found in the Mediterranean Sea. It was found off the coast of Port Said, Egypt now has one of the largest areas of natural gas and Italian company, ENI has been contracted to work on the natural gas liquefaction for Egypt. It was welcome news as Egypt has long suffered an energy crisis, the New Suez Canal project launched in 2015 included dredging of the East Port Said Canal. Port Said Port Fuad At the 2006 Census, there were 570,768 people,2015 estimates put that figure at 666,599. With an urbanization rate of 100%, the Port Said Governorate is one of the most urbanized in the country, along with Cairo, in February,2012, more than 70 people died in the Port Said Stadium Riot after a soccer match. Social unrest in early 2013 continued for at least two weeks, while protesting, on March 5,2013, protesters set fire to the governorates headquarters and several people were injured. In October,2016 Egyptians protested the increase in their rent on apartments, one official and several residents were arrested. Port Said Governorate is a transit point for trade, importing and exporting millions of tons of goods each year. Tourism is also promoted for the region, there are several museums in this area. For cultural tourism one may want to visit the Port Said National Museum of Antiquities which opened in 1987 and is located at the confluence of the Suez Canal waters and the Mediterranean Sea. It houses about 9,000 artifacts from all eras, ranging from the Pharaonic, Greek, Roman, the Military Museum of Port Said, established in 1964, commemorates the 1956 the tripartite aggression on the city. It features armory and military artifacts, equipment used in the wars fought between 1956 -1967 and in 1973, al-Nasr Museum of Modern Art in Port Said opened on December 25,1995 and includes artwork by Egyptian artists in various branches of Fine Art. This makes it a favorite with tourists, nearby, is the Suez Canal Authority building built on the banks of Port Said at the start of the project. The lighthouse and jetties at Port Said, located at the terminus of the Suez canal. The lighthouse is a monolith 180 feet high, in the construction 120,000 tons of Teil hydraulic lime were used
29.
Port Said
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Port Said is a city that lies in north east Egypt extending about 30 kilometres along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, north of the Suez Canal, with an approximate population of 603,787. The city was established in 1859 during the building of the Suez Canal, Port Said is also an important harbour for exports of Egyptian products like cotton and rice, but also a fueling station for ships that pass through the Suez Canal. It thrives on being a port, as well as a tourist resort especially during summer. It is home to the Lighthouse of Port Said, there are numerous old houses with grand balconies on all floors, giving the city a distinctive look. Port Saids twin city is Port Fuad, which lies on the bank of the canal. The two cities coexist, to the extent that there is hardly any town centre in Port Fuad, the only other metropolitan area in the world that also spans two continents is Istanbul. Most of them were from Mediterranean countries, and they coexisted in tolerance, the name of Port Said first appeared in 1855, It was chosen by an International committee composed of Great Britain, France, the Russian Empire, Austria, Spain and Piedmont. It is a name which composed of two parts, Port and Said, who granted Ferdinand de Lesseps the concession to dig the Suez Canal. Port Said was founded by Said of Egypt on Easter Monday, April 25,1859, the first problem encountered was the difficulty for ships to drop anchor nearby. Luckily, a rocky outcrop flush with the shoreline was discovered a few hundred meters away. Equipped with a wharf, it served as a mooring berth for the boats. Soon after, a jetty was built, connecting the departure islet, as it quickly became known. This rock could be considered the heart of the city, and it was on this highly symbolic site, forty years later. There were no local resources here, everything Port Said needed had to be imported, wood, stone, supplies, machinery, equipment, housing, food and even water. Giant water storage containers were erected to supply fresh water until the Sweet Water Canal could be completed, one of the most pressing problems was the lack of stone. Early buildings were imported in kit form and made great use of wood. A newly developed technique was used to construct the jetties called conglomerate concrete or Beton Coignet, artificial blocks of concrete were sunk into the sea to be the foundations of the jetties. Still more innovative was the use of the concrete for the lighthouse of Port Said
30.
Port Fuad
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Port Fouad is a city in north-eastern Egypt under the jurisdiction of Port Said Governorate, located across the Suez Canal from Port Said. It forms the northwesternmost part of Sinai Peninsula and has a population of 560,000, Port Fouad and Port Said are on opposite sides of the canal and face each other. Together they form a metropolitan area, Port Fouad was established in 1926, principally to relieve overcrowding in Port Said, and was named after King Fuad I, the first holder of the title King of Egypt in the modern era. The Suez Canal Authority forms the main employment of the city, residents of Port Fouad travel to Port Said by ferry. After the war of 1967 Port Fouad was the piece of Sinai held by the Egyptians. The Israeli army tried to capture Port Fouad during the War of Attrition, after the October War, the Camp David Accord in 1978 Israel agreed to return Sinai to Egypt peacefully, and later the two countries signed a peace treaty. Today Port Fouad is a major Air Defence Position for Egypt, despite its important location, as of 2006, Port Fouad was still considered a residential zone, with very few facilities and no major downtown or city center
31.
Suez Canal Container Terminal
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Suez Canal Container Terminal is a container terminal located at Port Said East and functions as a transshipment centre for the Eastern Mediterranean at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal. The terminal has been operational since October 2004, Suez Canal Container Terminal is a private joint venture company that obtained the concession to build, operate, and manage this new terminal. The majority shareholding of SCCT is held by APM Terminals, 20% of the shares are held by COSCO, 10% are held by Suez Canal & Affiliates, 5% by the National Bank of Egypt, and the remaining 10% are held by the Egyptian private sector. The Egyptian government signed an agreement for a term of 30 years in relation to the need for a container terminal in Port Said. In 2002, Egypt ratified an additional concession agreement, following approval of terminal design in 2001. Construction on the SCCT first started in 2003, and a date of October 1 of the following year was established. The Suez Canal Container Terminal became operational in October 2004, in 2007, the Egyptian government signed a concession agreement for the progression of Phase II of the SCCT facility. APM Terminals A. P. Moller-Maersk Group Port Said Port Authority SCCT Suez Canal Container Terminal
32.
Ismailia
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Ismailia is a city in north-eastern Egypt. Known in Egypt as The City of Beauty and Enchantment, Ismailia is situated on the west bank of the Suez Canal, the city has a population of approximately 750,000 inhabitants. It is located halfway between Port Said to the north and Suez to the south. The Canal widens at that point to include Lake Timsah, one of the Bitter Lakes linked by the Canal, Ismailia was founded in 1863, during the construction of the Suez Canal, by Khedive Ismail the Magnificent, after whom the city is named. Following the Battle of Kafr-el-Dawwar in 1882 the British established a base there, the head office of the Suez Canal Authority is located in Ismailia at the shore of Lake Timsah. It still has a number of buildings dating from British. Most of these buildings are used by Canal employees and officials. During World War I the British had an air base there, in 1973 the Battle of Ismailia took place in the city. The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in Ismailia by Hassan al-Banna in March 1928, an underground paramilitary wing was established in the 1940s, primarily to fight British occupation forces. In the early 1950s, Ismailia hosted the British Military HQ, British forces pulled out of Ismailia in 1954. On 1982.12.17 an Eparchy of Ismayliah was established on territory split off from the Coptic Catholic Patriarchate of Alexandria and they face educational problems schools all around Egypt face. Private tutoring is widely accessible and is almost a requirement for all students. Two international schools, Manar Language School and Educational Language Complex School offer American Diploma, Ismailia is the home of Suez Canal University, established in 1976 to serve the region of Suez Canal and Sinai. Suez Canal University now is one of the fastest growing institutions in Egypt with many students studying abroad. The new university of Suez Canal University was established with the help of the Chinese Government, Ismailia hosts two important festivals each year. The first is the International Film Festival for Documentaries and Shorts that is held in June, in June 2014 the 17th consecutive festival was organized. The second is the Ismailia International Folklore Arts Festival that is held in September, in this festival folkloric troupes from all around the globe meet in Ismailia, where they perform folkloric dances representing the culture of their countries. A major attraction is the Ismailia Museum which was built in 1932, visitors will find a variety of significant archaeological finds especially from sites in the Ismailia governorate such as Tell el-Maskhuta, from North Sinai, and from Upper Egypt
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Suez
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Suez is a seaport city in north-eastern Egypt, located on the north coast of the Gulf of Suez, near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal, having the same boundaries as Suez governorate. It has three harbors, Adabya, Ain Sukhna and Port Tawfiq, and extensive port facilities, together they form a metropolitan area. Railway lines and highways connect the city with Cairo, Port Said, Suez has a petrochemical plant, and its oil refineries have pipelines carrying the finished product to Cairo. In the 7th century AD a town named Kolzum stood just north of the site of present-day Suez and served as terminus of a canal built by Amr ibn al-As linking the Nile River. Kolzums trade fell following the closure of the canal in 770 by the second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur to prevent his enemies in Arabia from accessing supplies from Egypt, nonetheless, the town benefited from the trade that remained between Egypt and Arabia. By 780 al-Mansurs successor al-Mahdi restored part of the canal, the Qarmatians led by Hasan ibn Ahmad defeated a Fatimid army headed by Gawhar al-Siqilli at Kolzum in 971 and thereby captured the town. Following his defeat in Cairo by al-Siqilli at the end of year, Hasan. Suez was situated nearby and served as a source of drinking water for Kolzum according to Arab traveler al-Muqaddasi who visited in 986, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, Saladin, fortified both Kolzum and Suez in to defend Egypts eastern frontier from Crusader raids by Raynald of Chatillon. Between 1183-84, Raynald had ships stationed in the Red Sea to prevent the Ayyubid garrison at Kolzum from accessing water, in response, Saladins brother al-Adil had Husam ad-Din Lulu build a naval fleet which sailed to the southern port of Aidab to end Raynalds venture. By the 13th century it was recorded that Kolzum was in ruins as was Suez which had replaced the former as a population center. According to Muslim historians al-Maqrizi and al-Idrisi, Kolzum had once been a prosperous town, Arab geographer al-Dimashqi noted that Kolzum belonged to the Mamluk province of al-Karak at the time. Following the Ottomans conquest of Egypt at the beginning of the 16th century, the Ottoman fleets at Suez were instrumental in disputing control with the Portuguese over Indian Ocean trade. However, by 1798, during Napoleonic invasion, Suez had devolved into an unimportant town, fighting between the French and the British in 1800 left most of the town in ruins. Its importance as a port increased after the Suez Canal opened in 1869, the city was virtually destroyed during battles in the late 1960s and early 1970s between Egyptian and Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula. The town was deserted following the Six Day War in 1967, reconstruction of Suez began soon after Egypt reopened the Suez Canal, following the October War with Israel. Suez was the first city to major protests against the government of Hosni Mubarak during the 2011 Egyptian revolution and was the scene of the first fatality of that uprising. On account of this, it has called the Sidi Bouzid of Egypt. The city is divided into five districts, It is most populous district of the city
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Suez Port
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The Suez Port is an Egyptian port located at the southern boundary of the Suez Canal. It is bordered by the line extending from Ras-El-Adabieh to Moussa sources including the North Coast until the entrance of Suez Canal. Originally Port Tewfik was named as the entrance of the canal, Port Suez covers a larger area with multiple harbours. Enclosed in breakwaters is the artificial El Mira-El Gedda bay, Port Tawfik To the West of the Suez Canal entrance. It uses the enclosed Ibrahim Dock, Petroleum Dock in the Western part of the El Gedda bay. Borders are limited by the port breakwaters, the waters outside the boundaries of Ibrahim Dock, Petroleum Dock, Ataka Port, Adabiya Port and New Petroleum berth are within the Suez Canal jurisdiction. Transportation in Egypt Port Tewfik Memorial The Suez port
35.
Suezmax
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Suezmax is a naval architecture term for the largest ship measurements capable of transiting the Suez Canal in a laden condition, and is almost exclusively used in reference to tankers. Since the canal has no locks, the only serious limiting factors are draft, the current channel depth of the canal allows for a maximum of 20. The canal was deepened in 2009 from 18 to 20 metres, the typical deadweight of a Suezmax ship is about 160,000 tons and typically has a beam of 50 m. Also of note is the maximum head room—air draft—limitation of 68 m, Suez Canal Authority produces tables of width and acceptable draft, which are subject to change. The similar terms Panamax, Malaccamax, and Seawaymax are used for the largest ships capable of fitting through the Panama Canal, aframax tankers are those with a capacity of 80,000 tonnes deadweight to 120,000 DWT. The term Chinamax refers to vessels able to use a number of harbours while fully laden, Capesize refers to bulk carriers too big to pass through the Suez Canal—and needing to go around the Cape of Good Hope—but recent dredging means many Capesize vessels can use the canal. Plans to deepen the draft to 70 feet could lead to a redefinition of the Suezmax specification, list of Panamax ports Cargo ship size categories Ship sizes
36.
Lake Manzala
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Lake Manzala, also Manzaleh, is a brackish lake, sometimes called a lagoon, in northeastern Egypt on the Nile Delta near Port Said and a few miles from the ancient ruins at Tanis. It is the largest of the northern lakes of Egypt. As of 2008 it is 47 km long and 30 km wide, Lake Manzala is long but quite shallow. Before construction of the Suez Canal, Lake Manzala was separated from the Mediterranean Sea by a strip of sand 200 to 300 yards wide, Port Said was established adjacent to Lake Manzala during the nineteenth century to support canal construction and related travel. The lakes location directly south of the Port Said Airport restricts the capacity for growth. Lake Manzala is the northernmost of three natural lakes intersected by the Suez Canal, the two being Lake Timsah and the Great Bitter Lake. Construction of the canal proceeded from north to south, reaching Manzala first, due to the lakes shallowness, it was necessary to dig a banked channel for ships to pass. Lake Manzala served as a significant source of fish for human consumption in Egypt. In 1985, the fishery was an open area of 89,000 ha. The government of Egypt drained substantial portions of the lake in an effort to convert its rich Nile deposits to farmland. The project was unprofitable, crops did not grow well in the salty soil, by 2001, Lake Manzala had lost approximately 80 percent of its former area through the effects of drainage efforts. Restoring and protecting the lakes and reservoirs. Penn, James R. Rivers of the world
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Lake Timsah
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Lake Timsah, also known as Crocodile Lake, is a lake in Egypt on the Nile delta. It lies in a basin developed along a fault extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the Gulf of Suez through the Bitter Lakes region. In 1800, a flood filled the Wadi Tumilat, which caused Timsahs banks to overflow, in 1862, the lake was filled with waters from the Red Sea. Lake Timsah lies within a depression that spans the isthmus between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, the lowest points of the depression form shallow natural lakes, of which Timsah is one. The surface area of Lake Timsah covers 5.4 square miles, most of the lake is marshy and depth rarely exceeds 3 feet. It has been asserted that, in ancient times, Lake Timsah was the terminus of the Red Sea. March 4,1863, the city of Ismailia, named in honor of the viceroy Ismail Pasha, several beaches overlook the lake, including the Moslem Youth, Fayrouz, Melaha, Bahary, Taawen, and a few Suez Canal Authority beaches. Lake Timsah possibly first became a juncture for canal construction approximately 4,000 years ago during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, Suez Canal construction in the vicinity of Lake Timsah began in 1861 on the segment north of the lake. Initial preparations included the construction of sheds to house 10,000 workers, steam sawmills,3,000 laborers dug a channel from the Nile to Lake Timsah in 1861 and 1862, which brought a fresh water supply to the area. It was also proposed to construct a port at this point along the canal. The Ismailia section of the Suez Canal, which connected Lake Manzala to Lake Timsah, was completed in November 1862, construction of the segment was completed with forced labor, which expanded the workforce to 18,000 men. The trench measured 50 feet wide by four to six feet deep, work began south of Lake Timsah in 1862-1863 as expansion continued on the northern segment. Forced labor was used during construction from March 1862 until Ismail Pasha outlawed the practice in 1864. As a result of the canal, waters from Lake Manzaleh flowed into Lake Timsah, expansion continued on the northern segment until 1867 and on the southern segment until 1876. Lake Timsah is a lake that experiences significant variations in salinity. Human engineering projects have impacted salinity, with resulting changes in the lakes biota, the El-Gamil outlet serves as Lake Timsahs principal source of salt water. Timsahs main source of water was annual Nile flooding until the Aswan High Dam interrupted these flows in 1966. Lake Timsah experiences both stratification variations in salinity and seasonal variations in salinity, and in recent decades freshwater taxa have been overtaking brackish taxa
38.
Great Bitter Lake
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The Great Bitter Lake is a saltwater lake in Egypt, connected to the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea via the Suez Canal. It is connected to the Small Bitter Lake, through which the canal also runs, before the canal was built, the site was a dry salt valley or basin. References are made to the Great Bitter Lake in the ancient Pyramid Texts, ships traveling through the Suez Canal use the Great Bitter Lake as a passing lane, where they can change their position in line or turn around. When the Suez Canal was closed, during the war, the salinity of the lake increased substantially, the salinity of the lake depends on how much fresh water flows into it from the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. As the canal has no locks, sea water flows freely into the lake from the Mediterranean, in general, north of the lakes the current reverses seasonally, being north-going in winter and south-going in summer. South of the lakes, the current is tidal, reversing with the tides in the Red Sea, fish can migrate, generally in a northerly direction, through the canal and lakes in what is known as a Lessepsian migration. This means that some Red Sea species have come to colonize the eastern Mediterranean, on 14 February 1945, Great Bitter Lake was the site of the Quincy Agreement. President Roosevelts interpreter was U. S. Marine Corps Colonel Bill Eddy who recorded the conversation in his book FDR Meets Ibn Saud. The meeting is the subject of a BBC documentary by Adam Curtis, during the Six-Day War in 1967, the canal was closed, leaving 15 ships trapped in the lake until 1975. These ships became known as the Yellow Fleet, because of the sands which soon covered their decks. The crews of the ships would eventually organize, share resources, two German-flagged ships eventually sailed out of the canal on their own power. Stranded cargo included various perishables, T-shirts, and a load of toys destined for Woolworths
39.
Sweet Water Canal
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Sweet Water Canal, also known as Fresh Water Canal and currently known as Ismaïlia Canal, is a canal which was dug by thousands of Egyptian fellahin to facilitate the construction of the Suez Canal. The canal travels east-west across Ismailia Governorate and it was dug to provide fresh water to the arid area, from Lake Timsah to Suez and Port Said. The canal facilitated the growth of settlements along the Suez Canal. Like the Suez Canal, it was designed by French engineers and it runs through the now-dry distributary of the Wadi Tumilat, incorporating portions of an ancient Suez Canal that existed between Old Cairo and the Red Sea. In February 1862, after thousands of workers excavated 1.1 million cubic meters, as soon as the fresh water reached the area, more laborers could be hired for the Suez Canal construction project. The canal also allowed for the transportation of materials and food with ferries traveling along its narrow ways. The Battle of Kassassin Lock was fought near Sweet Water Canal, less than 100 years later, the canal no longer provided clean, fresh water but was disturbingly polluted. During the 1950s when British soldiers were stationed in the area, royal Air Force personnel were advised to avoid contact with the water and were warned that the canal was where deserters would end up
40.
Port Said Lighthouse
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The Port Said Lighthouse is one of the most important architectural and tourist landmarks in the city of Port Said in Egypt. Construction was completed in 1869, one prior to the inauguration of the Suez Canal. The lighthouse was built to guide ships passing through the canal, the lighthouse has an octagonal shaped tower that is 56 m high. From 1868 until the end of his reign, Khedive Ismail ordered the construction of lighthouses at different points across Egypts Mediterranean coast. Among these, the lighthouse of Port Said had special significance owing to its connection to the Suez Canal, Ismail commissioned French architect François Coignet to design the lighthouse, and oversee its construction. Coignet used the technique of building the lighthouse out of reinforced concrete. The lack of stone quarries and the cost of importing stone from elsewhere caused those in charge of construction to become interested in the use of concrete. At the time, the lighthouse was a paragon of modernism worthy of an international reputation, the lighthouse was constructed by layering liquid 20 –25 cm in thickness. To ensure the structural cohesion of the whole, iron ties were inserted. The use of concrete was doubly innovative, employed as a material, not merely a substance for filling. Quite simply, reinforced concrete had been invented, the use of electric light made it possible to display a consistent flashing light and it was a state of the art lighthouse at the time. In 2010, intellectuals called for it to be turned into a museum of maritime transport, in January 2011, the Port Said lighthouse was officially registered as a national monument in Egypt
41.
Suez Canal Bridge
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The Mubarak Peace Bridge, also known as the Egyptian-Japanese Friendship Bridge, Al Salam Bridge, or Al Salam Peace Bridge, is a road bridge crossing the Suez Canal at El Qantara. The bridge links the continents of Africa and Eurasia, the bridge was built with assistance from the Japanese government. The main contractor was Kajima Corporation, the bridge was opened in October 2001. The bridge, which has a 70-metre clearance over the canal and is 3.9 kilometres long, consists of a 400-metre cable-stayed main span, the height of the two main pylons supporting the main span is 154 metres each. The towers were designed in the shape of Pharaonic obelisks, the clearance under the bridge is 70 metres. Therefore, the height of ships that can pass through the Suez Canal is 68 metres above the waterline. Embassy of Japan in Egypt, Economic Cooperation Planning, design and construction aspects of the Suez Canal cable stayed bridge
42.
El Ferdan Railway Bridge
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The El Ferdan Railway Bridge is a swing bridge that spans the Suez Canal near Ismailia, Egypt. It is the longest swing bridge in the world, with a span of 1,100 feet, the first El Ferdan Railway Bridge over the Suez Canal was completed in April 1918 for the Palestine Military Railway. It was considered a hindrance to shipping so after the First World War it was removed, a steel swing bridge was built in 1942, but this was damaged by a steamship and removed in 1947. A double swing bridge was completed in 1954 but the 1956 Anglo-Franco-Israeli war with Egypt severed rail traffic across the canal for a third time, a replacement bridge was completed in 1963 which was destroyed in 1967 in the Six-Day War by the Egyptian engineering General Ahmed Hamdy. The current bridge was constructed in 2001, another channel was dug in 2014/2015, and there is a need for another bridge there. Therefore El Ferdan bridge with the present situation, is obsolete, El Ferdan Swing Bridge at Structurae
43.
Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel
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The Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel is 1640 meter long tunnel, for automobiles, under the Suez Canal, at Shallufa. The tunnel is named for Ahmed Hamdi, an Egyptian engineer and it has two lanes of traffic, one in each direction, and connects the Asian Sinai Peninsula to the town of Suez on the African mainland. It was originally constructed as a tunnel by the Tarmac Construction in November 1981. In 1992, the Japanese government granted aid to a project aimed at rehabilitating the tunnel which had developed leaks and it is 1.63 km long and has an outside diameter of 11.6 m. Trans-African Highway network Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel
44.
Suez Canal overhead powerline crossing
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The Suez Canal overhead powerline crossing is a major electrical power line built across the Suez Canal in 1998, located near Suez, Egypt. It is designed for two 500 kV circuits, because the required clearance over the Suez Canal is 152 metres, the overhead line has two 221 metres high pylons in spite of its small span width of 600 metres. The pylons each have four crossarms, three for the conductors and one for catching the conductors in case of an insulator string failure and it was constructed by a consortium between STFA Enerkom and Siemens. Electric power transmission List of towers
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