1.
Pacific Exchange
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The Pacific Exchange was a regional stock exchange in California until 2001. Its main exchange floor and building were in San Francisco, California, with a building in Los Angeles. Its history began with the founding of the San Francisco Stock and Bond Exchange in 1882, in 1956 the two exchanges merged to create the Pacific Coast Stock Exchange, with trading floors maintained in both cities. In 1973, it was renamed the Pacific Stock Exchange, the Pacific Exchange was bought by Archipelago Holdings in 2005, which merged with the New York Stock Exchange in 2006. Pacific Exchange equities and options trading now takes place exclusively through the NYSE Arca platform and its history began with the founding of the San Francisco Stock and Bond Exchange in 1882 and the Los Angeles Oil Exchange in 1889. In 1956, the two merged to create the Pacific Coast Stock Exchange, though trading floors were maintained in both cities. In 1973, it was renamed the Pacific Stock Exchange and it began trading options three years later in 1976, in 1999, the exchange became the first U. S. stock exchange to demutualize. The trading floor in Los Angeles was closed in 2001, followed by the floor in San Francisco a year later,2003 saw the exchange launch PCX Plus, an electronic options trading platform. By 2005, the Pacific Exchange was bought by the owner of the ArcaEx platform, Archipelago Holdings, the New York Stock Exchange conducts no business operations under the name Pacific Exchange, essentially ending its separate identity. The San Francisco Pacific Exchange building, housing the equities trading floor, is located on Pine Street at the corner of Sansome Street in the Financial District and it was built in 1930 in the Moderne style, with its street facades clad in Yule marble. The building was sold to developers and converted by Equinox Fitness into a fitness center. An options trading floor still operates in the adjacent Mills Building and it was originally connected to the main building. The Mills Building trading floor had an expansion in September 1984. It was again expanded in the beginning with a larger entrance on Montgomery Street which utilized existing spiral marble staircases. The west wall was knocked out and the corridor behind turned into additional trading areas. Next, an area behind the trade-match room was converted into six additional trading areas to accommodate the exponential growth being experienced in late 1990s. The dual listing of issues in August 1999, decimalization of options quotes, other participants maintain offices and trading facilities off the exchange floor, but still remotely partake in electronic exchange trading. The Pacific Stock Exchange building in Los Angeles was in operation from 1931 to 1986, the Moderne style building is located on Spring Street in Downtown Los Angeles, and is a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument
2.
Honda PCX
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The Honda PCX is a scooter developed by Honda. It was produced by Thai Honda Manufacturing until 2013, starting from 2014 it is produced by Honda Vietnam, Honda PCX was first introduced for sale in November 2009. In 2012, the engine was redesigned to decrease friction, increasing efficiency. The new engine is based on Hondas eSP design, Honda continues to produce the 125 cc version for export to select markets, such as Europe, where local licence requirements favour this engine displacement. In 2014, the Honda PCX received major facelift, including new LED headlights, redesigned body, and few other tweaks. The global version of the Honda PCX is equipped with an idling stop system and this feature is not included on the US model due to safety concerns. To prevent excess wear on a separate starter motor, the Honda PCX uses its alternator by supplying power to the stator, as a result, engine start is completely muted. Other Honda 125/150 scooters with eSP moniker share a common engine with the Honda PCX
3.
Software release life cycle
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Usage of the alpha/beta test terminology originated at IBM. As long ago as the 1950s, IBM used similar terminology for their hardware development, a test was the verification of a new product before public announcement. B test was the verification before releasing the product to be manufactured, C test was the final test before general availability of the product. Martin Belsky, a manager on some of IBMs earlier software projects claimed to have invented the terminology, IBM dropped the alpha/beta terminology during the 1960s, but by then it had received fairly wide notice. The usage of beta test to refer to testing done by customers was not done in IBM, rather, IBM used the term field test. Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the project before formal testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development, in typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete, the alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing. In this phase, developers generally test the software using white-box techniques, additional validation is then performed using black-box or gray-box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black-box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release, alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. Alpha software may not contain all of the features that are planned for the final version, in general, external availability of alpha software is uncommon in proprietary software, while open source software often has publicly available alpha versions. The alpha phase usually ends with a freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete, Beta, named after the second letter of the Greek alphabet, is the software development phase following alpha. Software in the stage is also known as betaware. Beta phase generally begins when the software is complete but likely to contain a number of known or unknown bugs. Software in the phase will generally have many more bugs in it than completed software, as well as speed/performance issues. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing, the process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. Beta version software is useful for demonstrations and previews within an organization
4.
Bitmap
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In computing, a bitmap is a mapping from some domain to bits, that is, values which are zero or one. It is also called a bit array or bitmap index, in computer graphics, when the domain is a rectangle a bitmap gives a way to store a binary image, that is, an image in which each pixel is either black or white. The more general term refers to a map of pixels. Often bitmap is used for this as well, in some contexts, the term bitmap implies one bit per pixel, while pixmap is used for images with multiple bits per pixel. A bitmap is a type of organization or image file format used to store digital images. The term bitmap comes from the computer programming terminology, meaning just a map of bits, now, along with pixmap, it commonly refers to the similar concept of a spatially mapped array of pixels. Raster images in general may be referred to as bitmaps or pixmaps, whether synthetic or photographic, besides BMP, other file formats that store literal bitmaps include InterLeaved Bitmap, Portable Bitmap, X Bitmap, and Wireless Application Protocol Bitmap. Similarly, most other file formats, such as JPEG, TIFF, PNG, and GIF, also store bitmap images. In typical uncompressed bitmaps, image pixels are stored with a color depth of 1,4,8,16,24,32,48. Pixels of 8 bits and fewer can represent either grayscale or indexed color. An alpha channel may be stored in a bitmap, where it is similar to a grayscale bitmap, or in a fourth channel that, for example. The bits representing the bitmap pixels may be packed or unpacked, depending on the color depth, a pixel in the picture will occupy at least n/8 bytes, where n is the bit depth. In the formula above, header size and color palette size, due to effects of row padding to align each row start to a storage unit boundary such as a word, additional bytes may be needed. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the format for them is called DIB file format or BMP file format. According to Microsoft support, A device-independent bitmap is a used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another, a DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object. A DIB is normally transported in metafiles, BMP files, here, device independent refers to the format, or storage arrangement, and should not be confused with device-independent color. The X Window System uses a similar XBM format for black-and-white images, numerous other uncompressed bitmap file formats are in use, though most not widely
5.
Marietta, Georgia
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Marietta is located in central Cobb County, Georgia, United States, and is the countys seat and largest city. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 56,579. The 2013 estimate is 59,089, making it one of the Atlanta metropolitan areas largest suburbs, Marietta is the fourth largest of the principal cities of the Atlanta metropolitan statistical area. The origin of the name is uncertain and it is believed that the city was named for Mary Cobb, the wife of U. S. Senator and Superior Court judge Thomas Willis Cobb, judge Cobb is the namesake of the county. Homes were built by settlers near the Cherokee town of Big Shanty prior to 1824. The first plat was laid out in 1833, like most towns, Marietta had a square in the center with a courthouse. The Georgia General Assembly legally recognized the community on December 19,1834, built in 1838, Oakton House is the oldest continuously occupied residence in Marietta. The original barn, milk house, smokehouse, and wellhouse remain on the property, the spectacular gardens contain the boxwood parterre from the 1870s. Oakton served as Major General Lorings headquarters during the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in 1864, Marietta was initially selected as the hub for the new Western and Atlantic Railroad, and business boomed. By 1838, roadbed and trestles had been built north of the city, however, in 1840, political wrangling stopped construction for a time. In 1842, the new management decided to move the hub from Marietta to an area that would become Atlanta. Nonetheless, in 1850, when the railroad operation, Marietta shared in the resulting prosperity. Businessman and politician John Glover arrived in 1848, a popular figure, Glover was elected mayor when the city incorporated in 1852. Another early resident was Dr. Carey Cox, who promoted a water cure, the Cobb County Medical Society recognizes him as the countys first physician. The Georgia Military Institute was built in 1851, and the first bank opened in 1855, during the 1850s, fire destroyed much of the city on three separate occasions. By the time the Civil War began in 1861, Marietta had recovered from the fires, in April 1862, James Andrews, a civilian working with the Union Army, came to Marietta, along with a small party of Union soldiers dressed in civilian clothing. The group spent the night in the Fletcher House hotel located immediately in front of the Western and Atlantic Railroad
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
MS-DOS
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MS-DOS is a discontinued operating system for x86-based personal computers mostly developed by Microsoft. MS-DOS resulted from a request in 1981 by IBM for a system to use in its IBM PC range of personal computers. Microsoft quickly bought the rights to 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, IBM licensed and released it in August 1981 as PC DOS1.0 for use in their PCs. During its life, several competing products were released for the x86 platform and it was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of Windows ran as a GUI. It is a operating system, and consumes negligible installation space. MS-DOS was a form of 86-DOS – owned by Seattle Computer Products. This first version was shipped in August 1980, Microsoft, which needed an operating system for the IBM Personal Computer hired Tim Paterson in May 1981 and bought 86-DOS1.10 for $75,000 in July of the same year. Microsoft kept the number, but renamed it MS-DOS. They also licensed MS-DOS1. 10/1.14 to IBM, within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies. It was designed to be an OS that could run on any 8086-family computer, thus, there were many different versions of MS-DOS for different hardware, and there is a major distinction between an IBM-compatible machine and an MS-DOS machine. This design would have worked well for compatibility, if application programs had only used MS-DOS services to perform device I/O, Microsoft omitted multi-user support from MS-DOS because Microsofts Unix-based operating system, Xenix, was fully multi-user. After the breakup of the Bell System, however, AT&T Computer Systems started selling UNIX System V, believing that it could not compete with AT&T in the Unix market, Microsoft abandoned Xenix, and in 1987 transferred ownership of Xenix to the Santa Cruz Operation. On 25 March 2014, Microsoft made the code to SCP MS-DOS1.25, as an April Fools joke in 2015, Microsoft Mobile launched a Windows Phone application called MS-DOS Mobile which was presented as a new mobile operating system and worked similar to MS-DOS. Version 3.1 – Support for Microsoft Networks Version 3.2 – First version to support 3.5 inch,720 kB floppy drives and diskettes. Version 3.21 Version 3.22 – Version 3.25 Version 3.3 – First version to support 3.5 inch,1.44 MB floppy drives and diskettes, Version 3. 3a Version 3.31 – supports FAT16B and larger drives. MS-DOS4.0 and MS-DOS4.1 – A separate branch of development with additional multitasking features and it is unrelated to any later versions, including versions 4.00 and 4.01 listed below MS-DOS4. x – includes a graphical/mouse interface. It had many bugs and compatibility issues. Version 4.00 – First version to support a hard disk partition that is greater than 32 MiB. Version 4.01 – Microsoft rewritten Version 4.00 released under MS-DOS label, First version to introduce volume serial number when formatting hard disks and floppy disks
8.
BMP file format
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The BMP file format is capable of storing two-dimensional digital images both monochrome and color, in various color depths, and optionally with data compression, alpha channels, and color profiles. The Windows Metafile specification covers the BMP file format, among others wingdi. h defines BMP constants and structures. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the format for them is called DIB file format or BMP image file format. According to Microsoft support, A device-independent bitmap is a used to define device-independent bitmaps in various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one device to another, a DIB is an external format, in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object. A DIB is normally transported in metafiles, BMP files, the following sections discuss the data stored in the BMP file or DIB in detail. This is the standard BMP file format, some applications create bitmap image files which are not compliant with the Microsoft documentation. Also, not all fields are used, a value of 0 will be found in these unused fields, the bitmap image file consists of fixed-size structures as well as variable-size structures appearing in a predetermined sequence. Many different versions of some of these structures can appear in the file, the in-memory DIB data structure is almost the same as the BMP file format, but it does not contain the 14-byte bitmap file header and begins with the DIB header. For DIBs loaded in memory, the table can also consist of 16-bit entries that constitute indexes to the currently realized palette. In all cases, the array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In non-packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should be located immediately after the table and before the gap1. In all cases, the array must begin at a memory address that is a multiple of 4 bytes. In some cases it may be necessary to adjust the number of entries in the table in order to force the memory address of the pixel array to a multiple of 4 bytes. For packed DIBs loaded in memory, the optional color profile data should immediately follow the pixel array, packed DIBs are required by Windows clipboard API functions as well as by some Windows patterned brush and resource functions. This block of bytes is at the start of the file and is used to identify the file, a typical application reads this block first to ensure that the file is actually a BMP file and that it is not damaged. The first 2 bytes of the BMP file format are the character B then the character M in ASCII encoding, all of the integer values are stored in little-endian format. This block of bytes tells the detailed information about the image
9.
JPEG
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JPEG is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography. The degree of compression can be adjusted, allowing a selectable tradeoff between size and image quality. JPEG typically achieves 10,1 compression with little loss in image quality. JPEG compression is used in a number of file formats. These format variations are not distinguished, and are simply called JPEG. The term JPEG is an initialism/acronym for the Joint Photographic Experts Group, the MIME media type for JPEG is image/jpeg, except in older Internet Explorer versions, which provides a MIME type of image/pjpeg when uploading JPEG images. JPEG files usually have an extension of. jpg or. jpeg. JPEG/JFIF supports a maximum size of 65, 535×65,535 pixels. JPEG stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, the name of the committee created the JPEG standard. The Joint stood for ISO TC97 WG8 and CCITT SGVIII, in 1987 ISO TC97 became ISO/IEC JTC1 and in 1992 CCITT became ITU-T. Currently on the JTC1 side JPEG is one of two sub-groups of ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 29, Working Group 1 – titled as Coding of still pictures, on the ITU-T side ITU-T SG16 is the respective body. The original JPEG group was organized in 1986, issuing the first JPEG standard in 1992, which was approved in September 1992 as ITU-T Recommendation T.81 and in 1994 as ISO/IEC 10918-1. The JPEG standard specifies the codec, which defines how an image is compressed into a stream of bytes and decompressed back into an image, the Exif and JFIF standards define the commonly used file formats for interchange of JPEG-compressed images. JPEG standards are formally named as Information technology – Digital compression, ISO/IEC10918 consists of the following parts, Ecma International TR/98 specifies the JPEG File Interchange Format, the first edition was published in June 2009. The JPEG compression algorithm is at its best on photographs and paintings of scenes with smooth variations of tone. For web usage, where the amount of used for an image is important. JPEG/Exif is also the most common format saved by digital cameras, on the other hand, JPEG may not be as well suited for line drawings and other textual or iconic graphics, where the sharp contrasts between adjacent pixels can cause noticeable artifacts. Such images may be saved in a lossless graphics format such as TIFF, GIF, PNG
10.
Portable Network Graphics
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Portable Network Graphics is a raster graphics file format that supports lossless data compression. PNG was created as an improved, non-patented replacement for Graphics Interchange Format, PNG supports palette-based images, grayscale images, and full-color non-palette-based RGB/RGBA images. PNG was designed for transferring images on the Internet, not for professional-quality print graphics, a PNG file contains a single image in an extensible structure of chunks, encoding the basic pixels and other information such as textual comments and integrity checks. PNG files nearly always use file extension PNG or png and are assigned MIME media type image/png, PNG was approved for this use by the Internet Engineering Steering Group on 14 October 1996, and was published as an ISO/IEC standard in 2004. In this thread, Oliver Fromme, author of the popular DOS JPEG viewer QPEG, proposed the PING name, meaning PING is not GIF, although GIF allows for animation, it was decided that PNG should be a single-image format. In 2001, the developers of PNG published the Multiple-image Network Graphics format, MNG achieved moderate application support, but not enough among mainstream web browsers and no usage among web site designers or publishers. In 2008, certain Mozilla developers published the Animated Portable Network Graphics format with similar goals,1 October 1996, Version 1.0 of the PNG specification was released, and later appeared as RFC2083. It became a W3C Recommendation on 1 October 1996,31 December 1998, Version 1.1, with some small changes and the addition of three new chunks, was released. 11 August 1999, Version 1.2, adding one extra chunk, was released,10 November 2003, PNG became an International Standard. This version of PNG differs only slightly from version 1.2, the original PNG specification was authored by an ad-hoc group of computer graphics experts and enthusiasts. Discussions and decisions about the format were done exclusively via email, a chunk consists of four parts, length, chunk type/name, chunk data and CRC. The CRC is a network-byte-order CRC-32 computed over the type and chunk data. Chunk types are given a case sensitive ASCII type/name, compare FourCC. The case of the different letters in the name is a bit field that provides the decoder with some information on the nature of chunks it does not recognize, the case of the first letter indicates whether the chunk is critical or not. If the first letter is uppercase, the chunk is critical, if not, critical chunks contain information that is necessary to read the file. If a decoder encounters a critical chunk it does not recognize, the case of the second letter indicates whether the chunk is public or private. Uppercase is public and lowercase is private and this ensures that public and private chunk names can never conflict with each other. The third letter must be uppercase to conform to the PNG specification and it is reserved for future expansion
11.
ACDSee
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ACDSee is an image organizer, viewer, and image editor programs for Windows, macOS and iOS, developed by ACD Systems International Inc. ACDSee was originally distributed as a 16-bit application for Windows 3.0, ACDSee Pro 6 adds native 64-bit support. ACDSees main features are speed, lossless RAW image editing, image processing, editing metadata, rating, keywords, and categories. Most of ACDSees features can be accessed via keyboard, ACDSee displays a tree view of the file structure for navigation with thumbnail images of the selected folder, and a preview of a selected image. ACDSee started as an image organizer/viewer, but over time had image editing, the thumbnails generated by ACDSee are cached, so that they do not need to be regenerated, and stored on disk as a database. ACDSees database can be backed up, and exported/imported as XML or binary, each database and its associated thumbnails can also be loaded and saved as separate entities. The photo manager is available as a version, and a pro version which provides additional features. In 2012, ACDSee Free was released, without advanced features, ACDSee was first released in 1994 as a 16-bit application for Windows 3.1. In 1997 32-bit ACDsee 95 was released for Windows 95,1999 saw the release of ACDSee 3.0. Version 5.0 was released in 2002, and 7.0 in 2005, development of this line continues, with version 20.0 released in 2016. This early version of ACDSee is sometimes known as ACDSee Classic of ACDSee 32, ACDSee Pro was released on 9 January 2006 to provide a computer program for professional photographers. ACDSee Pro’s development team is based out of Victoria, British Columbia and was led by Jon McEwan, and more recently by Nels Anvik. The original ACDSee software was created by David Hooper, who added a number of features to ACDSee Pro, such as Lighting correction. ACDSee Pro is written in C++, with the interface built using MFC, the first version was simply known as “ACDSee Pro”, without any version number. However, in the box, it was identified as being “Version 8. 0”. Future versions of ACDSee Pro restarted the version numbers, beginning with 2.0, ACDSee Pro 2 was released on 11 September 2007. It included a new demosaicing algorithm, which improved the quality of RAW processing.5 was released on 10 September 2008. It made significant improvements in its handling of RAW files and enabled full non-destructive editing and it also improved the interface and added more online publishing tools
12.
GIMP
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GIMP /ɡɪmp/ is a free and open-source raster graphics editor used for image retouching and editing, free-form drawing, converting between different image formats, and more specialized tasks. GIMP is released under GPLv3+ licenses and is available for Linux, macOS, GIMP was originally released as the General Image Manipulation Program. In 1995 Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis began developing GIMP as a project at the University of California. In 1996 GIMP was released as the first publicly available release, in the following year Richard Stallman visited UC Berkeley where Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis asked if they could change General to GNU. Richard Stallman approved and the definition of the acronym GIMP was changed to be the GNU Image Manipulation Program and this reflected its new existence as being developed as Free Software as a part of the GNU Project. The number of architectures and operating systems supported has expanded significantly since its first release. The first release supported UNIX systems, such as Linux, SGI IRIX, lillqvist in 1997 and was supported in the GIMP1.1 release. Following the first release GIMP was quickly adopted and a community of contributors formed, the community began developing tutorials, artwork and shared better work-flows and techniques. A GUI toolkit called GTK was developed to facilitate the development of GIMP, GTK was replaced by its successor GTK+ after being redesigned using object-oriented programming techniques. The development of GTK+ has been attributed to Peter Mattis becoming disenchanted with the Motif toolkit GIMP originally used, GIMP is primarily developed by volunteers as a free software project associated to both the GNU and GNOME Projects. Development takes place in a public git source code repository, on mailing lists. New features are held in public separate source code branches and merged into the branch when the GIMP team is sure they wont damage existing functions. Sometimes this means that features that appear complete do not get merged or take months or years before they become available in GIMP, GIMP itself is released as source code. After a source code release installers and packages are made for different operating systems by parties who might not be in contact with the maintainers of GIMP. The version number used in GIMP is expressed in a format, with each number carrying a specific meaning. Each year GIMP applies for several positions in the Google Summer of Code, from 2006 to 2009 there have been nine GSoC projects that have been listed as successful, although not all successful projects have been merged into GIMP yet. Several of the GSoC projects were completed in 2008, but have not been merged into a stable GIMP release, actual Development Version is 2.9.4 with many deep improvements. Next stable Version in Roadmap is 2.10, the user interface of GIMP is designed by a dedicated design and usability team
13.
ImageMagick
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ImageMagick is a free and open-source software suite for displaying, converting, and editing raster image and vector image files. It can read and write over 200 image file formats, ImageMagick was created in 1987 by John Cristy when working at DuPont, to convert 24-bit images to 8-bit images, so they could be displayed on most screens. It was freely released in 1990 when DuPont agreed to copyright to ImageMagick Studio LLC. In May 2016, it was reported that ImageMagick had a vulnerability through which an attacker can execute code on servers that use the application to edit user-uploaded images. Security experts including CloudFlare researchers observed actual use of the vulnerability in active hacking attempts, the software mainly consists of a number of command-line interface utilities for manipulating images. Execute the following on Linux or UNIX to launch the GUI, $ display Otherwise, the program uses magic numbers to identify image file formats. ImageMagick is also used by programs, such as LyX. One of the basic and thoroughly-implemented features of ImageMagick is its ability to efficiently and accurately convert images between different file formats. The number of colors in an image can be reduced to an arbitrary number, note that many other image handling applications do not support a color palette of an arbitrary number of colors. If, for example, one reduces an image to 13 colors via ImageMagick, some applications will open it, a related capability is the posterization artistic effect, which also reduces the number of colors represented in an image. A fine control is provided for the dithering that occurs during color and shading alterations, in 2008, support for liquid rescaling was added. This feature allows, for example, rescaling 4,3 images into 16,9 images without distorting the image, the Q8 version supports up-to 8 bits-per-pixel component. The Q16 version supports up-to 16 bits-per-pixel component, below are some other features of ImageMagick, Format conversion, convert an image from one format to another. Transform, resize, rotate, crop, flip or trim an image, transparency, render portions of an image invisible. Draw, add shapes or text to an image, decorate, add a border or frame to an image. Special effects, blur, sharpen, threshold, or tint an image, animation, assemble a GIF animation file from a sequence of images. Text & comments, insert descriptive or artistic text in an image, Image identification, describe the format and attributes of an image. Composite, overlap one image over another, montage, juxtapose image thumbnails on an image canvas
14.
IrfanView
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IrfanView is an image viewer, editor, organiser and converter program for Microsoft Windows. It can also play video and audio files, and has some image creation, IrfanView is free for non-commercial use, commercial use requires paid registration. It is noted for its size, speed, ease of use. It was first released in 1996, IrfanView is named after its creator, Irfan Skiljan, from Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina, living in Vienna. IrfanView works under all versions of Windows from Windows 95 to Windows 10 and can also be run in Linux under Wine and in Mac OS X using WineBottler. The basic 32-bit installation of IrfanView occupies 2 MB of disk space, the program can be downloaded directly to a U3 compatible device. IrfanView is specifically optimized for fast image display and loading times, while viewing images, there are several fit-to-screen scaling options and an automatic slideshow function. The viewer can open in all the image-files and video clips contained in a folder. Slideshows can contain both still images and video clips, IrfanView can create screensavers and slide shows from collections of images with optional accompanying MP3 audio. These can be saved as stand-alone executables which run on Windows computers without IrfanView installed, for slideshow creation, screensaver creation and batch image translations, preset image processing steps can be applied to selected sets of images. IrfanView can create icons by converting common graphic files into. ico format and it supports Adobe-compatible 8BF image processing filters, including many freely downloadable ones, primarily for application to whole images. It also has extended support for taking screenshots, image editing includes crop, resize, and rotate. Images can be adjusted by modifying their brightness, contrast, tint, and gamma level manually or automatically, many of these changes can be applied to multiple images in one operation using batch processing. Resize can be applied towards the display of animated GIF images to make them larger in either windowed or full-screen modes, lossless functions can be applied to JPG images in order to optimize the files without change to the displayed image. IrfanView can direct the image to open in an external graphics editor if it is installed. Four more keyboard shortcuts allow the files to be renamed, moved, copied or deleted individually, the program has been internationalized in over twenty languages, English is the default. The IrfanView toolbar can be skinned from many sets of icons, IrfanView uses plugins to handle a variety of additional image, video, and sound formats and to add optional functionality such as filter processing or other program features. With the variety of plugins, the program has been recommended for viewing obscure image formats, or corrupted files
15.
Netpbm
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Netpbm is an open-source package of graphics programs and a programming library, used mainly in the Unix world. Netpbm defines a set of graphics formats called the Netpbm formats, The Portable Bit/Grey/PixMap formats PBM, PGM and they are collectively referred to as PNM. Netpbm contains over 220 separate programs in the package, most of which have pbm, pgm, ppm, pam, or pnm in their names. For instance, there may be no tool to convert an X11 window dump directly to a Macintosh PICT file, as a more complex example, Netpbm tools can convert 48×48 XBM to Ikon and eventually X-Face. The PBM format was invented by Jef Poskanzer in the mid-1980s, at the time, there was no standard, reliable way to send binary files in email, and attempting to send anything other than 7-bit ASCII in email often resulted in data corruption. PBM was designed to allow images to be sent via email without being corrupted, Poskanzer released the forerunner of Netpbm, called Pbmplus in 1988. By the end of 1988, Poskanzer had developed the PGM and PPM formats, the last release of Pbmplus was on December 10,1991. Poskanzer never released any further updates, and in 1993 Netpbm was developed to replace it, at first it was nothing more than a renamed release of Pbmplus, but updates continued to occur until 1995 when the package again became abandoned. In 1999 the Netpbm package was picked up by its present maintainer, in 2000, PAM was added to the file formats of the Netpbm library allowing an alpha channel. The name Netpbm came from the program developers collaborating over the Internet, Portable Arbitrary Map is an extension of the older binary P4…P6 graphics formats. PAM generalises all features of PBM, PGM and PPM, PAM defines two new attributes, depth and tuple type, The depth attribute defines the number of channels in the image, such as 1 for greyscale images and 3 for RGB images. The tuple type attribute specifies what kind of image the PAM file represents, thus enabling it to stand for the older Netpbm formats, as well as to be extended to new uses, e. g. transparency. As of 2015 PAM is not widely accepted or produced by graphics systems, e. g. XnView, as specified the TUPLTYPE is optional, however, FFmpeg requires it. The header for the PAM file format begins with P7, and ends in an explicit close, line ends in a PAM header are significant, for PNM line ends are white space. There is no version of PAM. PAM files are always binary, and attempts to use the switch -plain with Netpbm programs that produce PAM output results in an error message. For the black-and-white version of PAM, corresponding to PBM, PAM uses one byte per pixel, also, the value 1 in such a PAM image stands for white, as opposed to black in PBM. All of the basic types have a variant with an opacity channel
16.
PaintShop Pro
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PaintShop Pro is a raster and vector graphics editor for Microsoft Windows. It was originally published by Jasc Software, in October 2004, Corel purchased Jasc Software and the distribution rights to Paint Shop Pro. PSP functionality can be extended by Photoshop-compatible plugins, the particular bundled programs have varied with each numbered version and have not been sold by Corel as separate products. PSP comes with an interface for automating tasks with scripts written in Python, originally called simply Paint Shop, the first version,1.0, was a basic picture converter between BMP, GIF and PCX formats, released by Robert Voit in August 1990. Paint Shop was originally distributed as shareware and is available at many download sites. Most newer versions are only commercially available although some have been distributed in the United Kingdom in computer magazine CDs after they became obsolete. On November 28,2007, Corel announced that the office in Eden Prairie, Minnesota, where Paint Shop Pro was created, would be shut down, with development moving to offices in California and China. Paint Shop Pro 5 added support for layers as well as CMYK and HSL colour modes, included JASC Animation Shop for creating animations, PaintShop Pro X6 was the first to be available as a native 64 bit version. PaintShop Pro X7 includes content-aware features such as Magic Fill and Smart Edge as well as support for XMP sidecar files that preserve edit settings for raw formats, from 2006 to 2011, PaintShop Pro was marketed as Corel Paint Shop Pro Photo. Having dropped the Photo part of the name in version X4, Picture tubes are graphic images with no background. They are often used as a point for complex images. Tubes can also be regarded as graphic brushes based on a pre-created image, instead of leaving a trace of color on the canvas, they would leave a trail of images. Popular tube subjects include alphabets, humans, animal and toy figures, flowers, love messages, the tube system originated with PSP Pro version 5. Native tube files may be in. tub. psp. pspimage, xnView, IrfanView, and TubeEx are separate graphics programs that can convert tube files to. png. PaintShop Pro Photo X2 Ultimate was released towards the end of life of PaintShop Pro Photo X2, subsequent Ultimate editions were released contemporaneously with the basic version. PaintShop Pro X4 Ultimate included Nik Color Efex Pro 3.0, a voucher for 21 images from Fotolia at high quality, and additional Picture Tubes. X5 Ultimate included Reallusion FaceFilter Studio 2.0, NIK Color Efex Pro 3.0, PaintShop Pro X6 Ultimate includes Athentech Imagings Perfectly Clear and Reallusions FaceFilter3 Standard. PaintShop Pro X7 Ultimate includes those two items
17.
Adobe Photoshop Elements
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Adobe Photoshop Elements is a raster graphics editor for entry-level photographers, image editors and hobbyists. It contains most of the features of the professional version but with fewer and simpler options, the program allows users to create, edit, organize and share images. It is a successor of Adobe Photoshop LE, for example, Photoshop Elements cannot export files in the CMYK color mode, supports a simplified color management system, and excludes detailed soft-proofing. It also includes a set of Photoshop plugins, and instead has a number of features aimed at non-experts. An example of a feature would be the Variations correction dialog. Some versions can, however, open, edit, and save PDFs, the program does not allow keyboard shortcuts to be added through the Mac System Preferences, as can be done with virtually all other programs for Mac. Version 13 no longer supports the Windows XP platform, note, Adobe Photoshop Elements on Mac OS X is available in English, French, German and Japanese languages. Adobe Photoshop Express Adobe Photoshop Album Adobe Photoshop Lightroom Adobe Premiere Elements Official website Photoshop at DMOZ Adobe Photoshop Elements at DMOZ
18.
Microsoft Visio
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Microsoft Visio is a diagramming and vector graphics application and is part of the Microsoft Office family. The product was first introduced in 1992, made by the Shapeware Corporation and it was acquired by Microsoft in 2000. Microsoft made Visio 2013 for Windows available in two editions, Standard and Professional, the Premium edition features three additional diagram types, as well as intelligent rules, validation, and subprocess. Visio Professional is also offered as a component of an Office365 subscription. On 22 September 2015, Visio 2016 was released alongside Microsoft Office 2016, Database modeling in Visio revolves around a Database Model Diagram. Visio 2010 and earlier versions read and write drawings in VSD or VDX file formats, all of the previous versions of Visio used VSD, the proprietary binary-file format. VDX is a well-documented XML Schema-based format, Visio 2013 drops support for writing VDX files in favor of the new VSDX and VSDM file formats. Created based on Open Packaging Conventions standard, a VSDX or VSDM file consists of a group of XML files archived inside a Zip file, VSDX and VSDM files differ only in that VSDM files may contain macros. Since these files are susceptible to virus infection, the program enforces strict security on them. While VSD files use LZW-like lossless compression, VDX is not compressed, hence, a VDX file typically take up 3 to 5 times more storage. VSDX and VSDM files use the same compression as Zip files, Visio 2010 and earlier use VSD by default. Visio also supports saving files in SVG files, other diagramming files and images, Visio began as a standalone product produced by Shapeware Corporation, version 1.0 shipped in 1992. A pre-release, Version 0.92, was distributed free on a disk along with a Microsoft Windows systems readiness evaluation utility. In 1995, Shapeware Corporation changed their name to Visio Corporation to take advantage of market recognition, Microsoft acquired Visio in 2000, re-branding it as a Microsoft Office application. Like Microsoft Project, however, it has never included in any of the Office suites. Microsoft included a Visio for Enterprise Architects edition with some editions of Visual Studio. NET2003, along with Microsoft Visio 2002 Professional, Microsoft introduced Visio Enterprise Network Tools and Visio Network Center. Visio Enterprise Network Tools was a product that enabled automated network. Visio Network Center was a website where users could locate the latest network documentation content
19.
PMView
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PMView is a raster graphics image viewer, converter, and organizer with basic image editing capabilities. It was originally developed for OS/2 but is available for Microsoft Windows. And it can, of course, also print the images, PMView uses its own file open dialog, showing thumbnails of all images in a given folder in what PMview calls the File Open Container, unless the user chooses to see only the filenames. PMView can acquire images by scanning of images using a TWAIN interface to an Image scanner, and of course, from the clipboard, as a new image and as a new area of an existing image. For images with indexed color, typical for GIF images and found in most PNG images, PMView can edit the palette of colors, thus modifying the color of individual spots within the image. The Windows version runs on all Windows versions from Windows 98 to Windows 8, including native 64 bit versions, the OS/2 version on OS/23 Warp and newer. The program is written in C++ with some routines in Assembler, making use of multithreading, creating and destroying threads as needed. PMView is short for Presentation Manager Viewer, the name dates back to 1992 and OS/2 version 1. x where the graphical shell for OS/2 was called Presentation Manager. An early OS/2 version of PMView was on the IBM BBS as pmview86. zip,231751, 11-30-93, PMView version 1.00 was released in 1997. PMView version 1 was available in English, German, French, the last OS/2-only version of PMView as version 1.05. PMView 2000 was released in early 2000 for both Windows and OS/2, the last version of PMView 2000 is v2.32. PMView Pro was released in 2003, official website Reference Manual Getting Started manual Historical Peter Nielsen Interview Discussion of PMView on dpreview. com forum, how do you view all your photos. Mentioning of PMview on dpreview. com forum Best program to View your pictures
20.
XnView
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XnView is an image organizer and general-purpose file manager used for viewing, converting, organizing and editing raster images, as well as general purpose file management. It comes with built-in hex inspection, batch renaming and screen capture tools and it is licensed as freeware for private, educational and non-profit uses. For other uses, it is licensed as commercial software and it is now available for Windows, Windows Mobile and Pocket PC but was previously available for Unix-like systems as well. An extended version of XnView, called XnViewMP, is available for Windows, macOS, XnView has received five cows from Tucows. In 2006 Sveriges Television recommended XnView in their High Definition Multi Format Test Set, research papers about DICOM and digital watermarking used XnView for image processing. XnView can read more than 500 image file formats, some audio and video file formats, XnView also supports ICC profiles in JPEG, PNG and TIFF files. Classic XnView can read image formats resulting in more than 32 bits per pixel, XnView can show IPTC, Exif and XMP metadata, and write IPTC metadata. XnView can search files that have the filename or data. The display of the histogram of a picture is possible, scripts can be created to convert, manipulate and rename a batch of images in one go. Creation of advanced slide shows is also possible, lossless turning, flipping and cropping of JPEG files is supported. Typical image editing tools are included, for color and size manipulation, several filters. XnView supports. 8bf Photoshop plugins such as the Harrys Filters 3.0 included in the full version, support for most raw image formats is based on dcraw. Support for vector graphics can be integrated with Ghostscript, classic XnView does not support Unicode, and SVG requires a commercial CAD plugin. These features are available in the multi-platform edition XnView MP based on Qt, classic XnView is also distributed in the PortableApps format. XnView 2.13 was the last version for Windows platforms older than Windows XP, version 2.30 released in 2015 supports the Netpbm PAM format, can read Better Portable Graphics, and offers an add-on for Imgur uploads
21.
GraphicConverter
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GraphicConverter is computer software that displays and edits raster graphics files. It also converts files between different formats, for example, one can convert a GIF file to a JPEG file. The program has a history of supporting the Apple Macintosh platform. As of 2012, GraphicConverter can import about 200 file types, images can also be retouched, edited, and transformed using tools, effects and filters. The software supports most Adobe Photoshop plug-ins, including TWAIN, the application features a batch processor, slideshow mode, image preview browser, and access to metadata comments. GraphicConverter is shareware that runs on both the classic Mac OS and macOS and is maintained by Germany-based LemkeSoft, GraphicConverter is available in a dozen languages including English, French, German, Czech and Spanish. Comparison of raster graphics editors Lemke Software Lemke Software List of supported file formats
22.
FFmpeg
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FFmpeg is a free software project that produces libraries and programs for handling multimedia data. FFmpeg is published under the GNU Lesser General Public License 2. 1+ or GNU General Public License 2+, the name of the project is inspired by the MPEG video standards group, together with FF for fast forward. The logo uses a pattern that shows how MPEG video codecs handle entropy encoding. The project was started by Fabrice Bellard in 2000, and was led by Michael Niedermayer from 2004 until 2015, some FFmpeg developers were also part of the MPlayer project. The project publishes a new release every three months on average, on January 10,2014, two Google employees announced that over 1000 bugs had been fixed in FFmpeg during the previous two years by means of fuzz testing. Two video coding formats with corresponding codecs and one container format have been created within the FFmpeg project so far, the two video codecs are the lossless FFV1, and the lossless and lossy Snow codec. Development of Snow has stalled, while its bit-stream format has not been finalized yet, the multimedia container format called NUT is no longer being actively developed, but still maintained. In summer 2010, Fiona Glaser, Ronald Bultje, and David Conrad of the FFmpeg Team announced the ffvp8 decoder, through testing, they determined that ffvp8 was faster than Googles own libvpx decoder. Starting with version 0.6, FFmpeg also supported WebM, in October 2013, a native VP9 and the OpenHEVC decoder, an open source High Efficiency Video Coding decoder, were added to FFmpeg. In 2016 the native AAC encoder was considered stable, removing support for the two external AAC encoders from VisualOn and FAAC, FFmpeg 3.0 retained build support for the Fraunhofer FDK AAC encoder. Ffmpeg is a tool that converts audio or video formats. It can also capture and encode in real-time from various hardware and software such as a TV capture card. Ffserver is an HTTP and RTSP multimedia streaming server for live and it can also be used to time shift live broadcasts. Ffplay is a media player utilizing SDL and the FFmpeg libraries. Ffprobe is a tool to display media information, see also Mediainfo. Libswresample is a library containing audio resampling routines, libavresample is a library containing audio resampling routines from the Libav project, similar to libswresample from ffmpeg. Libavcodec is a library containing all of the native FFmpeg audio/video encoders and decoders, most codecs were developed from scratch to ensure best performance and high code reusability. Libavformat is a library containing demuxers and muxers for audio/video container formats, libavutil is a helper library containing routines common to different parts of FFmpeg
23.
Fax
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Fax, sometimes called telecopying or telefax, is the telephonic transmission of scanned printed material, normally to a telephone number connected to a printer or other output device. The receiving fax machine interprets the tones and reconstructs the image, early systems used direct conversions of image darkness to audio tone in a continuous or analog manner. Since the 1980s, most machines modulate the audio frequencies using a digital representation of the page which is compressed to quickly transmit areas which are all-white or all-black. Scottish inventor Alexander Bain worked on chemical mechanical fax type devices and he received British patent 9745 on May 27,1843 for his Electric Printing Telegraph. Frederick Bakewell made several improvements on Bains design and demonstrated a telefax machine, the Pantelegraph was invented by the Italian physicist Giovanni Caselli. He introduced the first commercial service between Paris and Lyon in 1865, some 11 years before the invention of the telephone. In 1880, English inventor Shelford Bidwell constructed the scanning phototelegraph that was the first telefax machine to scan any two-dimensional original, previously, photographs had been sent over the radio using this process. The Western Union Deskfax fax machine, announced in 1948, was a machine that fit comfortably on a desktop. As a designer for the Radio Corporation of America, in 1924, Richard H. Ranger invented the wireless photoradiogram, or transoceanic radio facsimile, the forerunner of today’s fax machines. A photograph of President Calvin Coolidge sent from New York to London on November 29,1924 became the first photo picture reproduced by transoceanic radio facsimile, commercial use of Ranger’s product began two years later. Also in 1924, Herbert E. Ives of AT&T Corporation transmitted and reconstructed the first color facsimile, around 1952 or so, Finch Facsimile, a highly developed machine, was described in detail in a book, it was never manufactured in quantity. By the late 1940s, radiofax receivers were sufficiently miniaturized to be fitted beneath the dashboard of Western Unions Telecar telegram delivery vehicles, in the 1960s, the United States Army transmitted the first photograph via satellite facsimile to Puerto Rico from the Deal Test Site using the Courier satellite. Radio fax is still in limited use today for transmitting weather charts, in 1964, Xerox Corporation introduced what many consider to be the first commercialized version of the modern fax machine, under the name or Long Distance Xerography. This model was superseded two years later with a unit that would set the standard for fax machines for years to come. Up until this point facsimile machines were expensive and hard to operate. In 1966, Xerox released the Magnafax Telecopiers, a smaller and this unit was far easier to operate and could be connected to any standard telephone line. This machine was capable of transmitting a letter-sized document in about six minutes, the first sub-minute, digital fax machine was developed by Dacom, which built on digital data compression technology originally developed at Lockheed for satellite communication. By the late 1970s, many companies around the world, entered the fax market, very shortly after a new wave of more compact, faster and efficient fax machines would hit the market
24.
Endianness
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Endianness refers to the sequential order used to numerically interpret a range of bytes in computer memory as a larger, composed word value. It also describes the order of transmission over a digital link. Little-endian format reverses the order of the sequence and stores the least significant byte at the first location with the most significant byte being stored last. The order of bits within a byte can also have endianness, however, both big and little forms of endianness are widely used in digital electronics. As examples, the IBM z/Architecture mainframes use big-endian while the Intel x86 processors use little-endian, the designers chose endianness in the 1960s and 1970s respectively. Big-endian is the most common format in data networking, fields in the protocols of the Internet protocol suite, such as IPv4, IPv6, TCP, for this reason, big-endian byte order is also referred to as network byte order. Little-endian storage is popular for microprocessors, in due to significant influence on microprocessor designs by Intel Corporation. Mixed forms also exist, for instance the ordering of bytes in a 16-bit word may differ from the ordering of 16-bit words within a 32-bit word, such cases are sometimes referred to as mixed-endian or middle-endian. There are also some bi-endian processors that operate in either little-endian or big-endian mode, big-endianness may be demonstrated by writing a decimal number, say one hundred twenty-three, on paper in the usual positional notation understood by a numerate reader,123. The digits are written starting from the left and to the right, with the most significant digit,1 and this is analogous to the lowest address of memory being used first. This is an example of a big-endian convention taken from daily life, the little-endian way of writing the same number, one hundred twenty-three, would place the hundreds-digit 1 in the right-most position,321. A person following conventional big-endian place-value order, who is not aware of this ordering, would read a different number. Endianness in computing is similar, but it applies to the ordering of bytes. The illustrations to the right, where a is a memory address, danny Cohen introduced the terms Little-Endian and Big-Endian for byte ordering in an article from 1980. Computer memory consists of a sequence of storage cells, each cell is identified in hardware and software by its memory address. If the total number of cells in memory is n. Computer programs often use data structures of fields that may consist of data than is stored in one memory cell. For the purpose of this article where its use as an operand of an instruction is relevant, in addition to that, it has to be of numeric type in some positional number system
25.
Pixel
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The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates. LCD pixels are manufactured in a grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an image, more samples typically provide more accurate representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable, in color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix and el, the word pixel was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the elements of video images from space probes to the Moon. Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, McFarland said simply it was in use at the time. The word is a combination of pix, for picture, the word pix appeared in Variety magazine headlines in 1932, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies. By 1938, pix was being used in reference to pictures by photojournalists. The concept of a picture element dates to the earliest days of television, some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as 1972. In graphics and in image and video processing, pel is often used instead of pixel, for example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for the original PC. A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image, however, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be printed pixels in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera. This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as,2400 pixels per inch,640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart. For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200 dpi inkjet printer, even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original, the number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition.3 megapixels. The pixels, or color samples, that form an image may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels. In computing, a composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image
26.
Steganography
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Steganography is the practice of concealing a file, message, image, or video within another file, message, image, or video. The word steganography combines the Greek words steganos, meaning covered, concealed, or protected, the first recorded use of the term was in 1499 by Johannes Trithemius in his Steganographia, a treatise on cryptography and steganography, disguised as a book on magic. Generally, the messages appear to be something else, images, articles, shopping lists. For example, the message may be in invisible ink between the visible lines of a private letter. Some implementations of steganography that lack a shared secret are forms of security through obscurity, the advantage of steganography over cryptography alone is that the intended secret message does not attract attention to itself as an object of scrutiny. Plainly visible encrypted messages—no matter how unbreakable—arouse interest, and may in themselves be incriminating in countries where encryption is illegal, Steganography includes the concealment of information within computer files. In digital steganography, electronic communications may include steganographic coding inside of a layer, such as a document file, image file. Media files are ideal for steganographic transmission because of their large size, the first recorded uses of steganography can be traced back to 440 BC when Herodotus mentions two examples in his Histories. Additionally, Demaratus sent a warning about an attack to Greece by writing it directly on the wooden backing of a wax tablet before applying its beeswax surface. Wax tablets were in use then as reusable writing surfaces, sometimes used for shorthand. In his work Polygraphiae Johannes Trithemius developed his so-called Ave-Maria-Cipher that can hide information in a Latin praise of God, auctor Sapientissimus Conseruans Angelica Deferat Nobis Charitas Potentissimi Creatoris for example contains the concealed word VICIPEDIA. Steganography has been used, including in recent historical times. Known examples include, Hidden messages within wax tablet—in ancient Greece, people wrote messages on wood, Hidden messages on messengers body—also used in ancient Greece. Herodotus tells the story of a message tattooed on the head of a slave of Histiaeus, hidden by the hair that afterwards grew over it. The message allegedly carried a warning to Greece about Persian invasion plans, messages written on envelopes in the area covered by postage stamps. In the early days of the press, it was common to mix different typefaces on a printed page due to the printer not having enough copies of some letters in one typeface. Because of this, a message could be using two different typefaces, such as normal or italic. During and after World War II, espionage agents used photographically produced microdots to send information back, World War II microdots were embedded in the paper and covered with an adhesive, such as collodion
27.
Random-access memory
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Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed. Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. These include most types of ROM and a type of memory called NOR-Flash. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early 1970s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions. Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in 1947. It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access. The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible. Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away
28.
Dither
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Dither is an intentionally applied form of noise used to randomize quantization error, preventing large-scale patterns such as color banding in images. Dither is routinely used in processing of digital audio and video data, and is often one of the last stages of mastering audio to a CD. A typical use of dither is converting an image to black and white. …ne of the earliest of dither came in World War II, airplane bombers used mechanical computers to perform navigation and bomb trajectory calculations. Curiously, these computers performed more accurately when flying on board the aircraft, engineers realized that the vibration from the aircraft reduced the error from sticky moving parts. Instead of moving in short jerks, they moved more continuously, small vibrating motors were built into the computers, and their vibration was called dither from the Middle English verb didderen, meaning to tremble. Today, when you tap a mechanical meter to increase its accuracy, you are applying dither, in minute quantities, dither successfully makes a digitization system a little more analog in the good sense of the word. The term dither was published in books on analog computation and hydraulically controlled guns shortly after the Second World War. The concept of dithering to reduce quantization patterns was first applied by Lawrence G. Roberts in his 1961 MIT masters thesis and 1962 article though he did not use the term dither, by 1964 dither was being used in the modern sense described in this article. Dither is often used in audio and video processing. It is utilized in different fields where digital processing and analysis are used. These uses include systems using digital processing, such as digital audio, digital video, digital photography, seismology, radar, weather forecasting systems. The premise is that quantization yields error, if that error is repeating and correlated to the signal, the error that results is repeating, cyclical, and mathematically determinable. In some fields, especially where the receptor is sensitive to such artifacts, in these fields introducing dither results in less determinable artifacts. The field of audio is an example of this. The human ear functions much like a Fourier transform, wherein it hears individual frequencies, in audio, dither can be useful to break up periodic limit cycles, which are a common problem in digital filters. Random noise is less objectionable than the harmonic tones produced by limit cycles. Gaussian noise requires a level of added noise for full elimination of distortion than do rectangular PDF or triangular PDF noise
29.
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
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Following ICANNs transition to a global multistakeholder governance model, the IANA functions were transferred to Public Technical Identifiers, an affiliate of ICANN. In addition, five regional Internet registries delegate number resources to their customers, local Internet registries, Internet service providers, a local Internet registry is an organization that assigns parts of its allocation from a regional Internet registry to other customers. Most local Internet registries are also Internet service providers, IANA is broadly responsible for the allocation of globally unique names and numbers that are used in Internet protocols that are published as Request for Comments documents. These documents describe methods, behaviors, research, or innovations applicable to the working of the Internet, IANA maintains a close liaison with the Internet Engineering Task Force and RFC Editorial team in fulfilling this function. IANA is responsible for assignment of Internet numbers which are numerical identifier assigned to an Internet resource or used in the protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. Examples include IP addresses and autonomous system numbers, IANA delegates allocations of IP address blocks to regional Internet registries. Each RIR allocates addresses for a different area of the world, collectively the RIRs have created the Number Resource Organization formed as a body to represent their collective interests and ensure that policy statements are coordinated globally. The RIRs divide their allocated address pools into smaller blocks and delegate them to Internet service providers, since the exhaustion of the Internet Protocol Version 4 address space, no further IPv4 address space is allocated by IANA. IANA administers the data in the root nameservers, which form the top of the hierarchical Domain name system tree and this task involves liaising with top-level domain operators, the root nameserver operators, and ICANNs policy making apparatus. IANA administers many parameters of IETF protocols, examples include the names of uniform resource identifier schemes and character encodings recommended for use on the Internet. This task is performed under the oversight of the Internet Architecture Board, on March 26,1972, Vint Cerf and Jon Postel at UCLA called for establishing a socket number catalog in RFC322. Network administrators were asked to submit a note or place a call, describing the function. This catalog was published as RFC433 in December 1972. In it Postel first proposed a registry of assignments of port numbers to network services, calling himself the czar of socket numbers. The first reference to the name IANA in the RFC series is in RFC1083, published in December,1988 by Postel at USC-ISI, there was widespread dissatisfaction with this concentration of power in one company, and people looked to IANA for a solution. Postel wrote up a draft on IANA and the creation of new top level domains and he was trying to institutionalize IANA. In retrospect, this would have been valuable, since he died about two years later. Jon Postel managed the IANA function from its inception on the ARPANET until his death in October 1998, by his almost 30 years of selfless service, Postel created his de facto authority to manage key parts of the Internet infrastructure
30.
O'Reilly Media
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OReilly Media is an American media company established by Tim OReilly that publishes books and Web sites and produces conferences on computer technology topics. Their distinctive brand features a woodcut of an animal on many of their book covers, the company began in 1978 as a private consulting firm doing technical writing, based in the Cambridge, Massachusetts area. In 1984, it began to retain publishing rights on manuals created for Unix vendors, a few 70-page Nutshell Handbooks were well-received, but the focus remained on the consulting business until 1988. After a conference displaying OReillys preliminary Xlib manuals attracted significant attention, in 1992, OReilly Media published one of the first popular books about the Internet, Ed Krols Whole Internet Users Guide and Catalog. OReilly Media also created the first web portal, the Global Network Navigator in 1993, it was sold to AOL in 1995, GNN was the first site on the World Wide Web to feature paid advertising. The firm is now recognized for the conferences and summits it organizes. In 1997, OReilly launched The Perl Conference to raise the profile of the Perl programming language, many of the companys other software bestsellers were also on topics that were off the radar of the commercial software industry. In 1998, OReilly invited many of the leaders of projects to a meeting. Originally called the summit, the meeting became known as the Open Source Summit. The OReilly Open Source Convention is now one of OReillys flagship events, other key events include the Strata Conference on big data, the Velocity Conference on Web Performance and Operations, and FOO Camp. Past events of note include the OReilly Emerging Technology Conference and the Web 2.0 Summit, overall, OReilly describes its business not as publishing or conferences, but as changing the world by spreading the knowledge of innovators. In 2001, O’Reilly launched Safari Books Online, a subscription based service providing access to ebooks as a joint venture with the Pearson Technology Group. In 2013, O’Reilly acquired Pearson’s interest in the joint venture, in 2003, after the dot com bust, O’Reilly’s corporate goal was to reignite enthusiasm in the computer industry. Dale Dougherty, an executive at O’Reilly, coined the phrase Web 2.0 during a brainstorming session and this then became the name for the Web 2.0 Summit run by OReilly Media and TechWeb. In May 2006 CMP Media learned of an event called the Web 2.0 Half day conference. Concerned over their obligation to take reasonable means to enforce their trade and service marks CMP sent a cease and this attempt to restrict through legal mechanisms the use of the term was criticized by some. In 2004, the named the Maker Movement with the launch of Make. Today, the flagship Maker Faire in San Mateo, CA, other Faires around the world collectively draw millions
31.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
32.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
33.
Raster graphics
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Raster images are stored in image files with varying formats. A raster is technically characterized by the width and height of the image in pixels, the printing and prepress industries know raster graphics as contones. The opposite to contones is line work, usually implemented as vector graphics in digital systems, the word raster has its origins in the Latin rastrum, which is derived from radere. It originates from the scan of cathode ray tube video monitors. By association, it can refer to a rectangular grid of pixels. The word rastrum is now used to refer to a device for drawing musical staff lines, most modern computers have bitmapped displays, where each on-screen pixel directly corresponds to a small number of bits in memory. The screen is refreshed simply by scanning through pixels and coloring them according to set of bits. The refresh procedure, being speed critical, is implemented by dedicated circuitry. Most computer images are stored in raster graphics formats or compressed variations, including GIF, JPEG, and PNG, three-dimensional voxel raster graphics are employed in video games and are also used in medical imaging such as MRI scanners. GIS programs commonly use rasters that encode geographic data in the values as well as the pixel locations. Raster graphics are resolution dependent, meaning they cannot scale up to a resolution without loss of apparent quality. This property contrasts with the capabilities of graphics, which easily scale up to the quality of the device rendering them. Raster graphics deal more practically than vector graphics with photographs and photo-realistic images, typically, a resolution of 150 to 300 PPI works well for 4-color process printing. However, for printing technologies that perform color mixing through dithering rather than through overprinting, printer DPI and image PPI have a different meaning. Thus, for instance, printing an image at 250 PPI may actually require a printer setting of 1200 DPI, when an image is rendered in a raster-based image editor, the image is composed of millions of pixels. At its core, an image editor works by manipulating each individual pixel. Most pixel-based image editors work using the RGB color model, and this article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later
34.
APNG
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The Animated Portable Network Graphics file format is an extension to the Portable Network Graphics specification. It allows for animated PNG files that work similarly to animated GIF files, while supporting 24-bit images and it also retains backward compatibility with non-animated PNG files. The first frame of an APNG file is stored as a normal PNG stream, the frame speed data and extra animation frames are stored in extra chunks. APNG competes with Multiple-image Network Graphics, a format for bitmapped animations created by the same team as PNG. APNGs advantage is the library size and compatibility with older PNG implementations. The APNG specification was created in 2004 by Stuart Parmenter and Vladimir Vukićević of the Mozilla Corporation to allow for storing the animations needed for such as throbbers. Among users and maintainers of the PNG and MNG formats, APNG had a lukewarm reception, in particular, PNG was conceived to be a single-image format. The PNG group officially rejected APNG as an extension on April 20,2007. There have been several subsequent proposals for a simple animated graphics format based on PNG using several different approaches, Mozilla Firefox added support for APNG in version 3 trunk builds on March 23,2007. Iceweasel 3 supports APNG by using Mozillas unofficial variant of libpng, in 2008 WorldDMB adopted APNG as a backward compatible extension to enable animation as part of the MOT SlideShow user application for Digital Radio. APNG1.0 Specification - Animated Portable Network Graphics is included as normative Annex A in the ETSI standard TS101499 V2.2.1, in 2010 Commercial Radio Broadcasters in Sydney began to include APNG animations in DAB+ digital radio broadcasts. These APNG animations are carried by the MOT slideshow application which accompanies the audio services and it is expected that other cities in Australia will follow in early 2011. Mozillas role in extending the PNG format to APNG echoes Netscapes much earlier role in popularizing animated GIFs, in 2016, Apple adopted the APNG format as the preferred format for animated stickers in iOS10 iMessage apps. On March 15,2017 APNG support was added to Chromium and this leaves Microsoft Edges Rendering Engine as the only engine to not support the format. A server-side library exists that allows web browsers that support the canvas tag, examples of such browsers include Microsoft Edge and Internet Explorer 9. For image processing software that doesnt export to APNG, users can use a program called APNG Assembler and it creates highly optimized Animated PNG files from PNG/TGA image sequences. A PNG file consists of the PNG Signature, followed by a series of chunks, a chunk consists of four parts, Length, Chunk type, Chunk data and CRC. There are about 20 different chunk types, but for a minimal PNG, only 3 are required, The IHDR chunk, one or more IDAT chunks, the next graphic shows the contents of such a minimal PNG file, representing just one red pixel
